Chapter V: Syntax of Verbs (1)

AGREEMENT.

With One Subject.

254. 1. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person; as,--

vōs vidētis, _you see_;

pater fīliōs īnstituit, _the father trains his sons_.

2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender; as,--

sēditiō repressa est, _the mutiny was checked_.

3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as,--

Tarquiniī māterna patria erat, _Tarquinii was his native country on his
mother's side_;

nōn omnis error stultitia est dīcenda, _not every error is to be called
folly_.

a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive; as,--

Coriolī, oppidum Volscōrum, captum est, _Corioli, a town of the Volsci,
was captured_.

4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb agrees with its subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical form. Thus:--

a) In Number; as,--

multitūdō hominum convēnerant, _a crowd of men had gathered_.

b) In Gender; as,--

duo mīlia crucibus adfīxī sunt, _two thousand (men) were crucified_.

With Two or More Subjects.

255. 1. Agreement in Number. With two or more subjects the verb is regularly plural; as,--

pater et fīlius mortuī sunt, _the father and son died_.

2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject; viz.,--

a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them; as,--

mortuus est pater et fīlius;

pater mortuus est et fīlius.

b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut ... aut; vel ... vel;
neque ... neque; as,--

neque pater neque fīlius mortuus est, _neither father nor son died_.

3. When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole, the singular is used; as,--

temeritās ignōrātiōque vitiōsa est, _rashness and ignorance are bad_.

a. This is regularly the case in senātus populusque Rōmānus.

4. Agreement in Person. With compound subjects of different persons the verb always takes the _first_ person rather than the _second_, and the _second_ rather than the _third_; as,--

sī tū et Tullia valētis, ego et Cicerō valēmus, _if you and Tullia are
well, Cicero and I are well_.

5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate adjectives. See § 235, B, 2.

VOICES.

256. 1. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle or reflexive meaning; as,--

ego nōn patiar eum dēfendī, _I shall not allow him to defend himself_.

2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not upon itself, but as doing something _in his own interest_; as,--

vēlātus tempora, _having veiled his temples_.

a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as,--

tunicā indūcitur artūs, _he covers his limbs with a tunic_.

3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive; as,--

curritur, _people run_ (lit. _it is run_);

ventum est, _he_ (_they_, etc.) _came_ (lit. _it was come_).

TENSES.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

257. 1. The Latin tenses express two distinct notions:--

a) The _period of time_ to which the action belongs: Present, Past, or
Future.

b) The _kind of action_: Undefined, Going on, or Completed.

The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as may be seen by the following table:--

KIND OF PERIOD OF TIME.
ACTION.
PRESENT. PAST. FUTURE.
UNDEFINED Present: Historical Future:
scrībō, _I write_. Perfect: scrībam, _I shall
scrīpsī, _I write_.
wrote_.
GOING ON. Present: Imperfect: Future:
scrībō, _I am scrībēbam, _I was scrībam, _I shall
writing_. writing_. be writing_.
COMPLETED. Present Pluperfect: Future Perfect:
Perfect: scrīpseram, _I had scrīpserō, _I
scrīpsī, _I have written_. shall have
written_. written_.

2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action Going on; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a double use, according as it denotes action Completed in present time (Present Perfect) or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect).

Principal and Historical Tenses.

258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal (or Primary) Tenses, those which denote Past time are called Historical (or Secondary).

The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are: Present, Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect.

The Historical Tenses are: Imperfect, Historical Perfect, Pluperfect.

Present Indicative.

259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative presents the following peculiarities:--

1. It is used to denote _a general truth_, i.e. something true not merely in the present but at all times ('Gnomic Present'); as,--

virtūs conciliat amīcitiās et cōnservat, _virtue establishes ties of
friendship and maintains them_ (i.e. always does so).

2. It is used of an attempted action ('Conative Present'); as,--

dum vītant vitia, in contrāria currunt, _while they try to avoid_
(vītant) _vices, they rush into opposite ones_.

3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action ('Historical Present'); as,--

Caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum, _Caesar demanded a large number
of hostages_ (lit. _demands_).

4. In combination with jam, jam diū, jam prīdem, and similar words, the Present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and continuing in the present; as,--

jam prīdem cupiō tē vīsere, _I have long been desiring to visit you_
(i.e. I desire and have long desired).

Imperfect Indicative.

260. 1. The Imperfect primarily denotes action _going on in past time_; as,--

librum legēbam, _I was reading a book_.

a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the
tense of _description_ (as opposed to mere _narration_).

2. From the notion of action _going on_, there easily develops the notion of _repeated_ or _customary_ action; as,--

lēgātōs interrogābat, _he kept asking the envoys_;

C. Duīlium vidēbam puer, _as a boy I often used to see Gaius Duilius_.

3. The Imperfect often denotes an attempted action ('Conative Imperfect') or an action as beginning ('Inceptive Imperfect'); as,--

hostēs nostrōs intrā mūnītiōnēs prōgredī prohibēbant, _the enemy tried
to prevent_ (prohibēbant) _our men from advancing within the
fortifications_ ('Conative');

ad proelium sē expediēbant, _they were beginning to get ready for
battle_ ('Inceptive').

4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diū, jam dūdum, etc., is sometimes used of an action which had been continuing some time; as,--

domicilium Rōmae multōs jam annōs habēbat, _he had had his residence at
Rome for many years_ (i.e. he had it at this time and had long had it).

Future Indicative.

261. 1. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the English. We say: '_If he comes, I shall be glad_,' where we really mean: '_If he shall come_,' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally employs the Future.

2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dīcēs, _say!_

Perfect Indicative.

262. A. PRESENT PERFECT. Several Present Perfects denote the _state resulting from a completed act_, and so seem equivalent to the Present; as,--

nōvī, cognōvī, _I know_ (lit. _I have become acquainted with_);

cōnsuēvī, _I am wont_ (lit. _I have become accustomed_).

B. HISTORICAL PERFECT. The Historical Perfect is the tense of _narration_ (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of _description_); as,--

Rēgulus in senātum vēnit, mandāta exposuit, reddī captivōs negāvit esse
ūtile, _Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it
was useless for captives to be returned_.

1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth ('Gnomic Perfect').

Pluperfect Indicative.

263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act _completed in the past_; as,--

Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat, sed nāvēs deerant, _Caesar had
decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats_.

a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A), the
Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as,--

nōveram, _I knew_.

Future Perfect Indicative.

264. The Future Perfect denotes an action _completed in future time_. Thus:--

scrībam epistulam, cum redieris, _I will write the letter when you have
returned_ (lit. _when you shall have returned_).

a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perfect than the
English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future
Perfect.

b. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A) the Future
Perfect has the force of a Future; as,--

nōverō, _I shall know_.

Epistolary Tenses.

265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect; as,--

nihil habēbam quod scrīberem, neque enim novī quidquam audieram et ad
tuās omnēs epistulās jam rescrīpseram, _I have nothing to write, for I
have heard no news and have already answered all your letters_.

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

266. A. In Independent sentences. See §§ 272-280.

B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called

Sequence of Tenses.

267. 1. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.

2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are followed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus:--

PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE,--

videō quid faciās, _I see what you are doing_.

vidēbō quid faciās, _I shall see what you are doing_.

vīderō quid faciās, _I shall have seen what you are doing_.

videō quid fēcerīs, _I see what you have done_.

vidēbō quid fēcerīs, _I shall see what you have done_.

vīderō quid fēcerīs, _I shall have seen what you have done_.

HISTORICAL SEQUENCE,--

vidēbam quid facerēs, _I saw what you were doing_.

vīdī quid facerēs, _I saw what you were doing_.

vīderam quid facerēs, _I had seen what you were doing_.

vidēbam quid fēcissēs, _I saw what you had done_.

vīdī quid fēcissēs, _I saw what you had done_.

vīderam quid fēcissēs, _I had seen what you had done_.

3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.

Peculiarities of Sequence.

268. 1. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as,--

dēmōnstrāvī quārē ad causam accēderem, _I have shown why I took the
case_ (lit. _I showed why_, etc.).

2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be historical; as,--

videor ostendisse quālēs deī essent, _I seem to have shown of what
nature the gods are_ (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indicative,
ostendī, _I showed_).

3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense, sometimes as historical. Thus:--

Sulla suōs hortātur ut fortī animō sint, _Sulla exhorts his soldiers to
be stout-hearted_;

Gallōs hortātur ut arma caperent, _he exhorted the Gauls to take arms_.

4. Conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not affected by the principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as,--

honestum tāle est ut, vel sī ignōrārent id hominēs, suā tamen
pulchritūdine laudabīle esset, _virtue is such a thing that even if men
were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own
loveliness_.

5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imperfect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as,--

sī sōlōs eōs dīcerēs miserōs, quibus moriendum esset, nēminem tū quidem
eōrum quī vīverent exciperēs, _if you called only those wretched who
must die, you would except no one of those who live_.

6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus:--

rēx tantum mōtus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem jūdicārit, _the king was
so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy_.

This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and subsequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a result simply _as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act_, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus, jūdicārit in the above example corresponds to adjūdicāvit, _he adjudged_. To denote a result as _something continuous_, all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.

7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus:

a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical
tense; as,--

Verrēs Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restituī nōn possit, _Verres so
ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored_ (Direct statement: nōn potest
restitui);

ārdēbat Hortēnsius dīcendī cupiditāte sīc, ut in nūllō flagrantius
studium vīderim, _Hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that I
have seen in no one a greater desire_ (Direct statement: in nūllō vīdī,
_I have seen in no one_).

NOTE.--This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense; there the Perfect was used as an historical tense.

b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Subjunctive used
historically; as,--

nesciō quid causae fuerit cūr nūllās ad mē litterās darēs, _I do not
know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter_.

Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect
Subjunctive.

Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.

269. The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking to the Latin Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows:--

1. a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the
Imperfect after historical tenses.

b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses,
by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.

This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the
presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to
future time. Thus:--

Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperet, _the Gauls promise
they will do what Caesar shall order_;

Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs, quae Caesar imperāret, _the Gauls
promised they would do what Caesar should order_;

Gallī pollicentur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāverit, _the Gauls
promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered_;

Gallī pollicēbantur sē factūrōs quae Caesar imperāvisset, _the Gauls
promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered._

2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus:--

timeō nē veniat, _I am afraid he will come_;

Caesar exspectābat quid cōnsilī hostēs caperent, _Caesar was waiting to
see what plan the enemy would adopt_.

3. Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms in -ūrus sim and -ūrus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after nōn dubitō quīn; as,--

nōn dubitō quīn pater ventūrus sit, _I do not doubt that my father will
come_;

nōn dubitābam quīn pater ventūrus esset, _I did not doubt that my
father would come_.

4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox, brevī, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive; as,--

nōn dubitō quīn tē mox hūjus reī paeniteat, _I do not doubt that you
will soon repent of this thing;_

nōn dubitābam quīn haec rēs brevī cōnficerētur, _I did not doubt that
this thing would soon be fnished._

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

270. 1. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but _with reference to the verb on which they depend._ Thus:--

a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as _contemporaneous with_ the
time of the verb on which it depends; as,--

vidētur honōrēs adsequī, _he seems to be gaining honors_;

vidēbātur honōrēs adsequī, _he seemed to be gaining honors_.

b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as _prior to_ the time of the
verb on which it depends; as,--

vidētur honōrēs adsecūtus esse, _he seems to have gained honors_;

vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtus esse, _he seemed to have gained honors_.

c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as _subsequent to_ that of the
verb on which it depends; as,--

vidētur honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, _he seems to be about to gain
honors_;

vīsus est honōrēs adsecūtūrus esse, _he seemed to be about to gain
honors_.

2. Where the English says '_ought to have done_,' '_might have done_,' etc., the Latin uses dēbuī, oportuit, potuī (dēbēbam, oportēbat, poteram), with the Present Infinitive; as,--

dēbuit dīcere, _he ought to have said_ (lit. _owed it to say_);

opōrtuit venīre, _he ought to have come_;

potuit vidēre, _he might have seen_.

a. Oportuit, volō, nōlō (and in poetry some other verbs), may take a
Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,--

hōc jam prīdem factum esse oportuit, _this ought long ago to have been
done_.

3. PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE. Verbs that have no Participial Stem, express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futūrum esse ut, with the Subjunctive; as,--

spērō fore ut tē paeniteat levitātis, _I hope you will repent of your
fickleness_ (lit. _hope it will happen that you repent_);

spērō futūrum esse ut hostēs arceantur, _I hope that the enemy will be
kept off_.

a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the
Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem; as,--

spērō fore ut hostēs vincantur, _I hope the enemy will be conquered_.

4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infinitive with fore; as,--

spērō epistulam scrīptam fore, _I hope the letter will have been
written_;

dīcō mē satis adeptum fore, _I say that I shall have gained enough_.

THE MOODS.

MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

The Indicative in Independent Sentences.

271. The Indicative is used for the _statement of facts_, _the supposition of facts_, or _inquiry after facts_.

1. Note the following idiomatic uses:--

a) With possum; as,--

possum multa dīcere, _I might say much_;

poteram multa dīcere, _I might have said much_ (§ 270, 2).

b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile
est, ūtilius est, and some others; as,--

longum est ea dīcere, _it would be tedious to tell that_;

difficile est omnia persequī, _it would be difficult to enumerate
everything_.

The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.

272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express something--

1. As willed--Volitive Subjunctive;
2. As desired--Optative Subjunctive;
3. Conceived of as possible--Potential Subjunctive.

VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action _as willed_. It always implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties:--

A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE.

274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses _an exhortation_. This use is confined to the first person plural of the Present. The negative is nē. Thus:--

eāmus, _let us go_;

amēmus patriam, _let us love our country_;

nē dēspērēmus, _let us not despair_.

B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a _command_. The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and is used--

1. Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as,--

dīcat, _let him tell_;

dīcant, _let them tell_;

quārē sēcēdant improbī, _wherefore let the wicked depart!_

2. Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite force; as,--

istō bonō ūtāre, _use that advantage_;

modestē vīvās, _live temperately_.

C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

276. The Subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and plural, with nē, to express _a prohibition_. Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning; as,--

nē repugnētis, _do not resist!_

tū vērō istam nē relīquerīs, _don't leave her!_

impiī nē plācāre audeant deōs, _let not the impious dare to appease the
gods!_

a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.

b. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second person is
by the use of nōlī (nōlīte) with a following infinitive, or by cavē or
cavē nē with the Subjunctive; as,--

nōlī hōc facere, _don't do this_ (lit. _be unwilling to do_)!

nōlīte mentīrī, _do not lie!_

cavē ignōscās, cavē tē misereat, _do not forgive, do not pity!_

cavē nē haec faciās, _do not do this_ (lit. _take care lest you do_)!

D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used _in questions and exclamations implying doubt, indignation, the impossibility of an act, obligation, or propriety_. The Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring to past. The negative is nōn. Thus:--

quid faciam, _what shall I do?_

ego redeam, _I go back!_

huic cēdāmus! hūjus condiciōnēs audiāmus! _are we to bow to him! are we
to listen to his terms!_

quid facerem, _what was I to do?_

hunc ego nōn dīligam, _should I not cherish this man?_

a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in
character, and do not expect an answer.

E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something _as granted or conceded for the sake of argument_. The Present is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past. The negative is nē. Thus:--

sit hōc vērum, _I grant that this is true_ (lit. _let this be true_);

nē sint in senectūte vīrēs, _I grant there is not strength in old age_;

fuerit malus cīvis aliīs; tibi quandō esse coepit, _I grant that he was
a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to be so toward you?_

OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of _wishing_. The negative is regularly nē.

1. The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is conceived of _as possible_.

dī istaec prohibeant, _may the gods prevent that!_

falsus utinam vātēs sim, _oh that I may be a false prophet!_

nē veniant, _may they not come!_

2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the _regret that something is not so now_; the Pluperfect that something _was not so in the past_. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam; as,--

utinam istud ex animō dīcerēs, _would that you were saying that in
earnest_ (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest);

Pēlīdēs utinam vītāsset Apollinis arcūs, _would that Achilles had
escaped the bow of Apollo_;

utinam nē nātus essem, _would that I had not been born_.

POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.

280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses _a possibility_. The negative is nōn. The following uses are to be noted:--

1. The 'May' Potential.--The Potential Subjunctive may designate _a mere possibility_ (English auxiliary _may_). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:--

dīcat aliquis, _some one may say_;

dīxerit aliquis, _some one may say_.

a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a
few phrases like those given as examples.

2. 'Should'-'Would' Potential.--The Potential Subjunctive may represent something as _depending upon a condition expressed or understood_ (English auxiliary _should_, _would_). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:--

fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās, _one would more quickly find
Fortune than keep it_ (i.e. if one should make the trial);

crēdiderim, _I should believe_.

a. Here belongs the use of velim, mālim, nōlim, as softened forms of
statement for volō, mālō, nōlō. Thus:--

velim mihi ignōscās, _I wish you would forgive me_;

nōlim putēs mē jocārī, _I don't want you to think I'm joking_.

b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of
Conditional Sentences (see § 303); as,--

diēs dēficiat, sī cōner ēnumerāre causās, _time would fail if I should
attempt to enumerate the reasons._

3. 'Can'-'Could' Potential.--In the Present and Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singular (with _indefinite_ force; § 356, 3) of a few verbs of _perceiving_, _seeing_, _thinking_, and the like; as,--

videās, cernās, _one can see_, _one can perceive_;

crēderēs, _one could believe_;

vidērēs, cernerēs, _one could see_, _perceive_;

putārēs, _one could imagine_.

4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) are also Potential in character. By omission of the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone, particularly vellem, nōllem, māllem; as,--

vellem id quidem, _I should wish that_ (i.e. were I bold enough).

The Imperative.

281. The Imperative is used in _commands_, _admonitions_ and _entreaties_ (negative nē), as,--

ēgredere ex urbe, _depart from the city_;

mihi ignōsce, _pardon me_;

valē, _farewell_.

1. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the Future is employed--

a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the
apodosis of conditional sentences; as,--

rem vōbīs prōpōnam; vōs eam penditōte, _I will lay the matter before
you; do you (then) consider it_;

sī bene disputābit, tribuitō litterīs Graecis, _if he shall speak well,
attribute it to Greek literature._

b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc.; as,--

cōnsulēs summum jūs habentō, _the consuls shall have supreme power_;

hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō, _no one shall bury a dead body in
the city_;

amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs legibus et condiciōnibus
estō, _let there be friendship between Antiochus and the Roman people
on the following terms and conditions_;

quārtae estō partis Mārcus hērēs, _let Marcus be heir to a fourth (of
the property_);

ignōscitō saepe alterī, numquam tibi, _forgive your neighbor often,
yourself never_.

2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See § 276, b.

3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quīn (_why not?_) are often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,--

quīn abīs, _go away!_ (lit. _why don't you go away?_);

quīn vōcem continētis, _keep still!_ (lit. _why don't you stop your
voices?_);

quīn equōs cōnscendimus, _let us mount our horses_ (lit. _why do we not
mount our horses?_)

MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.

Clauses of Purpose.

282. 1. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (utī), quō (_that_, _in order that_), nē (_in order that not, lest_), and stand in the Subjunctive, as,--

edimus ut vīvāmus, _we eat that we may live;_

adjūtā mē quō hōc fīat facilius, _help me, in order that this may be
done more easily;_

portās clausit, nē quam oppidānī injūriam acciperent, _he closed the
gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury._

a. Quō, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a
comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur; as,--

haec faciunt quō Chremētem absterreant, _they are doing this in order
to frighten Chremes._

b. Ut nē is sometimes found instead of nē. Thus:--

ut nē quid neglegenter agāmus, _in order that we may not do anything
carelessly_.

c. Ut nōn (not nē) is used where the negation belongs to some single
word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole. Thus:--

ut nōn ējectus ad aliēnōs, sed invītātus ad tuōs videāre, _that you may
seem not driven out among strangers, but invited to your own friends._

d. To say '_and that not_' or '_or that not_,' the Latin regularly uses
nēve (neu); as,--

ut eārum rērum vīs minuerētur, neu pontī nocērent, _that the violence
of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the
bridge_;

profūgit, nē caperētur nēve interficerētur, _he fled, that he might not
be captured or killed._

e. But neque (for nēve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose Clause when
ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first
clause is introduced by nē.

f. Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun or
pronoun: as,--

hāc causā, ut pācem habērent, _on this account, that they might have
peace._

2. A Relative Pronoun (quī) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quō) is frequently used to introduce a Purpose Clause; as,--

Helvētiī lēgātōs mittunt, quī dīcerent, _the Helvetii sent envoys to
say_ (lit. _who should say_);

haec habuī, dē senectūte quae dīcerem, _I had these things to say about
old age_;

nōn habēbant quō sē reciperent, _they had no place to which to flee_
(lit. _whither they might flee_).

a. Quī in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc.; ubi to ut
ibi; unde to ut inde; quō to ut eō.

3. Relative Clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and idōneus; as,--

idōneus fuit nēmō quem imitārēre, _there was no one suitable for you to
imitate_ (_cf_. nēmō fuit quem imitārēre, _there was no one for you to
imitate_);

dignus est quī aliquandō imperet, _he is worthy to rule sometime_.

4. Purpose Clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences; as,--

ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, _to pass over all this,_ (_I will say
that_) _we departed_.

Clauses of Characteristic.

283. 1. A relative clause used _to express a quality or characteristic of a general or indefinite antecedent_ is called a Clause of Characteristic, and usually stands in the Subjunctive; as,--

multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, _there are many things which sharpen
the wits._

Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent, and which therefore take the Indicative; as,--

Catō, senex jūcundus, quī Sapiēns appellātus est, _Cato, a delightful
old man, who was called 'The Wise.'_

The Clause of Characteristic implies '_a person of the sort that does something_'; the Indicative relative clause implies '_a particular person who does something_.'

2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as, est quī; sunt quī; nēmō est quī; nūllus est quī; ūnus est quī; sōlus est quī; quis est quī; is quī; etc. Thus:--

sunt quī dīcant, _there are (some) who say_;

nēmō est quī nesciat, _there is nobody who is ignorant_;

sapientia est ūna quae maestitiam pellat, _philosophy is the only thing
that drives away sorrow_;

quae cīvitās est quae nōn ēvertī possit, _what state is there that
cannot be overthrown?_

nōn is sum quī improbōs laudem, _I am not the sort of man that praises
the wicked._

a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of
characteristic is used after comparatives; as,--

nōn longius hostēs aberant quam quō tēlum adigī posset, _the enemy were
not too far off for a dart to reach them_ (lit. _further off than [a
point] to which a dart could be cast_).

3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause (_since_) or opposition (_although_). Thus:--

a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quīppe,
utpote; as,--

ō fortūnāte adulēscēns, quī tuae virtūtis Homērum praecōnem invēnerīs,
_O fortunate man, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your
valor_;

ut quī optimō jūre eam prōvinciam obtinuerit, _since he held that
province by excellent right_.

b) Opposition:--

egomet quī sērō Graecās litterās attigissem, tamen complūrēs diēs
Athēnīs commorātus sum, _I, although I had taken up Greek literature
late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens_.

4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quīn = quī (quae, quod) nōn; as,--

nēmō est quīn saepe audierit, _there is no one who has not often
heard_;

nēmō fuit mīlitum quīn vulnerārētur, _there was no one of the soldiers
who was not wounded_.

5. Related to Clauses of Characteristic are also phrases of the type:

quod sciam, _so far as I know_; quem (quam, quod), audierim, _so far as
I have heard_.

Clauses of Result.

284. 1. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut (_that_, _so that_), negative ut nōn (_so that not_), and take the Subjunctive. The main clause often contains tantus, tālis, tot, is (= tālis), tam, ita, sīc, adeō, or some similar word. Thus:--

quis tam dēmēns est ut suā voluntāte maereat, _who is so senseless as
to mourn of his own volition?_

Siciliam ita vāstāvit ut restituī in antīquum statum nōn possit, _he so
ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition_;

mōns altissimus impendēbat, ut facile perpaucī prohibēre possent, _a
very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop
them_;

nōn is es ut tē pudor umquam ā turpitūdine āvocārit, _you are not so
constituted that shame ever called you back from baseness_.

2. A Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, quī (= ut is), quō (= ut eō), etc.; as,--

nēmō est tam senex quī sē annum nōn putet posse vīvere, _nobody is so
old as not to think he can live a year_;

habētis eum cōnsulem quī pārēre vestrīs dēcrētīs nōn dubitet, _you have
a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees_.

a. These Relative Clauses of Result are closely related to the Clause
of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two
constructions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of
Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable.

3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quīn = ut nōn; as,--

nihil tam difficile est quīn quaerendō invēstīgārī possit, _nothing is
so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching_;

nēmō est tam fortis quīn reī novitāte perturbētur, _no one is so
steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence_.

4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result after comparatives; as,--

urbs erat mūnītior quam ut prīmō impetū capī posset, _the city was too
strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack_ (lit. _more
strongly fortified than [so] that it could be taken, etc._).

Causal Clauses.

285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the following particles:--

1. Quod, quia, quoniam.
2. Cum.
3. Quandō.

286. The use of moods is as follows:--

1. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is _that of the writer or speaker;_ they take the Subjunctive when the reason is viewed _as that of another._ Thus:--

Parthōs timeō quod diffīdō cōpiīs nostrīs, _I fear the Parthians,
because I distrust our troops_.

Themistoclēs, quia nōn tūtus erat, Corcyram dēmigrāvit, _Themistocles,
since he was not safe, moved to Corcyra_.

neque mē vīxisse paenitet, quoniam bene vīxī, _I do not regret having
lived, since I have lived well_.

Sōcratēs accūsātus est quod corrumperet juventūtem, _Socrates was
arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young_. (Here the
reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser. Hence the
Subjunctive.)

Haeduī Caesarī grātiās ēgērunt quod sē perīculō līberāvisset, _the
Haedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger_. (The
reason of the Haedui.)

quoniam Miltiadēs dīcere nōn posset, verba prō eō fēcit Tīsagorās,
_since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him_. (The reason
of Tisagoras.)

noctū ambulābat Themistoclēs, quod somnum capere nōn posset,
_Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he couldn't
sleep_.

a. Verbs of _thinking_ and _saying_ often stand in the Subjunctive in
causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying, and not the
contents of the thought or language, constituted the reason. Thus:--

Bellovacī suum numerum nōn complēvērunt quod sē suō nōmine cum Rōmānīs
bellum gestūrōs dīcerent, _the Bellovaci did not furnish their
complement, because they said they were going to wage war with the
Romans on their own account_.

b. Nōn quod, nōn quō (by attraction for nōn eō quod), nōn quia, _not
that_, _not because_; and nōn quod nōn, nōn quō nōn, nōn quīn, _not that
... not_; _not because ... not_; _not but that_, are usually employed
merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the
Subjunctive; as,--

id fēcī, nōn quod vōs hanc dēfēnsiōnem dēsīderāre arbitrārer, sed ut
omnēs intellegerent, _this I did, not because I thought you needed this
defense, but that all might perceive_;

Crassō commendātiōnem nōn sum pollicitus, nōn quīn eam valitūram apud
tē arbitrārer, sed egēre mihi commendātiōne nōn vidēbātur, _I did not
promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it would
have weight with you, but because he did not seem to me to need
recommendation_.

c. But clauses introduced by nōn quod, nōn quīa take the Indicative _if
they state a fact_, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for
something; as,--

hōc ita sentiō, nōn quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sīc exīstimāre nōs
est necesse, _this I think, not because I am myself an augur (which I
really am), but because it is necessary for us to think so_.

2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,--

quae cum īta sint, _since this is so_;

cum sīs mortālis, quae mortālia sunt, cūrā, _since you are mortal, care
for what is mortal_.

a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), _especially since;_
as,--

Haeduōs accūsat, praesertim cum eōrum precibus adductus bellum
suscēperit, _he blamed the Haedui, especially since he had undertaken
the war at their entreaties_.

3. Quandō (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the Indicative; as,--

id omittō, quandō vōbīs ita placet, _I pass over that, since you so
wish_.

Temporal Clauses introduced by _Postquam_, _Ut_, _Ubi_, _Simul ac_, etc.

287. 1. Postquam (posteāquam), _after_; ut, ubi, _when_; cum prīmum, simul, simul ac (simul atque), _as soon as_, when used to refer _to a single past act_ regularly take the Perfect Indicative; as,--

Epamīnōndās postquam audīvit vīcisse Boeōtiōs, 'Satis' inquit 'vīxī,'
_Epaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians had conquered, said, 'I
have lived enough;'_

id ut audīvit, Corcyram dēmigrāvit, _when he heard this, he moved to
Corcyra_;

Caesar cum prīmum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, _Caesar, as soon as
he could, hurried to the army_;

ubi dē Caesaris adventū certiōrēs factī sunt, lēgātōs ad eum mittunt,
_when they were informed of Caesar's arrival, they sent envoys to him_.

a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this
construction.

2. To denote _the repeated occurrence_ of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, _as often as_, when following an historical tense, take the Pluperfect Indicative (compare §§ 288, 3; 302, 3); as,--

ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumiās statim coniciēbātur,
_whenever anybody had offended Verres's feelings, he was forthwith put
in the stone-quarry_;

hostēs, ubi aliquōs ēgredientēs cōnspexerant, adoriēbantur, _whenever
the enemy had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them_.

a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act
('Indefinite Frequency'); as,--

id ubi dīxisset hastam mittēbat, _whenever he had said that, he hurled
a spear_.

3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluperfect Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years, etc.), such as post tertium annum quam, trienniō postquam. Thus:--

quīnque post diēbus quam Lūcā discesserat, ad Sardiniam vēnit _five
days after he had departed from Luca he came to Sardinia_;

postquam occupātae Syrācūsae erant, profectus est Carthāginem, _after
Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage_.

4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs, to denote _a continued state;_ as,--

postquam Rōmam adventābant, senātus cōnsultus est, _after they were on
the march toward Rome, the Senate was consulted_;

postquam strūctī utrimque stābant, _after they had been drawn up on
both sides and were in position_.

5. Rarely postquam, posteāquam, following the analogy of cum, take the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as,--

posteāquam sūmptuōsa fieri fūnera coepissent, lēge sublāta sunt, _after
funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law_.

Temporal Clauses introduced by _Cum_.

A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.

288. 1. Cum, when referring to the past, takes,--

A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote _the point of time at which_ something occurs.

B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote _the situation or circumstances under which_ something occurs.

Examples:--

INDICATIVE.

an tum erās cōnsul, cum in Palātiō mea domus ārdēbat, _or were you
consul at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine?_

crēdō tum cum Sicilia flōrēbat opibus et cōpiīs magna artificia fuisse
in eā īnsulā, _I believe that at the time when Sicily was powerful in
riches and resources there were great crafts in that island_;

eō tempore pāruit cum pārēre necesse erat, _he obeyed at the time when
it was necessary to obey_;

illō diē, cum est lāta lēx dē mē, _on that day when the law concerning
me was passed_.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Lysander cum vellet Lycūrgī lēgēs commūtāre, prohibitus est, _when
Lysander desired to change the laws of Lycurgus, he was prevented_;

Pythagorās cum in geōmetriā quiddam novī invēnisset, Mūsīs bovem
immolāsse dīcitur, _when Pythagoras had discovered something new in
geometry, he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the Muses_.

a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than
the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main
clause has tum, eō diē, eō annō, eō tempore or some similar correlative
of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the
writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.

2. Cum Inversum. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of _when_, _when suddenly_. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix, aegrē, nōndum; as,--

jam Gallī ex oppidō fugere apparābant, cum mātrēs familiae repente
prōcurrērunt, _the Gauls were already preparing to flee, when suddenly
the matrons rushed forth_ (logically, _the matrons rushed forth as the
Gauls were preparing to flee_);

Trēvirī Labiēnum adorīrī parābant, cum duās legiōnēs vēnisse
cognōscunt, _the Treviri were preparing to attack, when (suddenly) they
learned that two legions had arrived_.

3. To denote a _recurring action_ in the past, cum is followed by the Indicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare §§ 287, 2; 302, 3); as,--

cum ād aliquod oppidum vēnerat, eādem lectīcā ad cubiculum dēferēbātur,
_whenever he had arrived at some town, he was (always) carried in the
same litter to his room_;

cum equitātus noster sē in agrōs ējēcerat, essedāriōs ex silvīs
ēmittēbat, _whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would
send his charioteers out from the woods_.

a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used; as,--

saepe cum aliquem vidēret minus bene vestītum, suum amiculum dedit,
_often, wherever he saw some one more poorly clothed, he gave him his
own mantle_;

cum prōcucurrissent, Numidae effugiēbant, _as often as they had
advanced, the Numidians ran away_.

This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.

B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.

289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regularly takes the Indicative; as,--

tum tua rēs agitur, pariēs cum proximus ārdet, _your own interests are
at stake when your neighbor's house is burning_;

cum vidēbis, tum sciēs, _when you see, then you will know._

a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a _recurring
action;_ as,--

stabilitās amīcitiae cōnfirmārī potest, cum hominēs cupīdinibus
imperābunt, _firm friendship can be established whenever men shall
control their desires._

C. OTHER USES OF Cum.

290. 1. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is sometimes used to indicate the identity of one act with another; as,--

cum tacent clāmant, _their silence is a shout_ (lit. _when they are
silent, they shout_).

2. Cum ... tum. When cum ... tum mean _both ... and_, the cum-clause is in the Indicative; but when cum has the force of _while_, _though_, it may take the Subjunctive; as,--

cum tē semper dīlēxerim, tum tuīs factīs incēnsus sum, _while I have
always loved you, at the same time I am stirred by your conduct_.

Clauses introduced by _Antequam_ and _Priusquam_.

A. WITH THE INDICATIVE.

291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante ... quam, prius ... quam) take the Indicative to denote _an actual fact_.

1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect; as,--

prius respondēs quam rogō, _you answer before I ask_;

nihil contrā disputābō priusquam dīxerit, _I will say nothing in
opposition, before he speaks_.

2. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses; as,--

nōn prius jugulandī fīnis fuit, quam Sulla omnēs suōs dīvitiīs
explēvit, _there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied all his
henchmen with wealth_.

B. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as _anticipated_.

1. Thus the Subjunctive may denote--

a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place; as,--

priusquam dīmicārent, foedus īctum est, _i.e. in anticipation of the
fight, a treaty was struck._

By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of
_general truths_, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as,--

tempestās minātur antequam surgat, _the tempest threatens before it
rises_.

b) An act anticipated and forestalled; as,--

priusquam tēlum adicī posset, omnis aciēs terga vertit, _before a spear
could be hurled, the whole army fled._

c) An act anticipated and deprecated; as,--

animum omittunt priusquam locō dēmigrent, _they die rather than quit
their post._

2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, especially by some writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished; as,--

sōl antequam sē abderet fugientem vīdit Antōnium, _the sun before it
set saw Antony fleeing._

Clauses introduced by _Dum_, _Dōnec_, _Quoad_.

293. 1. Dum, _while_, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical Present; as,--

Alexander, dum inter prīmōrēs pugnat, sagittā ictus est, _Alexander,
while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow_;

dum haec geruntur, in fīnēs Venellōrum pervēnit, _while these things
were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli_.

II. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, _as long as_, take the Indicative; as,--

dum anima est, spēs est, _as long as there is life, there is hope_;

Lacedaemoniōrum gēns fortis fuit, dum Lycūrgī lēgēs vigēbant, _the race
of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws of Lycurgus
were in force_;

Catō, quoad vīxit, virtūtum laude crēvit, _Cato, at long as he lived,
increased in the fame of his virtues_.

III. Dum, dōnec, and quoad, _until_, take:--

1. The Indicative, to denote _an actual event_; as,--

dōnec rediit, fuit silentium, _there was silence till he came_;

ferrum in corpore retinuit, quoad renūntiātum est Boeōtiōs vīcisse, _he
kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the Boeotians had
conquered_.

a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and dōnec in this sense often
take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as,--

trepidātiōnis aliquantum ēdēbant dōnec timor quiētem fēcisset, _they
showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet_.

2. The Subjunctive, to denote _anticipation_ or _expectancy_; as,--

exspectāvit Caesar dum nāvēs convenīrent, _Caesar waited for the ships
to assemble_;

dum litterae veniant, morābor, _I shall wait for the letter to come_.

Substantive Clauses.

294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or Object of a verb, or stands in some other case relation.

A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.

295. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive are used with the following classes of verbs:--

1. With verbs signifying _to admonish_, _request_, _command_, _urge_, _persuade_, _induce_,[51] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as,--

postulō ut fīat, _I demand that it be done_ (dependent form of the
Jussive fīat, _let it be done!_);

ōrat, nē abeās, _he begs that you will not go away_;

mīlitēs cohortātus est ut hostium impetum sustinērent, _he exhorted his
soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy_;

Helvētiīs persuāsit ut exīrent, _he persuaded the Helvetii to march
forth_.

a. Jubeō, _command_, _order_, regularly takes the Infinitive.

2. With verbs signifying _to grant_, _concede_, _permit_, _allow_,[52] etc. (conjunction ut); as,--

huic concēdō ut ea praetereat, _I allow him to pass that by_ (dependent
form of the Jussive ea praetereat, _let him pass that by!_);

cōnsulī permissum est ut duās legiōnēs scrīberet, _the consul was
permitted to enroll two legions_.

3. With verbs of _hindering_, _preventing_,[53] etc. (conjunctions nē, quōminus, quīn); as,--

nē lūstrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, _death prevented him from
finishing the lustrum_ (dependent form after past tense of nē lūstrum
perficiat, _let him not finish_, etc.);

prohibuit quōminus in ūnum coīrent, _he prevented them from coming
together_;

nec quīn ērumperet, prohibērī poterat, _nor could he be prevented from
rushing forth_.

a. Quīn is used only when the verb of _hindering_ is accompanied by a
negative, or stands in a question implying a negative; it is not
_necessarily_ used even then.

4. With verbs of _deciding_, _resolving_,[54] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as,--

cōnstitueram ut prīdiē Īdūs Aquīnī manērem, _I had decided to remain at
Aquinum on the 12th_;

dēcrēvit senātus ut Opīmius vidēret, _the Senate decreed that Opimius
should see to it_;

convēnit ut ūnīs castrīs miscērentur, _it was agreed that they should
be united in one camp_.

5. With verbs of _striving_,[55] etc. (conjunctions ut, nē, or ut nē); as,--

fac ut eum exōrēs, _see to it that you prevail upon him!_

cūrā ut vir sīs, _see to it that you are a man!_

labōrābat ut reliquās cīvitātēs adjungeret, _he was striving to join
the remaining states to him_.

a. Cōnor, _try_, always takes the Infinitive.

NOTE.--Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially in poetry.

6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquus est, sequitur, licet, oportet; as,--

sequitur ut doceam, _it remains for me to show_;

licet redeās, _you may return_;

oportet loquāmur, _we must speak_.

On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8.

7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nūlla causa est cūr, quīn; nōn est cūr, etc.; nihil est cūr, etc.; as,--

nūlla causa est cūr timeam, _there is no reason why I should fear_
(originally Deliberative: _why should I fear? There's no reason_);

nihil est quīn dīcam, _there is no reason why I should not say_.

8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Subjunctive without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause arose. This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet; see 6. Other examples are:--

eōs moneō dēsinant, _I warn them to stop_;

huic imperat adeat cīvitātēs, _he orders him to visit the states_.

B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.

296. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative occur:--

1. With verbs of _wishing_, _desiring_, especially cupiō, optō, volō, mālō (conjunctions ut, nē, ut nē); as,--

optō ut in hōc jūdiciō nēmō improbus reperiātur, _I hope that in this
court no bad man may be found_ (here ut reperiātur represents a simple
optative of direct statement, viz. reperiātur, _may no bad man be
found_!);

cupiō nē veniat, _I desire that he may not come_.

a. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of
this class. (See § 295, 8.) Examples are: velim scrībās, _I wish you
would write_; vellem scrīpsisset, _I wish he had written_.

2. With expressions of _fearing_ (timeō, metuō, vereor, etc.). Here nē means _that_, _lest_, and ut means _that not_; as,--

timeō nē veniat, _I fear that he will come_ (originally: _may he not
come! I'm afraid_ [_he will_]);

timeō ut veniat, _I fear that he will not come_ (originally: _may he
come! I'm afraid_ [_he won't_]).

a. Nē nōn sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of
_fearing_ has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some
particular word in the dependent clause; as,--

nōn vereor ne hōc nōn fīat, _I am not afraid that this will not
happen;_

vereor nē exercitum fīrmum habēre nōn possit, _I fear that he is
unable_ (nōn possit) _to have a strong army._

C. Substantive Clauses of Result.

297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut nōn) are a development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of words:--

1. As object clauses after verbs of _doing_, _accomplishing_ (especially faciō, efficiō, cōnficiō). Thus:--

gravitās morbī facit ut medicīnā egeāmus, _the severity of disease
makes us need medicine._

2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efficitur, accidit, ēvenit, contingit, accēdit, fierī potest, fore, sequitur, relinquitur. Thus:--

ex quō efficitur, ut voluptās nōn sit summum bonum, _from which it
follows that pleasure is not the greatest good_;

ita fit, ut nēmō esse possit beātus, _thus it happens that no one can
be happy_;

accēdēbat ut nāvēs deessent, _another thing was the lack of ships_
(lit. _it was added that ships were lacking_).

3. As predicate or appositive after expressions like jūs est, mōs est, cōnsuētūdō est; also after neuter pronouns, hōc, illud, etc. Thus:--

est mōs hominum ut nōlint eundem plūribus rēbus excellere, _it is the
way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things._

D. Substantive Clauses introduced by _Quīn_.

298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quīn (used sometimes as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of _doubt_, _omission,_ and the like, particularly after nōn dubitō, _I do not doubt_; quis dubitat, _who doubts?_; nōn (haud) dubium est, _there is no doubt_. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples:--

quis dubitat quīn in virtūte dīvitiae sint, _who doubts that in virtue
there are riches?_

nōn dubium erat quīn ventūrus esset, _there was no doubt that he was
about to come._

a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes
takes the place of the quīn-clause after nōn dubitō; as,--

nōn dubitāmus inventōs esse, _we do not doubt that men were found_

b. Nōn dubitō, _I do not hesitate_, is regularly followed by the
Infinitive, though sometimes by a quīn-clause.

E. Substantive Clauses Introduced by _Quod_.

299. 1. Quod, _the fact that_, _that_, introduces Substantive Clauses in the Indicative. This construction occurs especially--

a) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hōc, id, illud, illa,
ex eō, inde, etc. Thus:--