Chapter II: Syntax of Nouns

SUBJECT.

166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nominative Case.

1. The Subject may be--

a) A Noun or Pronoun; as,--

puer scrībit, _the boy writes_;

hīc scrībit, _this man writes_.

b) An Infinitive; as,--

decōrum est prō patriā morī, _to die for one's county is a noble
thing_.

c) A Clause; as,--

opportūnē accīdit quod vīdistī, _it happened opportunely that you saw_.

2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb and is not separately expressed; as,--

scrībō, _I write_; videt, _he sees._

a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed;
as,--

ego scrībō et tū legis, _I write, and you read._

3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the context, especially the auxiliary sum; as,--

rēctē ille (_sc_. facit), _he does rightly_; consul profectus (_sc_.
est), _the consul set out_.

PREDICATE NOUNS.

167. A PREDICATE NOUN is one connected with the Subject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.

168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case;[47] as,--

Cicerō ōrātor fuit, _Cicero was an orator_;

Numa creātus est rēx, _Numa was elected king_.

1. when possible, the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subect in Gender also; as,--

philosophia est vītae magistra, _philosophy is the guide of life_.

2. Besides sum, the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predicate Noun are--

a) fiō, ēvādō, exsistō; maneō; videor; as,--

Croesus nōn semper mānsit rēx, _Croesus did not always remain king_.

b) Passive verbs of _making_, _calling_, _regarding_, etc.; as, creor,
appellor, habeor; as,--

Rōmulus rēx appellatus est, _Romulus was called king_;

habitus est deus, _he was regarded as a god_.

APPOSITIVES.

169. 1. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun denoting the same person or thing; as,--

Cicerō cōnsul, _Cicero, the Consul_;

urbs Rōma, _the city Rome_.

2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as,--

opera Cicerōnīs ōrātōris, _the works of Cicero, the orator_;

apud Hērodotum, patrem historiae, _in the works of Herodotus, the
father of history_.

3. When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gender also; as,--

assentātiō adjūtrīx vitiōrum, _flattery, the promoter of evils_.

4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with or without a preposition; as,--

Corinthī, Achāiae urbe, or in Achāiae urbe, _at Corinth, a city of
Greece_.

5. PARTITIVE APPOSITION. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by an Appositive denoting a part; as,--

mīlitēs, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restitērunt, _the soldiers, all
the bravest of them, resisted the enemy_.

* * * * *

THE CASES.

THE NOMINATIVE.

170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. See §§ 166-169.

* * * * *

THE VOCATIVE.

171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address; as,--

crēdite mihi, jūdicēs, _believe me, judges_.

1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used for the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose; as, audī tū, populus Albānus, _hear ye, Alban people!_

2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the Nominative; as, nāte, mea magna potentia sōlus, _O son, alone the source of my great power_.

* * * * *

THE ACCUSATIVE.

172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object.

173. The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations:--

A. The PERSON OR THING AFFECTED by the action; as,--

cōnsulem interfēcit, _he slew the consul_;

legō librum, _I read the book_.

B. The RESULT PRODUCED by the action; as,--

librum scrīpsī, _I wrote a book_ (i.e. produced one);

templum struit, _he constructs a temple_.

174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are TRANSITIVE VERBS.

a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used without
it. They are then said to be employed _absolutely_; as,--

rūmor est meum gnātum amāre, _it is rumored that my son is in love_.

Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.

175. 1. This is the most frequent use of the Accusative; as in--

parentēs amāmus, _we love our parents_;

mare aspicit, _he gazes at the sea_.

2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are worthy of note:--

a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposition, become
Transitive. Thus:--

1) Compounds of circum, praeter, trāns; as,--

hostēs circumstāre, _to surround the enemy;_

urbem praeterīre, _to pass by the city;_

mūrōs trānscendere, _to climb over the walls._

2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub; as,--

adīre urbem, _to visit the city;_

peragrāre Italiam, _to travel through Italy;_

inīre magistrātum, _to take office;_

subīre perīculum, _to undergo danger._

b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have also a
Transitive use; as,--

queror fātum, _I lament my fate;_

doleō ejus mortem, _I grieve at his death;_

rīdeō tuam stultitiam, _I laugh at your folly._

So also lūgeō, maereō, _mourn_; gemō, _bemoan_; horreō, _shudder_, and
others.

c) The impersonals decet, _it becomes_; dēdecet, _it is unbecoming_;
juvat, _it pleases_, take the Accusative of the Person Affected; as,--

mē decet haec dīcere, _it becomes me to say this._

d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage, are
employed as Middles (§ 256, 1; 2), and take the Accusative as Object;
as,--

galeam induitur, _he puts on his helmet;_

cīnctus tempora hederā, _having bound his temples with ivy;_

nōdō sinus collēcta, _having gathered her dress in a knot._

Accusative of the Result Produced.

176. 1. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions as--

librum scrībō, _I write a book_;

domum aedificō, _I build a house_.

2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a _Neuter Pronoun_, or _Adjective_, as an Accusative of Result. Thus:--

a) A Neuter Pronoun; as,--

haec gemēbat, _he made these moans_;

idem glōriārī, _to make the same boast_;

eadem peccat, _he makes the same mistakes_.

b) A Neuter Adjective,--particularly _Adjectives of number_ or
_amount_,--multum, multa, pauca, etc.; also nihil; as,--

multa egeō, _I have many needs_;

pauca studet, _he has few interests_;

multum valet, _he has great strength_;

nihil peccat, _he makes no mistake_.

NOTE.--In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as--

minitantem vāna, _making vain threats_;

acerba tuēns, _giving a fierce look_;

dulce loquentem, _sweetly talking_.

3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out of this Accusative; as,--

multum sunt in vēnātiōne, _they are much engaged in hunting_.

a. So also plūrimum, _very greatly_; plērumque, _generally_; aliquid,
_somewhat_; quid, _why?_ nihil, _not at all_; etc.

4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a COGNATE ACCUSATIVE, and is usually modified by an Adjective; as,--

sempiternam servitūtem serviat, _let him serve an everlasting slavery_;

vītam dūram vīxī, _I have lived a hard life_.

a. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred etymology, but
merely of kindred meaning; as,--

stadium currit, _he runs a race_;

Olympia vincit, _he wins an Olympic victory_.

5. The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of _tasting_ and _smelling_; as,--

piscis mare sapit, _the fish tastes of the sea_;

ōrātiōnēs antīquitātem redolent, _the speeches smack of the past_.

Two Accusatives--Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.

177. Many Verbs of _Making_, _Choosing_, _Calling_, _Showing_, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative; as,--

mē hērēdem fēcit, _he made me heir_.

Here mē is Direct Object, hērēdēm Predicate Accusative. So also--

eum jūdicem cēpēre, _they took him as judge_;

urbem Rōmam vocāvit, _he called the city Rome_;

sē virum praestitit, _he showed himself a man_.

2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun; as,--

hominēs caecōs reddit cupiditās, _covetousness renders men blind_;

Apollō Sōcratem sapientissimum jūdicāvit, _Apollo adjudged Socrates the
wisest man_.

a. Some Verbs, as reddō, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predicate
Accusative.

3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 168, 2, b): as,--

urbs Rōma vocāta est, _the city was called Rome_.

a. Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction; reddō and efficiō, for
example, never take it.

Two Accusatives--Person and Thing.

178. 1. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced. Thus:--

a) Verbs of _requesting_ and _demanding_; as,--

ōtium dīvōs rogat, _he asks the gods for rest_;

mē duās ōrātiōnēs postulās, _you demand two speeches of me_.

So also ōrō, poscō, reposcō, exposcō, flāgitō, though some of these
prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person; as,--

opem ā tē poscō, _I demand aid of you_.

b) Verbs of _teaching_ (doceō and its compounds); as,--

tē litterās doceō, _I teach you your letters_.

c) Verbs of _inquiring_; as,--

tē haec rogō, _I ask you this_;

tē sententiam rogō, _I ask you your opinion_.

d) Several Special Verbs; _viz_. moneō, admoneō, commoneō, cōgō, accūsō,
arguō, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective
as Accusative of the Thing; as,--

hōc tē moneō, _I give you this advice_;

mē id accūsās, _you bring this accusation against me_;

id cōgit nōs nātūra, _nature compels us (to) this_.

e) One Verb of _concealing_, cēlō; as,--

nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem, _I have not concealed the conversation from
you_.

2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,--

omnēs artēs ēdoctus est, _he was taught all accomplishments_;

rogātus sum sententiam, _I was asked my opinion_;

multa ādmonēmur, _we are given many admonitions_.

a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.

Two Accusatives with Compounds.

179. 1. Transitive compounds of trāns may take two Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition, as,--

mīlitēs flūmen trānsportat, _he leads his soldiers across the river_.

2. With other compounds this construction is rare.

3. In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is retained; as,--

mīlitēs flūmen trādūcēbantur, _the soldiers were led across the river_.

Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.

180. 1. The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the _part_ to which an action or quality refers; as,--

tremit artūs, literally, _he trembles as to his limbs_, i.e. his limbs
tremble;

nūda genū, lit. _bare as to the knee_, i.e. with knee bare;

manūs revinctus, lit. _tied as to the hands_, i.e. with hands tied.

2. Note that this construction--

a) Is borrowed from the Greek.
b) Is chiefly confined to poetry.
c) Usually refers to a part of the body.
d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.

Accusative of Time and Space.

181. 1. _Duration of Time_ and _Extent of Space_ are denoted by the Accusative; as,--

quadrāgintā annōs vīxit, _he lived forty years_;

hīc locus passūs sescentōs aberat, _this place was six hundred paces
away_;

arborēs quīnquāgintā pedēs altae, _trees fifty feet high_;

abhinc septem annōs, _seven years ago_.

2. Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per; as,

per biennium labōrāvī, _I toiled throughout two years_.

Accusative of Limit of Motion.

182. 1. The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used--

a) With names of _Towns_, _Small Islands_, and _Peninsulas_; as,--

Rōmam vēnī, _I came to Rome_;

Athēnās proficīscitur, _he sets out for Athens_;

Dēlum pervēnī, _I arrived at Delos_.

b) With domum, domōs, rūs; as,--

domum revertitur, _he returns home_;

rūs ībō, _I shall go to the country_.

NOTE.--When domus means _house_ (i.e. building), it takes a preposition; as,--

in domum veterem remigrāre, _to move back to an old house_.

2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require a Preposition to denote Limit of Motion; as,--

ad Italiam vēnit, _he came to Italy._

a. The Preposition is also customary with the Accusatives urbem or
oppidum when they stand in apposition with the name of a town; as,--

Thalam, in oppidum magnum, _to Thala, a large town;_

Genavam ad oppidum, _to the town Geneva_.

b. The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be combined with the
name of a country or other word dependent upon a preposition; as,--

Thūriōs in Italiam pervectus, _carried to Thurii in Italy;_

cum Acēn ad exercitum vēnisset, _when he had come to the army at Ace._

3. To denote _toward_, _to the vicinity of_, _in the vicinity of,_ ad is used; as,--

ad Tarentum vēnī, _I came to the vicinity of Tarentum;_

ad Cannās pugna facta est, _a battle was fought near Cannae._

4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used without a preposition to express the limit of motion; as,--

Italiam vēnit, _he came to Italy._

5. The _goal_ notion seems to represent the original function of the Accusative Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the phrase īnfitiās īre, _to deny_ (lit. _to go to a denial_), and a few other similar expressions.

Accusative in Exclamations.

183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjective, is used in Exclamations; as,--

mē miserum, _ah, wretched me!_

Ō fallācem spem, _oh, deceptive hope!_

Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive.

184. The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusative; as,--

videō hominem abīre, _I see that the man is going away._

Other Uses of the Accusative.

185. Here belong--

1. Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives; _viz_.--

id genus, _of that kind_; as, hominēs id genus, _men of that kind_
(originally hominēs, id genus hominum, _men, that kind of men_);

virīle secus, muliebre secus, _of the male sex_, _of the female sex_;

meam vicem, tuam vicem, etc., _for my part_, etc.;

bonam partem, magnam partem, _in large part_;

maximam partem, _for the most part_.

2. Some phrases of doubtful origin; as,--

id temporis, _at that time_; quod si, _but if_;
id aetātis, _at that time_; cētera, _in other respects_.

* * * * *

THE DATIVE.

186. The Dative case, in general, expresses relations which are designated in English by the prepositions to and for.

Dative of Indirect Object.

187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the person _to whom_ something is _given_, _said_, or _done_. Thus:--

I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accusative; as,--

hanc pecūniam mihi dat, _he gives me this money_;

haec nōbīs dīxit, _he said this to us_.

a. Some verbs which take this construction (particularly dōnō and
circumdō) admit also the Accusative of the person along with the Ablative
of the thing. Thus:--

Either Themistoclī mūnera dōnāvit, _he presented gifts to
Themistocles_, or

Themistoclem mūneribus dōnāvit, _he presented Themistocles with gifts_;

urbī mūrōs circumdat, _he builds walls around the city_, or

urbem mūrīs circumdat, _he surrounds the city with walls_

II. With many intransitive verbs; as,--

nūllī labōrī cēdit, _he yields to no labor._

a. Here belong many verbs signifying _favor_,[48] _help_, _injure_,
_please_, _displease_, _trust_, _distrust_, _command_, _obey_, _serve_,
_resist_, _indulge_, _spare_, _pardon_, _envy_, _threaten_, _be angry_,
_believe_, _persuade_, and the like; as,--

Caesar populāribus favet, _Caesar favors (i.e. is favorable to) the
popular party_;

amīcīs cōnfīdō, _I trust (to) my friends_;

Orgetorīx Helvētiīs persuāsit, _Orgetorix persuaded (made it acceptable
to) the Helvetians_;

bonīs nocet quī malīs parcit, _he injures (does harm to) the good, who
spares the bad_.

NOTE.--It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are _intransitive_, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same apparent English equivalence are _transitive_ and govern the Accusative; as, juvō, laedō, dēlectō. Thus: audentēs deus juvat, _God helps the bold_; nēminem laesit _he injured no one_.

b. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally; as,--

tibi parcitur, _you are spared_;

mihi persuādētur, _I am being persuaded_;

eī invidētur, _he is envied_.

c. Some of the foregoing verbs admit also a Direct Object in connection
with the Dative; as,--

mihi mortem minitātur, _he threatens me with death_ (_threatens death
to me_).

III. With many verbs compounded with the prepositions: ad, ante, circum, com,[49] in, inter, ob, post, prae, prō, sub, super.

These verbs fall into two main classes,--

1. Many simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indirect object become capable of doing so when compounded with a preposition; as,--

afflīctīs succurrit, _he helps the aflicted_;

exercituī praefuit, _he was in command of the army_;

intersum cōnsiliīs, _I share in the deliberations_.

2. Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become capable, when compounded, of taking a dative also as indirect object; as,--

pecūniae pudōrem antepōnit, _he puts honor before money_;

inicere spem amīcīs, _to inspire hope in one's friends_;

mūnītiōni Labiēnum praefēcit, _he put Labienus in charge of the
fortifications_.

Dative of Reference.

188. 1. The Dative of Reference denotes the person _to whom a statement refers, of whom it is true_, or _to whom it is of interest;_ as,--

mihi ante oculōs versāris, _you hover before my eyes_ (lit. _hover
before the eyes to me_);

illī sevēritās amōrem nōn dēminuit, _in his case severity did not
diminish love_ (lit. _to him severity did not diminish_);

interclūdere inimīcīs commeātum, _to cut of the supplies of the enemy._

a. Note the phrase alicui interdīcere aquā et īgnī, _to interdict one
from fire and water_.

NOTE.--The Dative of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole. It is often used where, according to the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive; so in the first and third of the above examples.

2. Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are--

a) Dative of the Local Standpoint. This is regularly a participle; as,--

oppidum prīmum Thessaliae venientibus ab Ēpīrō, _the first town of
Thessaly as you come from Epirus_ (lit. _to those coming from Epirus_).

b) Ethical Dative. This name is given to those Dative constructions of
the personal pronouns in which the connection of the Dative with the rest
of the sentence is of the very slightest sort; as,--

tū mihi istīus audāciam dēfendis? _tell me, do you defend that man's
audacity?_

quid mihi Celsus agit? _what is my Celsus doing?_

c) Dative of Person Judging; as,--

erit ille mihi semper deus, _he will always be a god to me_ (i.e. in my
opinion);

quae ista servitūs tam clāro hominī, _how can that be slavery to so
illustrious a man_ (i.e. to his mind)!

d) Dative of Separation. Some verbs of _taking away_, especially
compounds of ab, dē, ex, ad, govern a Dative of the person, less often of
the thing; as,--

honōrem dētrāxērunt hominī, _they took away the honor from the man_;

Caesar rēgī tetrarchiam ēripuit, _Caesar took the tetrarchy away from
the king_;

silicī scintillam excūdit, _he struck a spark from the flint_.

Dative of Agency.

189. The Dative is used to denote _agency_--

1. Regularly with the Gerundive; as,--

haec nōbīs agenda sunt, _these things must be done by us_;

mihi eundum est, _I must go_ (lit. _it must be gone by me_).

a. To avoid ambiguity, ā with the Ablative is sometimes used with the
Gerundive; as,--

hostibus ā nōbīs parcendum est, _the enemy must be spared by us_.

2. Much less frequently with the compound tenses of the passive voice and the perfect passive participle; as,--

disputātiō quae mihi nūper habita est, _the discussion which was
recently conducted by me_.

3. Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive; as,--

honesta bonīs virīs quaeruntur, _noble ends are sought by good men_.

Dative of Possession.

190. The Dative of Possession occurs with the verb esse in such expressions as:--

mihi est liber, _I have a book_;

mihi nōmen est Mārcus, _I have the name Marcus_.

1. But with nōmen est the name is more commonly attracted into the Dative; as, mihi Mārcō nōmen est.

Dative of Purpose or Tendency.

191. The Dative of Purpose or Tendency designates _the end toward which an action is directed_ or _the direction in which it tends_. It is used--

1. Unaccompanied by another Dative; as,--

castrīs locum dēligere, _to choose a place for a camp_;

legiōnēs praesidiō relinquere, _to leave the legions as a guard_ (lit.
_for a guard_);

receptuī canere, _to sound the signal for a retreat_.

2. Much more frequently in connection with another Dative of the person:--

a) Especially with some form of esse; as,--

fortūnae tuae mihi cūrae sunt, _your fortunes are a care to me_ (lit.
_for a care_);

quibus sunt odiō, _to whom they are an object of hatred_;

cui bonō? _to whom is it of advantage_?

b) With other verbs; as,--

hōs tibi mūnerī mīsit, _he has sent these to you for a present_;

Pausaniās Atticīs vēnit auxiliō, _Pausanias came to the aid of the
Athenians_ (lit. _to the Athenians for aid_).

3. In connection with the Gerundive; as,--

decemvirī lēgibus scrībundīs, _decemvirs for codifying the laws_;

mē gerendō bellō ducem creāvēre, _me they have made leader for carrying
on the war_.

NOTE.--This construction with the gerundive is not common till Livy.

Dative with Adjectives.

192. The use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds very closely to its use with verbs. Thus:--

1. Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object it occurs with adjectives signifying: _friendly_, _unfriendly_, _similar_, _dissimilar_, _equal_, _near_, _related to_, etc.; as,--

mihi inimīcus, _hostile to me_;

sunt proximī Germānis, _they are next to the Germans_;

noxiae poena pār estō, _let the penalty be equal to the damage_.

a. For propior and proximus with the Accusative, see § 141, 3.

2. Corresponding to the Dative of Purpose, the Dative occurs with adjectives signifying: _suitable_, _adapted_, _fit_; as,--

castrīs idōneus locus, _a place fit for a camp_;

apta diēs sacrificiō, _a day suitable for a sacrifice_.

NOTE.--Adjectives of this last class often take the Accusative with ad.

Dative of Direction.

193. In the poets the Dative is occasionally used to denote the _direction of motion_; as,--

it clāmor caelō, _the shout goes heavenward_;

cinerēs rīvō fluentī jace, _cast the ashes toward a flowing stream_.

1. By an extension of this construction the poets sometimes use the Dative to denote the _limit of motion_; as,--

dum Latiō deōs īnferret, _till he should bring his gods to Latium_.

* * * * *

THE GENITIVE.

194. The Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.

195. With Nouns the Genitive is _the case which defines the meaning of the limited noun more closely_. This relation is generally indicated in English by the preposition of. There are the following varieties of the Genitive with Nouns:--

Genitive of Origin, Objective Genitive,
Genitive of Material, Genitive of the Whole,
Genitive of Possession, Appositional Genitive,
Subjective Genitive, Genitive of Quality.

196. Genitive of Origin; as,--

Mārcī fīlius, _the son of Marcus_.

197. Genitive of Material; as,--

talentum aurī, _a talent of gold_;

acervus frūmentī, _a pile of grain_.

198. Genitive of Possession or Ownership; as,--

domus Cicerōnis, _Cicero's house_.

1. Here belongs the Genitive with causā and grātiā. The Genitive always precedes; as,--

hominum causā, _for the sake of men_;

meōrum amīcōrum grātiā, _for the sake of my friends_.

2. The Possessive Genitive is often used predicatively, especially with esse and fierī; as,--

domus est rēgis, _the house is the king's_;

stultī est in errōre manēre, _it is (the part) of a fool to remain in
error_;

dē bellō jūdicium imperātōris est, nōn mīlitum, _the decision
concerning war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers_.

a. For the difference in force between the Possessive Genitive and the
Dative of Possession, see § 359, 1.

199. Subjective Genitive. This denotes _the person who makes or produces something or who has a feeling_; as,--

dicta Platōnis, _the utterances of Plato_;

timōrēs līberōrum, _the fears of the children_.

200. Objective Genitive. This denotes _the object of an action or feeling_; as,--

metus deōrum, _the fear of the gods_;

amor lībertātis, _love of liberty_;

cōnsuētūdō bonōrum hominum, _intercourse with good men_.

1. This relation is often expressed by means of prepositions; as,--

amor ergā parentēs, _love toward one's parents_.

201. Genitive of the Whole. This designates the _whole_ of which a part is taken. It is used--

1. With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Ordinal Numerals; as,--

magna pars hominum, _a great part of mankind_;

duo mīlia peditum, _two thousand foot-soldiers_;

quis mortālium, _who of mortals?_

major frātrum, _the elder of the brothers_;

gēns maxima Germānōrum, _the largest tribe of the Germans_;

prīmus omnium, _the first of all_.

a. Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or dē with
the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quīdam; as,--

fidēlissimus dē servīs, _the most trusty of the slaves_;

quīdam ex amīcīs, _certain of his friends_;

ūnus ex mīlitibus, _one of the soldiers_.

b. In English we often use _of_ where there is no relation of whole to
part. In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the
Genitive; as,--

quot vōs estis, _how many of you are there?_

trecentī conjūrāvimus, _three hundred of us have conspired_ (i.e. we,
three hundred in number).

2. The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nominative or Accusative Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives used substantively; also with the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim when used substantively; as,--

quid cōnsilī, _what purpose?_

tantum cibī, _so much food_;

plūs auctōritātis, _more authority_;

minus labōris, _less labor_;

satis pecūniae, _enough money_;

parum industriae, _too little industry_.

a. An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be
employed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nihil bonī, _nothing good_.

b. But Adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the noun
they limit; as, nihil dulcius, _nothing sweeter_.

3. Occasionally we find the Genitive of the Whole dependent upon Adverbs of place; as,--

ubi terrārum? ubi gentium? _where in the world?_

a. By an extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in
dependence upon prīdiē and postrīdiē, but only in the phrases prīdiē ejus
diēī, _on the day before that_; postrīdiē ejus diēī, _on the day after
that_.

202. Appositional Genitive. The Genitive sometimes has the force of an appositive; as,--

nōmen rēgis, _the name of king_;

poena mortis, _the penalty of death_;

ars scrībendī, _the art of writing_.

203. Genitive of Quality. The Genitive modified by an Adjective is used to denote quality. This construction presents several varieties. Thus it is used--

1. To denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person or thing; as,--

vir magnae virtūtis, _a man of great virtue_;

ratiōnēs ejus modī, _considerations of that sort_.

a. Only a limited number of Adjectives occur in this construction,
chiefly magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, along with ejus.

2. To denote measure (_breadth_, _length_, etc.); as,--

fossa quīndecim pedum, _a trench fifteen feet wide_ (or _deep_);

exsilium decem annōrum, _an exile of ten years_.

3. Equivalent to the Genitive of Quality (though probably of different origin) are the Genitives tantī, quantī, parvī, magnī, minōris, plūris, minimī, plūrimī, maximī. These are used predicatively to denote _indefinite value_; as,--

nūlla studia tantī sunt, _no studies are of so much value_;

magnī opera ejus exīstimāta est, _his assistance was highly esteemed_.

4. By an extension of the notion of _value_, quantī, tantī, plūris, and minōris are also used with verbs of _buying_ and _selling_, to denote _indefinite price_; as,--

quantī aedēs ēmistī, _at how high a price did you purchase the house?_

5. Any of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality may be used predicatively; as,--

tantae mōlis erat Rōmānam condere gentem, _of so great difficulty was
it to found the Roman race_.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

204. The Genitive is used with many Adjectives _to limit the extent of their application_. Thus:--

1. With adjectives signifying _desire_, _knowledge_, _familiarity_, _memory_, _participation_, _power_, _fullness_, and their opposites; as,--

studiōsus discendī, _desirous of learning_;

perītus bellī, _skilled in war_;

īnsuētus labōris, _unused to toil_;

immemor mandātī tuī, _unmindful of your commission_;

plēna perīculōrum est vīta, _life is full of dangers_.

a. Some participles used adjectively also take the Genitive; as,--

diligēns vēritātis, _fond of truth_;

amāns patriae, _devoted to one's country_.

2. Sometimes with proprius and commūnis; as,--

virī propria est fortitūdō, _bravery is characteristic of a man_.

memoria est commūnis omnium artium, _memory is common to all
professions_.

a. proprius and commūnis are also construed with the Dative.

3. With similis the Genitive is the commoner construction in Cicero, when the reference is to living objects; as,--

fīlius patris simillimus est, _the son is exactly like his father_;

meī similis, _like me_; vestrī similis, _like you_.

When the reference is to things, both Genitive and Dative occur; as,--

mors somnō (or somnī) similis est, _death is like sleep_.

4. In the poets and later prose writers the use of the Genitive with Adjectives is extended far beyond earlier limits; as, atrōx animī, _fierce of temper_; incertus cōnsilī, _undecided in purpose_.

GENITIVE WITH VERBS.

205. The Genitive is used with the following classes of Verbs:--

_Memini_, _Reminīscor_, _Oblīvīscor_.

206. 1. WHEN REFERRING TO PERSONS--

a. meminī always takes the Genitive of personal or reflexive pronouns;
as,--

meī meminerīs, _remember me_!

nostrī meminit, _he remembers us_.

With other words denoting persons meminī takes the Accusative, rarely the Genitive; as,--

Sullam meminī, _I recall Sulla_;

vīvōrum meminī, _I remember the living_.

b. oblīvīscor regularly takes the Genitive; as,--

Epicūrī nōn licet oblīvīscī, _we mustn't forget Epicurus_.

2. WHEN REFERRING TO THINGS, meminī, reminīscor, oblīvīscor take sometimes the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative, without difference of meaning; as,--

animus praeteritōrum meminit, _the mind remembers the past_;

meministīne nōmina, _do you remember the names?_

reminīscere veteris incommodī, _remember the former disaster_;

reminīscēns acerbitātem, _remembering the bitterness_.

a. But neuter pronouns, and adjectives used substantively, regularly
stand in the Accusative; as,--

haec meminī, _I remember this;_

multa reminīscor, _I remember many things._

3. The phrase mihi (tibi, etc.) in mentem venit, following the analogy of meminī, takes the Genitive; as,--

mihi patriae veniēbat in mentem, _I remembered my country._

_Admoneō_, _Commoneō_, _Commonefaciō._

207. These verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the person, occasionally take a Genitive of the thing; as,--

tē veteris amīcitiae commonefaciō, _I remind you of our old
friendship._

a. But more frequently (in Cicero almost invariably) these verbs take dē
with the Ablative; as,--

mē admonēs dē sorōre, _you remind me of your sister._

b. A neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly stands in
the Accusative (§ 178, 1, d); as,--

tē hōc admoneō, _I give you this warning._

Verbs of Judicial Action.

208. 1. Verbs of _Accusing_, _Convicting_, _Acquitting_ take the Genitive of the _charge_; as,--

mē fūrtī accūsat, _he accuses me of theft_;

Verrem avāritiae coarguit, _he convicts Verres of avarice_;

impietātis absolūtus est, _he was acquitted of blasphemy_.

2. Verbs of _Condemning_ take--

a. The Genitive of the _charge_; as,--

pecūniae pūblicae condemnātus, _condemned (on the charge) of
embezzlement_ (lit. _public money_);

capitis damnātus, _condemned on a capital charge_ (lit. _on a charge
involving his head_).

b. The Ablative of the _penalty;_ as,--

capite damnātus est, _he was condemned to death_;

mīlle nummīs damnātus est, _he was condemned (to pay) a thousand
sesterces_ (lit. _by a thousand sesterces_, Abl. of Means).

3. Note the phrases:--

vōtī damnātus, vōtī reus, _having attained one's prayer_ (lit.
_condemned on the score of one's vow_);

dē vī, (_accused_, _convicted_, etc.) _of assault_;

inter sīcāriōs, (_accused_, _convicted_, etc.) _of murder_.

Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.

209. 1. The Impersonals pudet, paenitet, miseret, taedet, piget take the Accusative of _the person affected_, along with the Genitive _of the person or thing toward whom the feeling is directed_; as,--

pudet mē tuī, _I am ashamed of you_ (lit. _it shames me of you_);

paenitet mē hūjus factī, _I repent of this act_;

eum taedet vītae, _he is weary of life_;

pauperum tē miseret, _you pity the poor_.

a. Instead of the Genitive of the thing we often find an Infinitive or
Neuter Pronoun used as subject of the verb. Thus;--

mē paenitet hōc fēcisse, _I repent of having done this_;

mē hōc pudet, _I am ashamed of this_.

2. Misereor and miserēscō also govern the Genitive; as,--

miserēminī sociōrum, _pity the allies_.

_Interest_, _Rēfert._

210. With interest, _it concerns_, three points enter into consideration; viz.--

a) the _person concerned_;
b) the _thing about which_ he is concerned;
c) the _extent_ of his concern.

211. 1. The _person concerned_ is regularly denoted by the Genitive; as,--

patris interest, _it concerns the father_.

a. But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, meī, tuī,
nostrī, vestrī, the Latin uses the Ablative Singular Feminine of the
Possessive, viz.: meā, tuā, etc.; as,--

meā interest, _it concerns me_.

2. The _thing about which_ a person is concerned is denoted--

a) by a Neuter Pronoun as subject; as,--

hōc reī pūblicae interest, _this concerns the state_.

b) by an Infinitive; as,--

omnium interest valēre, _it concerns all to keep well_.

c) by an Indirect Question; as,--

meā interest quandō veniās, _I am concerned as to when you are coming_.

3. The _degree of concern_ is denoted--

a) by the Genitive (cf. § 203, 3): magnī, parvī, etc.; as,--

meā magnī interest, _it concerns me greatly_.

b) by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maximē, etc.; as,--

cīvium minimē interest, _it concerns the citizens very little_.

c) by the Neuters, multum, plūs, minus, etc.; as,--

multum vestrā interest, _it concerns you much_.

4. Rēfert follows interest in its construction, except that it rarely takes the Genitive of the person. Thus:--

meā rēfert, _it concerns me_;

but rarely illīus rēfert, _it concerns him_.

Genitive with Other Verbs.

212. 1. Verbs of _Plenty_ and _Want_ sometimes govern the Genitive; as,--

pecūniae indigēs, _you need money_.

a. These verbs more commonly take the Ablative (§ 214, 1); indigeō is the
only verb which has a preference for the Genitive.

2. Potior, though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes takes the Genitive, almost always so in Sallust; and regularly in the phrase potīrī rērum, _to get control of affairs_.

3. In poetry some verbs take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek; as,--

dēsine querellārum, _cease your complaints_;

operum solūtī, _freed from their tasks_.

* * * * *

THE ABLATIVE.

213. The Latin Ablative unites in itself three cases which were originally distinct both in form and in meaning; viz.--

The Ablative or from-case.
The Instrumental or with-case.
The Locative or where-case.

The uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly fall into Genuine Ablative uses, Instrumental uses, and Locative uses.

GENUINE ABLATIVE USES.

Ablative of Separation.

214. The Ablative of Separation is construed sometimes with, sometimes without, a preposition.

1. The following words regularly take the Ablative without a preposition:--

a) The Verbs of _freeing_: līberō, solvō, levō;

b) The Verbs of _depriving_: prīvō, spoliō, exuō, fraudō, nūdō;

c) The Verbs of _lacking_: egeō, careō, vacō;

d) The corresponding Adjectives, līber, inānis, vacuus, nūdus,

and some others of similar meaning.

Thus:--

cūrīs līberātus, _freed from cares_;

Caesar hostēs armīs exuit, _Caesar stripped the enemy of their arms_;

caret sēnsū commūnī, _he lacks common sense_;

auxiliō eget, _he needs help_;

bonōrum vīta vacua est metū, _the life of the good is free from fear_.

NOTE 1.--Yet Adjectives and līberō may take the preposition ab,--regularly so with the Ablative of persons; as,--

urbem ā tyrannō līberārunt, _they freed the city from the tyrant._

NOTE 2.--Indigeō usually takes the Genitive. See § 212, 1, a.

2. Of Verbs signifying _to keep from_, _to remove_, _to withdraw_, some take the preposition, others omit it. The same Verb often admits both constructions. Examples:--

abstinēre cibō, _to abstain from food;_

hostēs fīnibus prohibuērunt, _they kept the enemy from their borders_;

praedōnēs ab īnsulā prohibuit, _he kept the pirates from the island_.

3. Other Verbs of separation usually take the Ablative with a Prepositon, particularly compounds of dis- and sē-; as,--

dissentiō ā tē, _I dissent from you_;

sēcernantur ā nōbīs, _let them be separated from us_.

4. The Preposition is freely omitted in poetry.

Ablative of Source.

215. The Ablative of Source is used with the participles nātus and ortus (in poetry also with ēditus, satus, and some others), to designate _parentage_ or _station_; as,--

Jove nātus, _son of Jupiter_;

summō locō nātus, _high-born_ (lit. _born from a very high place_);

nōbilī genere ortus, _born of a noble family_.

1. Pronouns regularly (nouns rarely) take ex; as,

ex mē nātus, _sprung from me_.

2. To denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriundus (with or without ab), is used; as,--

ab Ulixe oriundus, _descended from Ulysses_.

Ablative of Agent.

216. The Ablative accompanied by ā (ab) is used with passive verbs to denote the _personal agent_; as,--

ā Caesare accūsātus est, _he was arraigned by Caesar_.

1. Collective nouns referring to persons, and abstract nouns when personified, may be construed as the personal agent. Thus:--

hostēs ā fortūnā dēserēbantur, _the enemy were deserted by Fortune_;

ā multitūdine hostium mōntēs tenēbantur, _the mountains were held by a
multitude of the enemy_.

2. Names of animals sometimes admit the same construction. Thus:--

ā canibus laniātus est, _he was torn to pieces by dogs_.

Ablative of Comparison.

217. 1. The Ablative is often used with Comparatives in the sense of _than_; as,--

melle dulcior, _sweeter than honey_;

patria mihi vītā cārior est, _my country is dearer to me than life_.

2. This construction, as a rule, occurs only as a substitute for quam (_than_) with the Nominative or Accusative. In other cases quam must be used; as,--

tuī studiōsior sum quam illīus, _I am fonder of you than of him_.

--Studiōsior illō would have meant, _I am fonder of you than he is_.

Plūs, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equivalents of plūs quam, minus quam, etc. Thus:--

amplius vīgintī urbēs incenduntur, _more than twenty cities are fired_;

minus quīnque mīlia prōcessit, _he advanced less than five miles_.

3. Note the use of opīniōne with Comparatives; as,--

opīniōne celerius venit, _he comes more quickly than expected_ (lit.
_than opinion_).

INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Means.

218. The Ablative is used to denote _means_ or _instrument_; as,--

Alexander sagittā vulnerātus est, _Alexander was wounded by an arrow_.

There are the following special varieties of this Ablative:--

1. Ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds take the Ablative; as,--

dīvitiīs ūtitur, _he uses his wealth_ (lit. _he benefits himself by his
wealth_);

vītā fruitur, _he enjoys life_ (lit. _he enjoys himself by life_);

mūnere fungor, _I perform my duty_ (lit. _I busy myself with duty_);

carne vescuntur, _they eat flesh_ (lit. _feed themselves by means of_);

castrīs potītus est, _he got possession of the camp_ (lit. _made
himself powerful by the camp_).

a.. Potior sometimes governs the Genitive. See § 212, 2.

2. With opus est (rarely ūsus est), _there is need_; as,--

duce nōbīs opus est, _we need a leader_.

a. A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with opus as
predicate. Thus:--

hōc mihi opus est, _this is necessary for me_.

b. An ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject. Thus dux nōbīs opus
est is a rare form of expression.

c. Note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus est;
as,--

opus est properātō, _there is need of haste_.

3. With nītor, innīxus, and frētus; as,--

nītitur hastā, _he rests on a spear_ (lit. _supports himself by a
spear_);

frētus virtūte, _relying on virtue_ (lit. _supported by virtue_).

4. With continērī, cōnsistere, cōnstāre, _consist of_; as,--

nervīs et ossibus continentur, _they consist of sinews and bones_ (lit.
_they are held together by sinews and bones_);

mortālī cōnsistit corpore mundus, _the world consists of mortal
substance_ (lit. _holds together by means of_, etc.).

6. In expressions of the following type:--

quid hōc homine faciās, _what can you do with this man?_

quid meā Tulliolā fīet, _what will become of my dear Tullia?_ (lit.
_what will be done with my dear Tullia?_)

7. In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary English idiom:--

proeliō contendere, vincere, _to contend_, _conquer in battle_;

proeliō lacessere, _to provoke to battle_;

currū vehī, _to ride in a chariot_;

pedibus īre, _to go on foot_;

castrīs sē tenēre, _to keep in camp_.

8. With Verbs of _filling_ and Adjectives of _plenty_; as,--

fossās virgultīs complērunt, _they filled the trenches with brush_.

a. But plēnus more commonly takes the Genitive. See § 204, 1.

9. Under 'Means' belongs also the Ablative of the Way by Which; as,--

vīnum Tiberī dēvectum, _wine brought down (by) the Tiber_.

10. The means may be a person as well as a thing. Thus:--

mīlitibus ā lacū Lemannō ad montem Jūram mūrum perdūcit, _with_ (i.e.
by means of) _his troops he runs a wall from Lake Geneva to Mt. Jura_.

Ablative of Cause.

219. The Ablative is used to denote cause; as,--

multa glōriae cupiditāte fēcit, _he did many things on account of his
love of glory_.

1. So especially with verbs denoting mental states; as, dēlector, gāudeō, laetor, glōrior, fīdō, cōnfīdō. Also with contentus; as,--

fortūnā amīcī gaudeō, _I rejoice at the fortune of my friend (i.e. on
account of it_);

victōriā suā glōriantur, _they exult over their victory_;

nātūrā locī cōnfīdēbant, _they trusted in the character of their
country_ (lit. _were confident on account of the character_).

a. fīdō and cōnfīdō always take the Dative of the person (§ 187, II, a);
sometimes the Dative of the thing.

2. As Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives as jussū, by order of, injussū, _without the order_, rogātū, etc.

Ablative of Manner.

220. The Ablative with cum is used to denote manner; as,--

cum gravitāte loquitur, _he speaks with dignity_.

1. The preposition may be absent when the Ablative is modified by an adjective; as,--

magnā gravitāte loquitur, _he speaks with great dignity_.

2. The preposition is regularly absent in the expressions jūre, injūriā, jocō, vī, fraude, voluntāte, fūrtō, silentiō.

3. A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that _in accordance with which_ or _in pursuance of which_ anything is or is done. It is generally used without a preposition. Thus:--

meā sententiā, _according to my opinion_;

suīs mōribus, _in accordance with their custom_;

suā sponte, _voluntarily_, _of his (their) own accord_;

eā condiciōne, _on these terms_.

Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.

221. The Ablative is often used to denote an _attendant circumstance_ of an action or an event; as,--

bonīs auspiciīs, _under good auspices_;

nūlla est altercātiō clāmōribus umquam habita majōribus, _no debate was
ever held under circumstances of greater applause_;

exstinguitur ingentī lūctū prōvinciae, _he dies under circumstances of
great grief on the part of the province_;

longō intervāllō sequitur, _he follows at a great distance_.

Ablative of Accompaniment.

222. The Ablative with cum is used with verbs of motion to denote _accompaniment_; as,--

cum comitibus profectus est, _he set out with his attendants_;

cum febrī domum rediit, _he returned home with a fever_.

1. In military expressions the Ablative may stand without cum when modified by any adjective except a numeral; as,--

omnibus cōpiīs, ingentī exercitū, magnā manū; but usually cum exercitū,
cum duābus legiōnibus.

Ablative of Association.

222A. The Ablative is often used with verbs of _joining_, _mixing_, _clinging_, _exchanging_; also with assuēscō, cōnsuēscō, assuēfaciō, and some others to denote _association_; as,--

improbitās scelere jūncta, _badness joined with crime_;

āēr calōre admixtus, _air mixed with heat_;

assuētus labōre, _accustomed to_ (lit. _familiarized with) toil_;

pācem bellō permūtant, _they change peace for_ (lit. _with) war_.

Ablative of Degree of Difference.

223. The Ablative is used with comparatives and words involving comparison (as post, ante, īnfrā, suprā) to denote the _degree of difference_; as,--

dimidiō minor, _smaller by a half_;

tribus pedibus altior, _three feet higher_;

paulō post, _a little afterwards_;

quō plurā habēmus, eō cupimus ampliōra, _the more we have, the more we
want_.

Ablative of Quality.

224. The Ablative, modified by an adjective, is used to denote _quality;_ as,--

puella eximiā fōrmā, _a girl of exceptional beauty_;

vir singulārī industriā, _a man of singular industry_.

1. The Ablative of Quality may also be used predicatively; as,--

est magnā prūdentiā, _he is (a man) of great wisdom_;

bonō animā sunt, _they are of good courage_.

2. In place of the Adjective we sometimes find a limiting Genitive; as,--

sunt speciē et colōre taurī, _they are of the appearance and color of a
bull_,

3. In poetry the Ablative of Quality sometimes denotes _material;_ as,--

scopulīs pendentībus antrum, _a cave of arching rocks._

Ablative of Price.

225. With verbs of _buying_ and _selling_, price is designated by the Ablative; as--

servum quīnque minīs ēmit, _he bought the slave for five minae._

1. The Ablatives magnō, plūrimō, parvō, minimō (by omission of pretiō) are used to denote _indefinite price_; as,--

aedēs magnō vēndidīt, _he sold the house for a high price._

2. For the Genitive of Indefinite Price, see § 203, 4.

Ablative of Specification.

226. The Ablative of Specification is used to denote that _in respect to which_ something is or is done; as,--

Helvētiī omnibus Gallīs virtūte praestābant, _the Helvetians surpassed
all the Gauls in valor_;

pede claudus, _lame in his foot_.

1. Note the phrases:--

major nātū, _older_ (lit. _greater as to age_);

minor nātū, _younger._

2. Here belongs the use of the Ablative with dignus, _worthy_, indignus, _unworthy_, and dignor, _deem worthy of_; as,--

dignī honōre, _worthy of honor (i.e. in point of honor_);

fidē indignī, _unworthy of confidence_;

mē dignor honōre, _I deem myself worthy of honor_.

Ablative Absolute.

227. The Ablative Absolute is grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence. In its commonest form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a participle; as,--

urbe captā, Aenēās fūgit, _when the city had been captured, Aeneas
fled_ (lit. _the city having been captured_).

1. Instead of a participle we often find an adjective or noun; as,--

vīvō Caesare rēs pūblica salva erat, _while Caesar was alive the state
was safe_ (lit. _Caesar being alive_);

Tarquiniō rēge, Pythagorās in Italiam vēnit, _in the reign of Tarquin
Pythagoras came into Italy_ (lit. _Tarquin being king_);

Cn. Pompejō, M. Crassō cōnsulibus, _in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey
and Marcus Crassus_ (lit. _P. and C. being consuls_).

2. The Ablative Absolute is generally used in Latin where in English we employ subordinate clauses. Thus the Ablative Absolute may correspond to a clause denoting--

a) Time, as in the foregoing examples.

b) Condition; as,--

omnēs virtūtēs jacent, voluptāte dominante, _all virtues lie prostrate,
if pleasure is master_.

c) Opposition; as,--

perditīs omnibus rēbus, virtūs sē sustentāre potest, _though everything
else is lost, yet Virtue can maintain herself_.

d) Cause; as,--

nūllō adversante rēgnum obtinuit, _since no one opposed him, he secured
the throne_.

e) Attendant circumstance; as,--

passīs palmīs pācem petīvērunt, _with hands outstretched, they sued for
peace_.

3. An Infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the Ablative Absolute construction, especially in Livy and later writers; as,--

audītō eum fūgisse, _when it was heard that he had fled_.

4. A noun or pronoun stands in the Ablative Absolute construction only when it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause in which it stands. Exceptions to this principle are extremely rare.

LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Place.

_A. Place where._

228. The place where is regularly denoted by the _Ablative with a preposition_; as,--

in urbe habitat, _he dwells in the city_.

1. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a preposition; viz.--

a) Names of towns,--except Singulars of the First and Second Declensions
(see § 232, 1); as,--

Carthāginī, _at Carthage_;

Athēnis, _at Athens_;

Vejīs, _at Veii_.

b) The general words locō, locīs, parte; also many words modified by
tōtus or even by other Adjectives; as,--

hōc locō, _at this place_;

tōtīs castrīs, _in the whole camp_.

c) The special words: forīs, _out of doors_; rūrī, _in the country_,
terrā marīque, _on land and sea_.

d) The poets freely omit the preposition with any word denoting place;
as,--

stant lītore puppēs, _the sterns rest on the beach_.

_B. Place from which.[50]_

229. Place from which is regularly denoted by the _Ablative with a preposition_; as,--

ab Italiā profectus est, _he set out from Italy_;

ex urbe rediit, _he returned from the city_.

1. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a preposition; viz.--

a) Names of towns and small islands; as,--

Rōma profectus est, _he set out from Rome_;

Rhodō revertit, _he returned from Rhodes_.

b) domō, _from home_; rūre, _from the country_.

c) Freely in poetry; as,--

Italiā dēcessit, _he withdrew from Italy_.

2. With names of towns, ab is used to mean _from the vicinity of_, or to denote the point _whence distance is measured;_ as,--

ā Gergoviā discessit, _he withdrew from the vicinity of Gergovia_;

ā Rōmā X mīlia aberat, _he was ten miles distant from Rome_.

Urbe and oppidō, when standing in apposition with a town name, are accompanied by a preposition; as,--

Curibus ex oppidō Sabīnōrum, _from Cures, a town of the Sabines_

Ablative of Time.

_A. Time at which._

230. The Ablative is used to denote the time _at which_; as,--

quārtā hōrā mortuus est, _he died at the fourth hour_;

annō septuāgēsimō cōnsul creātus, _elected consul in his seventieth
year_.

1. Any word denoting a period of time may stand in this construction, particularly annus, vēr, aestās, hiems, diēs, nox, hōra, comitia (_Election Day_), lūdī (_the Games_), etc.

2. Words not denoting time require the preposition in, unless accompanied by a modifier. Thus:--

in pāce, _in peace_; in bellō, _in war_;

but secundō bellō Pūnicō, _in the second Punic War_.

3. Expressions like in eō tempore, in summa senectūte, take the preposition because they denote _situation_ rather than _time_.

_B. Time within which._

231. Time _within which_ is denoted by the Ablative either _with_ or _without a preposition_; as,--

stella Sāturnī trīgintā annīs cursum cōnficit, _the planet Saturn
completes its orbit within thirty years_;

ter in annō, thrice in the course of the year.

1. Occasionally the Ablative denotes _duration of time_; as,--

bienniō prōsperās rēs habuit, _for two years he had a prosperous
administration_.

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THE LOCATIVE.

232. The Locative case occurs chiefly in the following words:--

1. Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small islands of the first and second declensions, to denote the place _in which_; as,--

Rōmae, _at Rome_; Corinthī, _at Corinth_;
Rhodī, _at Rhodes_.

2. In the following special forms:--

domī, _at home_; humī, _on the ground_;
bellī, _in war_; mīlitiae, _in war_;
vesperī, _at evening_; herī, _yesterday_.

3. Note the phrase pendēre animī, lit. _to be in suspense in one's mind_.

4. For urbs and oppidum in apposition with a Locative, see § 169, 4.

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