Chapter XI: Book VII: Ch. 1

12. =partium Caesaris=: ‘of Caesar’s party.’ Antony at first pretended to favor the tyrannicides; but after he had obtained possession of the papers and treasure of Caesar, he changed sides and endeavored to crush them.

16. =Octāviānus=: he was the son of Gaius Octavius and Atia, a daughter of Julia, the sister of Caesar. After his adoption he took the name of Octavianus.

19. =Augustus=: this was a title conferred upon him after the battle of Actium, when he refused the title of dictator.

=rērum potītus=: _potior_ regularly takes the Genitive in this phrase. Cf. _Alexandrīā potītus_, Bk. VI, 22.

=quī … trēs ducēs=: ‘these three leaders.’

20. =vīcērunt eum=: in the battle of Mutina, 43 B.C.

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1. =morerentur=: they were wounded in battle, but Augustus was accused of having murdered them.

CH. 2.

3. =Lepidum=: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Bk. VI, 1, 5, 23. He was in Gaul at this time, being governor of Gaul and Spain. After he received Antonius, they crossed the Alps at the head of a large body of troops and met Augustus in the north of Italy.

6. =pācem … fēcit=: this was known as the ‘Second Triumvirate.’ Antony, Augustus, and Lepidus divided the Roman world among them.

8. =vīcēsimō annō=: he was far below the legal age, 43.

9. =senātum prōscrīpsit=: 300 senators and 2000 knights were included in the proscription. “Each marked his victims’ names upon the fatal list, and each consented to give up adherents of his own to the greed or hatred of his colleagues.”

11. =Cicero orātōr occīsus est=: Augustus tried to save him, but Antony, whose hatred Cicero had incurred, demanded his death, and Augustus was forced to yield.

CH. 3.

17. =Philippōs=: the battle of Philippi was fought in November, 42 B.C. Creighton, p. 82; _The Roman Triumvirates_, p. 210.

19. =Cassius=: Cassius was routed and committed suicide.

=Brūtum=: after his forces were routed, Brutus was compelled to kill himself to prevent capture.

=īnfīnītam nōbilitātem=: ‘very many of the nobility.’

21. =dīvīsa est rēs pūblica=: Lepidus took the province of Africa, Augustus the West, and Antony the East.

23. =bellum cīvīle=: after the capture of Perusia, Antony threatened war, but he made a truce with Augustus, whose sister Octavia he married.

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CH. 4.

1. =Sex. Pompēiō=: the son of _Pompēius Māgnus_, cf. Bk. VI, 24. He had collected a band of pirates and had made himself master of the Mediterranean.

5. =pāx postrēmō convēnit=: the agreement at Misenum. In accordance with this, Pompey was to retain his command over the sea and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica.

CH. 5.

6. =M. Agrippa=: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa had been a fellow-student with Augustus. He was a gallant soldier and a devoted friend. It was largely by his aid that Augustus secured his power and retained it.

7. =Persās=: _i.e._ the Parthians. Eutropius used _Persae_ for the Parthians who claimed descent from the old Persian kings.

10. =Crassum occīderat=: Bk. VI, 18.

11. =triumphum Rōmae ēgit=: several of the Roman standards lost at Carrhae were restored by the Parthians, and were carried in the triumphal procession.

CH. 6.

12. =nāvālī proeliō=: at the battle of Naulochus, 36 B.C. _The Roman Triumvirates_, p. 219. Shortly afterward Lepidus set up the standard of revolt. He was defeated by Augustus and his power was taken from him, but his life was spared.

16. =ipse pūgnāvit=: he lacked the engines necessary for reducing the strongly fortified cities of the enemy, and besides he was very anxious to return to Alexandria.

17. =famē … labōrāvit=: his retreat has been compared to the flight of Napoleon from Moscow.

18. =prō victō=: ‘for conquered’ ＝ ‘as if conquered.’

CH. 7.

20. =dum … optat= ＝ _optāns_, ‘hoping.’ The world could not endure two masters. It was natural that they should disagree, and that the stronger should conquer.

22. =apud Actium=: September 2, 31 B.C. Antony had collected a large naval and land force, but his ships were too large to be handled easily, and many of his land forces deserted. In the midst of the fight Cleopatra fled in her galley, and Antony basely deserted his forces and followed her. Creighton, p. 82; _The Roman Triumvirates_, p. 225.

23. =ex quā=: the antecedent of _quā_ is _pūgnā_.

25. =exstincta est=: she was too proud to be carried to Rome to adorn the triumphal procession of her conqueror.

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CH. 8.

7. =duodecim annīs= ＝ _per annōs_ above: the Ablative makes the limits of the time more prominent than the duration.

8. =prīncipātūs=: ‘leadership’; afterwards the ‘sovereignty’ of the emperors; cf. _prīnceps_, English ‘prince.’

10. =morte commūnī=: ‘a natural death’; cf. _morbō dēcessit_, Bk. I, 3. There was a report that he was poisoned by Livia, his wife.

11. =Ātellā=: it is generally agreed that he died at Nola, near Naples.

=sepultus est=: the ruins of his mausoleum still exist.

12. =ex māximā parte=: ‘in very many respects.’

15. =cīvīlissimē=: ‘in a manner most becoming a citizen’; cf. _cīvīlēs_, Bk. I, 9.

16. =ut … suō=: ‘that he placed them almost on a level with his own dignity.’

17. =aequāret=: sc. _eōs_. _Aequāre_ may also take _cum_ with the Ablative.

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CH. 9.

6. =quod nūllī anteā=: sc. _dedērunt_.

8. =Crassō victō=: ‘from Crassus when he was defeated.’

CH. 10.

14. =in honōrem ēius=: the compliment was not in the founding, but in the naming.

18. =Dīvus appellātus=: _i.e._ he was deified and became the object of a national worship. In the provinces he was worshiped before his death.

=Tiberiō=: Tiberius Claudius Nero was the son of Tiberius Nero and Livia, the third wife of Augustus. He first married the daughter of Agrippa, whom he divorced at the command of the Emperor and married Julia, Augustus’ daughter and the widow of Marcus Agrippa. After the death of Gaius and Lucius Caesar, the sons of Agrippa and Julia, Tiberius was given the tribunician power and was adopted by Augustus as his successor.

CH. 11.

21. =ingentī sōcordiā … libīdine=: probably the character of Tiberius was maligned by the Roman historians. The people disliked him on account of his “dark and gloomy temper, with no grace or geniality of manner, shunning the pleasures of the people, and seldom generous or open-handed.” But we must note the many marks of bias and exaggeration in the common story, and we may well believe that the ancient writers formed too harsh an opinion of his motives in some cases, and reported scandalous gossips too lightly. Creighton, pp. 89-91; _The Early Empire_, Ch. II.

25. =Archelāum=: he was summoned to Rome soon after the accession of Tiberius and accused of treason. His life was spared, but he was obliged to remain at Rome, where he died in 17 A.D.

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1. =Caesarēa=: called _Caesarēa ad Argaeum_ to distinguish it from other cities of the same name. It was situated at the foot of Mt. Argaeus and was a place of great antiquity, its foundation having been ascribed to Mesech, the son of Japhet.

CH. 12.

5. =C. Caesar=: Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina. He was born in the camp, probably in Germany, and was reared among the soldiers. He received the surname of Caligula from his being arrayed in a mimic uniform and wearing a pair of _caligae_ or soldiers’ boots. At first he ruled well; but his sense of power turned his head, and the latter part of his reign was marked by excesses of all sorts. Creighton, p. 92; _The Early Empire_, Ch. III.

CH. 13.

13. =Claudius=: Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Caesar Germanicus was the second son of Drusus and Antonia, the brother of Germanicus, the father of Caligula. In early life he had been weak in mind and body, and had been despised or neglected. As emperor he was ruled by his wives and favorites, Narcissus and Pallas. He was poisoned by his last wife, Agrippina, who was anxious that her son Domitius Ahenobarbus by her former husband might succeed to the empire. Suetonius in his ‘Lives of the Caesars’ gives a very dark picture of the reign of Claudius. Creighton, p. 93; _The Early Empire_, Ch. IV.

22. =Britannicī=: the son of Claudius and Messalina, his first wife. On the accession of Nero, Britannicus was poisoned.

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CH. 14.

1. =Nerō=: Claudius Caesar, surnamed Nero, was the son of Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina. His early youth was spent in study under the philosopher Seneca, who remained his counselor for several years. During the first five years of his reign he was mild and just. The later years were filled with all sorts of excesses, and were marked by great cruelty. Creighton, p. 93; _The Early Empire_, Ch. V.

9. =urbem Rōmam incendit=: it is very improbable that Nero was guilty of this crime. Rome was almost destroyed in this conflagration. Of the fourteen districts into which the city was divided, only four remained untouched by the flames. The fire raged for six days and seven nights; and, after it was thought to have been extinguished, it burst forth again, and continued for two days longer. On this occasion Nero appears to have acted with great liberality and kindness. He caused provisions to be sold at a very low price and the imperial gardens to be opened to the people, and temporary shelters to be erected for their accommodation. That he might remove suspicion from himself, Nero caused it to be reported that the Christians had set fire to the city, and a number of them was seized and put to death. This was the first persecution of the Christians by the Romans, 64 A.D.

CH. 15.

22. =ā saxō=: sc. _Tarpēiā_.

23. =lībertī=: his name was Phaon.

=Salariam=: the _Via Salaria_ ran north from Rome to Ancona on the Adriatic.

24. =interfēcit=: “At last comes Phaon’s courier with the news that the senate had put a price upon his head; the tramp of the horses tells him that his pursuers are on his track, and fear gives him the nerve to put the dagger to his throat, while, true to the passion of his life, he mutters, ‘What a loss my death will be to art!’” _The Early Empire_, p. 127.

25. =Nerōniānae=: the ruins of the bath may still be seen near the Pantheon.

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CH. 16.

1. =Serv. Galba=: Servius Sulpicius Galba was born in the reign of Augustus of a patrician family. He was in Spain when Julius Vindex, the proconsular governor of Gaul, rose against Nero. Galba joined him, and Otho, governor of Lusitania, followed his example. He was saluted as emperor by the soldiers, and the senate was forced to ratify their choice. The emperors from this time on were set up and overthrown at the will of the army. He was very parsimonious in his dealings and so lost the good will of the soldiers, who were ready to aid any revolt against him. He ruled for only seven months. Creighton, p. 96; _The Early Empire_, Ch. VI.

CH. 17.

12. =Otho=: Marcus Salvius Otho was Roman emperor from January 15 to April 16, 69 A.D. He was the husband of the beautiful but infamous Poppaea Sabina, whom Nero took from him and made his own. He was afterwards sent to Lusitania, where he governed with justice and moderation. Creighton, p. 96; _The Early Empire_, Ch. VII.

14. =mollis=: ‘effeminate.’

22. =voluntāriā morte obiit=: he put an end to his life at Brixellum in Cisalpine Gaul.

23. =nōnāgēsimō et quīntō imperiī diē=: Eutropius is slightly mistaken.

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CH. 18.

1. =Vitellius=: Aulus Vitellius was Roman emperor from January 2 to December 22, 69 A.D. When the news of Galba’s death reached Upper Germany, where Vitellius was in command, his legions proclaimed him emperor at Cologne. He immediately sent his generals, Fabius Valens and Caecina, at the head of a large force, to Italy, and, having defeated Otho’s troops, obtained the undisputed command of all the West. He was moderate in his rule, disturbing no one in the enjoyment of what had been given by Nero, Galba, or Otho. He was a glutton and an epicure, spending enormous sums on his table. Creighton, p. 96; _The Early Empire_, Ch. VIII.

10. =id … ferret=: ‘aimed so openly at this.’

13. =cum Capitōliō=: “In the confusion of the fight the famous temple of Jupiter caught fire. All were too busy to give time or thought to stay the flames, and in a few hours only ruins were left of the greatest of the national monuments of Rome, which, full of the associations of the past, had served for ages as a sort of record office in which were treasured the memorials of ancient history, the laws, the treaties, and the proclamations of old times. The loss was one that could not be replaced.” _The Early Empire_, p. 146.

17. =in Tiberim … sepultūrā=: Eutropius is mistaken. His body was recovered and buried by his wife, Galeria Fundana.

CH. 19.

20. =Vespasiānus=: Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasian. He was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria on the 1st of July, 69 A.D., although it was a year before he entered Rome. He lived more like a private person than like the emperor of Rome. The many stories that are told of his avarice and his methods of raising money are probably exaggerated. Although he was frugal in his personal expenditures, he spent large sums in adorning the city. He was the first of the Flavian dynasty. The others were his two sons and successors. He died on the 24th of June, 79 A.D. “His last words were characteristic of his somewhat cynical humour, ‘Methinks I am becoming a god.’” Creighton, p. 96; _The Early Empire_, Ch. IX.

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8. =Hierosolyma=: Vespasian was besieging Jerusalem when the war broke out between Otho and Vitellius. When he started for Rome he left Titus, his son, in charge of the war against the Jews. Titus captured the city after a stubborn siege of five months, September 8, 70 A.D., and despite his efforts the Temple was burned. Thousands of Jews perished in the siege.

11. =ēgerant= ＝ _fuerant_.

CH. 20.

15. =coërcitor=: ‘enforcer’; the word is _apax legomenon_.

=hīc … triumphāvit=: in 71 A.D. when Titus returned to Rome.

20. =genitūram … habuit=: ‘he so knew the horoscope of his sons.’

CH. 21.

25. =Titus=: Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasian. His early years were spent in military service in Britain and Germany. He won great credit as a general and a soldier. When he returned to Rome after the fall of Jerusalem, he conducted himself in such a manner as to cause a fear that his rule would resemble that of Nero. But after he became emperor he changed his manner of living, and his whole reign was marked by a sincere desire for the happiness of his people. The year 79 A.D. is memorable for the great eruption of Vesuvius, attended by the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. He completed the Colosseum, often called the Flavian Amphitheater. When he died, after a reign of only two years, there was a suspicion that he had been poisoned by his brother Domitian. Creighton, p. 98; _The Early Empire_, Ch. X.

26. =omnium … mīrābilis=: ‘remarkable for every species of virtue.’

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CH. 22.

17. =tamquam … orbitāte=: ‘mourned as for a loss in their own families.’

CH. 23.

21. =Domitiānus=: Titus Flavius Domitian. Vespasian was aware of his son’s disposition and put no confidence in him. When Vespasian died, Domitian tried to arouse the soldiers against his brother Titus. After his brother became emperor, Domitian was treated with great kindness, and several offices were shared with him. At first mild and just, he soon became suspicious and cruel. In Britain alone were the Roman arms successful during his reign. In all other places defeat and disgraceful compromises with the enemy marked his campaigns. Finally his cruelty became unbearable, and a conspiracy was formed by the officers of the guard, several of his intimate friends, and even his wife Domatilla, and he was slain after a desperate struggle. Creighton, p. 98; _The Early Empire_, Ch. XI.

27. =dominum=: here it has the New Testament meaning, ‘Lord.’

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13. =Palātiō=: in the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill. Extensive remains of this structure still exist. At first the word _Palātium_ was applied only to the hill, but from the time of Augustus it meant a ‘palace,’ especially the imperial palace of the Caesars.