Chapter V: Syntax of Verbs (2)

illud est admīrātiōne dignum, quod captīvōs retinendōs cēnsuit, _this
is especially worthy of admiration, that he thought the prisoners ought
to be kept_;

hōc ūnō praestāmus vel maximē ferīs, quod colloquimur inter nōs, _in
this one respect we are especially superior to the beasts, that we talk
with each other_.

b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, mīror, etc.;
as,--

bene mihi ēvenit, quod mittor ad mortem, _it is well for me that I am
sent to death_;

bene fēcistī quod mānsistī, _you did well in remaining._

2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of _as regards the fact that_. Thus:--

quod multitūdinem Germānōrum in Galliam trādūcō, id meī mūniendī causā
faciō, _as regards the fact that I am transporting a multitude of
Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself;_

quod mē Agamemnona aemulārī putās, falleris, _as regards your thinking
that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken_.

F. Indirect Questions.

300. 1. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of _asking_, _inquiring_, _telling_, and the like. They take their verb in the Subjunctive[56]. Like Direct Questions (see § 162) they may be introduced--

a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs; as,--

dīc mihi ubi fuerīs, quid fēcerīs, _tell me where you were, what you
did_;

oculīs jūdicārī nōn potest in utram partem fluat Arar, _it cannot be
determined by the eye in which direction the Arar flows_;

bis bīna quot essent, nesciēbat, _he did not know how many two times
two were_.

NOTE.--Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in the following:--

effugere nēmō id potest quod futūrum est, _no one can escape what is
destined to come to pass;_ but saepe autem ne ūtile quidem est scīre
quid futūrum sit, _but often it is not even useful to know what is
coming to pass._

b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning; as,--

Epamīnōndās quaesīvit num salvus esset clipeus, or salvusne esset
clipeus, _Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe_;

disputātur num interīre virtūs in homine possit, _the question is
raised whether virtue can die in a man_;

ex Sōcrate quaesītum est nōnne Archelāum beātum putāret, _the question
was asked of Socrates whether he did not think Archelaus happy_.

NOTE.--Nōnne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaerō, as in the last example above.

2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the direct discourse; as,--

nesciō quid faciam, _I do not know what to do._ (Direct: quid faciam,
_what shall I do!_)

3. After verbs of _expectation_ and _endeavor_ (exspectō, cōnor, experior, temptō) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by sī; as,--

cōnantur sī perrumpere possint, _they try whether they can break
through._

a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted; as,--

pergit ad proximam spēluncam sī forte eō vēstīgia ferrent, _he
proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the tracks led thither._

4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same particles as direct double questions (§ 162, 4); viz.;--

utrum ... an;
-ne ... an;
---- ... an;
---- ... ne.

Examples:--

quaerō utrum vērum an falsum sit, }
quaerō vērumne an falsum sit, } _I ask whether it_
quaerō vērum an falsum sit, } _is true or false?_
quaerō vērum falsumne sit, }

a. _'Or not'_ in the second member of the double question is ordinarily
expressed by necne, less frequently by an nōn; as,--

dī utrum sint necne, quaeritur, _it is asked whether there are gods or
not._

5. Haud sciō an, nesciō an, by omission of the first member of the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense: _I am inclined to think, probably, perhaps;_ as,--

haud sciō an ita sit, _I am inclined to think this is so._

6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in indirect Questions.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (§ 164) consisting of two parts, the Protasis (or _condition_), usually introduced by sī, nisi, or sīn, and the Apodosis (or _conclusion_). There are the following types of Conditional Sentences:--

First Type.--Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the Supposed Case.

302. 1. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both Protasis and Apodosis. Any tense may be used; as,--

sī hōc crēdis, errās, _if you believe this, you are mistaken_;

nātūram sī sequēmur, numquam aberrābimus, _if we follow Nature, we
shall never go astray_;

sī hōc dīxistī, errāstī, _if you said this, you were in error_.

2. Sometimes the Protasis takes the Indefinite Second Person Singular (§ 356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of the Indicative; as,--

memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceās, _memory is impaired unless you
exercise it_.

3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Protasis denotes a repeated action (compare §§ 287, 2; 288, 3); as,--

sī quis equitum dēciderat, peditēs circumsistēbant, _if any one of the
horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him_.

a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the
Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated
action; as,--

sī dīcendō quis diem eximeret, _if (ever) anybody consumed a day in
pleading_; sī quandō adsidēret, _if ever he sat by_.

4. Where the sense demands it, the Apodosis in conditional sentences of the First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Independent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.); as,--

sī hōc crēditis, tacēte, _if you believe this, be silent_;

sī hōc crēdimus, taceāmus, _if we believe this, let us keep silent_.

Second Type.--'Should'-'Would' Conditions.

303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Present or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis; as,--

sī hōc dīcās, errēs, or sī hōc dīxerīs, errāverīs, _if you should say
this, you would be mistaken_;

sī velim Hannibalis proelia omnia dēscrībere, diēs mē dēficiat, _if I
should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, time would fail
me_;

mentiar, sī negem, _I should lie, if I should deny it_;

haec sī tēcum patria loquātur, nōnne impetrāre dēbeat, _if your country
should plead thus with you, would she not deserve to obtain her
request?_

a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type
is of the Potential variety.

b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the
Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the accomplishment of a
result more positively; as,--

aliter sī faciat, nūllam habet auctōritātem, _if he should do
otherwise, he has no authority_.

Third Type.--Supposed Case Represented as Contrary to Fact.

304. 1. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring _to present time_, and the Pluperfect referring _to past_; as,--

sī amīcī meī adessent, opis nōn indigērem, _if my friends were here, I
should not lack assistance_;

sī hōc dīxissēs, errāssēs, _if you had said this, you would have
erred_;

sapientia nōn expeterētur, sī nihil efficeret, _philosophy would not be
desired, if it accomplished nothing_;

cōnsilium, ratiō, sententia nisi essent in senibus, nōn summum
cōnsilium majōrēs nostrī appellāssent senātum, _unless deliberation,
reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ancestors would not have
called their highest deliberative body a senate_.

2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the past, especially to denote _a continued act, or a state of things still existing_; as,--

Laelius, Fūrius, Catō sī nihil litterīs adjuvārentur, numquam sē ad
eārum studium contulissent, _Laelius, Furius, and Cato would never have
devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been
(constantly) helped by them_;

num igitur sī ad centēsimum annum vīxisset, senectūtis eum suae
paenitēret, _if he had lived to his hundredth year, would he have
regretted (and now be regretting) his old age?_

3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz.--

a) Frequently in expressions of _ability_, _obligation_, or _necessity_;
as,--

nisi fēlīcitās in sōcordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuērunt, _unless
their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the
yoke_;

NOTE.--In sentences of this type, however, it is not the _possibility_ that is represented as-contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought from the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is _et exuissent_ understood (_and they would have shaken it off_). When the _possibility_ itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive is used.

eum patris locō colere dēbēbās, sī ūlla in tē pietās esset, _you ought
to revere him as a father, if you had any sense of devotion_.

b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations; as,--

sī Sēstius occīsus esset, fuistisne ad arma itūrī, _if Sestius had been
slain, would you have proceeded to arms?_

sī ūnum diem morātī essētis, moriendum omnibus fuit, _if you had
delayed one day, you would all have had to die_.

Protasis expressed without _Sī_.

305. 1. The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with sī, but may be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context; as,--

aliōquī haec nōn scrīberentur, _otherwise_ (i.e. if matters were
otherwise) _these things would not be written_;

nōn potestis, voluptāte omnia dīrigentēs, retinēre virtūtem, _you
cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to
pleasure_.

2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive, serves as Protasis. Thus:--

crās petitō, dabitur, _if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you_
(lit. _ask to-morrow_, etc.);

haec reputent, vidēbunt, _if they consider this, they will see_ (lit.
_let them consider_, etc.);

rogēs Zēnōnem, respondeat, _if you should ask Zeno, he would answer_.

Use of _Nisi_, _Sī Nōn_, _Sīn_.

306. 1. Nisi, _unless_, negatives the entire protasis; sī nōn negatives a single word; as,--

ferreus essem, nisi tē amārem, _I should be hard-hearted unless I loved
you_; but--

ferreus essem, sī tē nōn amārem, _I should be hard-hearted if I did
_NOT_ love you_.

In the first example, it is the notion of _loving you_ that is negatived, in the second, the notion of _loving_.

2. Sī nōn (sī minus) is regularly employed:--

a) When an apodosis with at, tamen, certē follows; as,--

dolōrem sī nōn potuerō frangere, tamen occultābō, _if I cannot crush my
sorrow, yet I will hide it._

b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form; as,--

sī fēceris, magnam habēbō grātiam; sī nōn fēceris, ignōscam, _if you do
it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you do not do it, I shall pardon
you_.

a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus or sin
minus is admissible; as,--

hōc sī assecūtus sum, gaudeō; sī minus, mē cōnsōlor, _if I have
attained this, I am glad; if not, I console myself_.

3. Sīn. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sīn; as,--

hunc mihi timōrem ēripe; sī vērus est, nē opprimar, sīn falsus, ut
timēre dēsinam, _relieve me of this fear; if it is well founded, that I
may not be destroyed; but if it is groundless, that I may cease to
fear_.

4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (nōn, nēmō, nihil); as,--

nihil cōgitāvit nisi caedem, _he had no thought but murder_.

a. Nōn and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.

5. Nisi forte, nisi vērō, nisi sī, _unless perchance, unless indeed_ (often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as,--

nisi vērō, quia perfecta rēs nōn est, nōn vidētur pūnienda, _unless
indeed, because an act is not consummated, it does not seem to merit
punishment_.

Conditional Clauses of Comparison.

307. 1. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are introduced by the particles, ac sī, ut sī, quasi, quam sī, tamquam sī, velut sī, or simply by velut or tamquam. They stand in the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis (see § 374, 1), as indicated in the following examples:--

tantus patrēs metus cēpit, velut sī jam ad portās hostis esset, _as
great fear seized the senators as (would have seized them) if the enemy
were already at the gates_;

sed quid ego hīs testibus ūtor quasi rēs dubia aut obscūra sit, _but
why do I use these witnesses, as (I should do) if the matter were
doubtful or obscure_;

serviam tibi tam quasi ēmerīs mē argentō, _I will serve you as though
you had bought me for money_.

2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regular principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third examples), where the English uses the Past and Past Perfect.

Concessive Clauses.

308. The term 'Concessive' is best restricted to those clauses developed from the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force of _granted that_, etc.; (see § 278) as,--

sit fūr, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperātor, _granted that he is a
thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander_;

haec sint falsa, _granted that this is false_;

nē sit summum malum dolor, malum certē est, _granted that pain is not
the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil_.

Adversative Clauses with _Quamvīs_, _Quamquam_, etc.

309. Clauses introduced by quamvīs, quamquam, etsī, tametsī, cum, _although_, while often classed as 'Concessive,' are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive clauses. As a rule, they do not _grant_ or _concede_ anything, but rather state that something is true _in spite of something else_. They accordingly emphasize the adversative idea, and are properly Subordinate Adversative Clauses. The different particles used to introduce these clauses have different meanings and take different constructions, as follows:--

1. Quamvīs, _however much_, _although_, does not introduce a statement of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense; as,--

hominēs quamvīs in turbidīs rēbus sint, tamen interdum animīs
relaxantur, _in however stirring events men may engage, yet at times
they relax their energies;_

nōn est potestās opitulandī reī pūblicae quamvīs ea premātur perīculīs,
_there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it be beset by
dangers._

2. Quamquam, etsī, tametsī, _although_, introduce a statement of fact, and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense); as,--

quamquam omnis virtūs nōs allicit, tamen jūstitia id maximē efficit,
_although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so especially;_

Caesar, etsī nōndum cōnsilium hostium cognōverat, tamen id quod accidit
suspicābātur, _Caesar, though he did not yet know the plans of the
enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred_.

a. Etsī, _although_, must be distinguished from etsī, _even if_. The
latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions
admissible for sī. (See §§ 302-304.)

3. Cum, _although_, is followed by the Subjunctive; as,--

Atticus honōrēs nōn petiit, cum eī patērent, _Atticus did not seek
honors, though they were open to him_.

4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see § 295, 6) and sinks to the level of a conjunction with the force of _although_. It takes the Subjunctive, Present or Perfect; as,--

licet omnēs terrōrēs impendeant, succurram, _though all terrors hang
over me, (yet) I will lend aid_.

5. Quamquam, with the force _and yet_, is often used to introduce principal clauses; as,--

quamquam quid loquor, _and yet why do I speak?_

6. In post-Augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the Subjunctive, while quamvīs is often used to introduce statements of fact, and takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Thus:--

quamquam movērētur hīs vōcibus, _although he was moved by these words_;

quamvīs multī opīnārentur, _though many thought_;

quamvīs īnfēstō animō pervēnerās, _though you had come with hostile
intent_.

Clauses with _Dum_, _Modo_, _Dummodo_, denoting a Wish or a Proviso.

310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative nē) and have two distinct uses:--

I. They are used to introduce clauses _embodying a wish_ entertained by the subject of the leading verb; as,--

multī honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam cōnsequantur, _many neglect
honor in their desire to obtain power_ (_if only they may attain_);

omnia postposuī, dum praeceptīs patris pārērem, _I made everything else
secondary, in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father_;

nīl obstat tibi, dum nē sit dītior alter, _nothing hinders you in your
desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you_.

II. They are used to express a _proviso_ ('_provided that_'); as,--

ōderint, dum metuant, _let them hate, provided they fear_;

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria, _old men
retain their faculties, provided only they retain their interest and
vigor_;

nūbant, dum nē dōs fiat comes, _let them marry, provided no dowry goes
with it_.

Relative Clauses.

311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pronouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs.

312. 1. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially clauses introduced by those General Relatives which are doubled or have the suffix -oumque; as,--

quidquid id est, timeō Danaōs et dōna ferentēs, _whatever it is, I fear
the Greeks even when they offer gifts;_

quidquid oritur, quālecumque est, causam ā nātūrā habet, _whatever
comes into being, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause in
Nature._

2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the three types mentioned in §§ 302-304; as,--

quī hōc dīcit, errat, _he who says this is mistaken_ (First Type);

quī hōc dīcat, erret, _he would be mistaken who should say this_
(Second Type);

quī hōc dīxisset, errāsset, _the man who had said this would have been
mistaken._

INDIRECT DISCOURSE (_ŌRĀTIŌ OBLĪQUA_).

313. When the language or thought of any person is reproduced without change, that is called Direct Discourse (_Ōrātiō Recta_); as, _Caesar said, 'The die is cast.'_ When, on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to depend upon a verb of _saying_, _thinking_, etc., that is called Indirect Discourse (_Ōrātiō Oblīqua_); as, _Caesar said that the die was cast; Caesar thought that his troops were victorious._

a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect
Discourse, see § 331.

MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Declarative Sentences.

314. 1. Declarative Sentences upon becoming Indirect change their main clause to the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, while all subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive; as,--

Rēgulus dīxit quam diū jūre jūrandō hostium tenērētur nōn esse sē
senātōrem, _Regulus said that as long as he was held by his pledge to
the enemy he was not a senator._ (Direct: quam diū teneor nōn sum
senātor.)

2. The verb of _saying_, _thinking_, etc., is sometimes to be inferred from the context; as,--

tum Rōmulus lēgātōs circā vīcīnās gentēs mīsit quī societātem
cōnūbiumque peterent: urbēs quoque, ut cētera, ex īnfimō nāscī, _then
Romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for
alliance and the right of intermarriage, (saying that) cities, like
everything else, start from a modest beginning_.

3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer and so are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, or which emphasize the fact stated, take the Indicative; as,--

nūntiātum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontiōnem, quod est oppidum
maximum Sēquanōrum contendere, _it was reported that Ariovistus was
hastening to seize Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani_.

4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in sense is principal. It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where quī is equivalent to et hīc, nam hīc, etc.; as,--

dīxit urbem Athēniēnsium prōpugnāculum oppositum esse barbarīs, apud
quam jam bis classēs rēgiās fēcisse naufragium, _he said the city of
the Athenians had been set against the barbarians like a bulwark, near
which (= and near it) the fleets of the King had twice met disaster_.

5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily be supplied from the context; as,--

cum id nescīre Māgō dīceret, _when Mago said he did not know this_ (for
sē nescīre).

Interrogative Sentences.

315. 1. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunctive; as,--

Ariovistus Caesarī respondit: sē prius in Galliam vēnisse quam populum
Rōmānum. Quid sibi vellet? Cūr in suās possessiōnēs venīret,
_Ariovistus replied to Caesar that he had come into Gaul before the
Roman people. What did he (Caesar) mean? Why did he come into his
domain?_ (Direct: quid tibi vīs? cūr in meās possessiōnēs venīs?)

2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked merely for effect, and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse. Thus :--

quid est levius (lit. _what is more trivial_, = nothing is more
trivial) of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the
Indirect.

3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain unchanged in mood in the Indirect: as,--

quid faceret, _what was he to do?_ (Direct: quid faciat?)

Imperative Sentences.

316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear as Subjunctives in the Indirect; as,--

mīlitēs certiōrēs fēcit paulisper intermitterent proelium, _he told the
soldiers to stop the battle for a little_. (Direct: intermittite.)

a. The negative in such sentences is nē; as,--

nē suae virtūtī tribueret, _let him not attribute it to his own valor!_

TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

A. Tenses of the Infinitive.

317. These are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in § 270.

a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the Indicative
of Direct Discourse. Thus:--

sciō tē haec ēgisse may mean--

_I know you were doing this_.(Direct: haec agēbās.)

_I know you did this_. (Direct: haec ēgistī.)

_I know you had done this_. (Direct: haec ēgerās.)

B. Tenses of the Subjunctive.

318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being Principal if the verb of _saying_ is Principal; Historical if it is Historical. Yet for the sake of vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used after an historical tense (_Repraesentātiō_); as,--

Caesar respondit, sī obsidēs dentur, sēsē pācem esse factūrum, _Caesar
replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace_.

a. For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see § 268, 2.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Conditional Sentences of the First Type.

319. A. THE APODOSIS. Any tense of the Indicative is changed to the corresponding tense of the Infinitive (§§ 270; 317, a).

B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive which are required by the Sequence of Tenses.

Examples:--

DIRECT. INDIRECT.
sī hōc crēdis, errās, dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē errāre;
dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāre.
sī hōc crēdēs, errābis, dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē errātūrum
esse;
dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errātūrum
esse.
sī hōc crēdideris, errābis, dīcō, sī hōc crēderīs, tē errātūrum
esse;
dīxī, sī hōc crēdidissēs, tē errātūrum
esse.
sī hōc crēdēbās, errāvistī, dīcō, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāvisse;
dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errāvisse.

a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse
regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a
principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical
tense.

Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.

320. A. THE APODOSIS. The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infinitive of the Indirect.

B. THE PROTASIS. The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses.

Examples:--

sī hōc crēdās, errēs, dīcō, sī hōc crēdās, tē errātūrum
esse;
dīxī, sī hōc crēderēs, tē errātūrum
esse;

Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.

321. A. THE APODOSIS.

1. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes the Future Infinitive.

a. But this construction is rare, being represented in the classical
Latinity by a single example (Caesar, V. 29. 2). Some scholars question
the correctness of this passage.

2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes:--

a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -ūrus fuisse.

b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futūrum fuisse ut with the
Imperfect Subjunctive.

B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis in Conditional Sentences of this type always remains unchanged.

Examples:--

sī hōc crēderēs, errārēs, dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc crēderēs, tē
errātūrum esse;
sī hōc crēdidissēs, dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc crēdidissēs, tē
errāvissēs, errātūrum fuisse;
sī hōc dīxissēs, pūnītus dīcō (dīxī), sī hōc dīxissēs, futūrum
essēs. fuisse ut pūnīrēris.

322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring to the past is at the same time a Result clause or a quīn-clause (after nōn dubitō, etc.), it stands in the Perfect Subjunctive in the form -ūrus fuerim; as,--

ita territī sunt, ut arma trāditūrī fuerint,[57] nisi Caesar subitō
advēnisset, _they were so frightened that they would have given up
their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived_;

nōn dubitō quīn, sī hōc dīxissēs, errātūrus fuerīs,[57] _I do not doubt
that, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake_.

a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such
sentences, when they become dependent, remain unchanged; as,--

nōn dubitō quīn, sī hōc dīxissēs, vituperātus essēs, _I do not doubt
that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed_.

b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conditional
sentence of the Third Type, -ūrus fuerim (rarely -ūrus fuissem) is used;
as,--

quaerō, num, sī hōc dīxissēs, errātūrus fuerīs (or fuissēs).

c. Potuī, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type,
usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as,--

concursū tōtīus civitātis dēfēnsī sunt, ut frīgidissimōs quoque
ōrātōrēs populī studia excitāre potuerint, _they were defended before a
gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would
have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators_.

IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose indirect character is _merely implied by the context_; as,--

dēmōnstrābantur mihi praetereā, quae Sōcratēs dē immortālitāte animōrum
disseruisset, _there were explained to me besides, the arguments which
Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul_ (i.e.
the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth);

Paetus omnēs librōs quōs pater suus relīquisset mihi dōnāvit, _Paetus
gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left_.

SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.

324. 1. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive are frequently attracted into the same mood especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute _an essential part of one complex idea_; as,--

nēmō avārus adhūc inventus est, cui, quod habēret, esset satis, _no
miser has yet been found who was satisfed with what he had_;

cum dīversās causās afferrent, dum fōrmam suī quisque et animī et
ingeniī redderent, _as they brought forward different arguments, while
each mirrored his own individual type of mind and natural bent_;

quod ego fatear, pudeat? _should I be ashamed of a thing which I
admit?_

2. Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as,--

mōs est Athēnīs quotannīs in cōntiōne laudārī eōs quī sint in proeliīs
interfectī, _it is the custom at Athens every year for those to be
publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle_. (Here the notion of
'praising those who fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole.)

NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.

325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine. All of these partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the other. Thus:--

As Verbs,--

a) They may be limited by adverbs;
b) They admit an object;
c) They have the properties of voice and tense.

As Nouns or Adjectives,--

a) They are declined;
b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.

THE INFINITIVE.

Infinitive without Subject Accusative.

326. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.

NOTE.--The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express _purpose_; as, nec dulcēs occurrent ōscula nātī praeripere, _and no sweet children will run to snatch kisses_.

_A. As Subject._

327. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet, juvat, dēlectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet, interest, etc.; as,--

dulce et decōrum est prō patriā morī, _it is sweet and noble to die for
one's country_;

virōrum est fortium toleranter dolōrem patī, _it is the part of brave
men to endure pain with patience_;

senātuī placuit lēgātōs mittere, _the Senate decided_ (lit. _it pleased
the Senate_) _to send envoys_.

2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative; as,--

aliud est īrācundum esse, aliud īrātum, _it is one thing to be
irascible, another to be angry_;

impūne quaelibet facere, id est rēgem esse, _to do whatever you please
with impunity, that is to be a king_.

a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate Noun
or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as, licuit esse
ōtiōsō Themistoclī, lit. _it was permitted to Themistocles to be at
leisure_. So sometimes with other Impersonals.

_B. As Object._

328. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly after--

volō, cupiō, mālō, nōlō, dēbeo, cōgitō, meditor, _purpose_,
_ought_; _intend_;
statuō, cōnstituō, _decide_; neglegō, _neglect_;
audeō, _dare_; vereor, timeō, _fear_;
studeō, contendō, _strive_; mātūrō, festīnō, properō, contendō,
parō, _prepare_ (so parātus); _hasten_;
incipiō, coepī, īnstituō, assuēscō, cōnsuēscō, _accustom
_begin_; myself_ (so assuētus, īnsuētus,
pergō, _continue_; assuēfactus);
dēsinō, dēsistō, _cease_; discō, _learn_;
possum, _can_; sciō, _know how_;
cōnor, _try_; soleō, _am wont_;

as,--

tū hōs intuērī audēs, _do you dare to look on these men_?

Dēmosthenēs ad flūctūs maris dēclāmāre solēbat, _Demosthenes used to
declaim by the waves of the sea_.

2. A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into the Nominative; as,--

beātus esse sine virtūte nēmō potest, _no one can be happy without
virtue_;

Catō esse quam vidērī bonus mālēbat, _Cato preferred to be good rather
than to seem so_.

Infinitive with Subject Accusative.

329. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.

_A. As Subject._

330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) is used as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, ūtile est, turpe est, fāma est, spēs est, fās est, nefās est, opus est, necesse est, oportet, cōnstat, praestat, licet, etc.; as,--

nihil in bellō oportet contemnī, _nothing ought to be despised in war_;

apertum est sibi quemque nātūrā esse cārum, _it is manifest that by
nature everybody is dear to himself_.

_B. As Object._

331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the following classes of verbs:

1. Most frequently after verbs of _saying_, _thinking_, _knowing_, _perceiving_, and the like (_Verba Sentiendi et Dēclārandī_). This is the regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs that take this construction are, among others, the following: sentiō, audiō, videō, cognōscō; putō, jūdicō, spērō, cōnfīdō; sciō, meminī; dicō, affīrmō, negō (_say that ... not_), trādō, nārrō, fateor, respondeō, scrībō, prōmittō, glōrior. Also the phrases: certiōrem faciō (_inform_), memoriā teneō (_remember_), etc.

Examples:--

Epicūrēī putant cum corporibus simul animōs interīre, _the Epicureans
think that the soul perishes with the body_;

Thalēs dīxit aquam esse initium rērum, _Thales said that water was the
first principle of the universe_;

Dēmocritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, _Democritus says nothing is
everlasting;_

spērō eum ventūrum esse, _I hope that he will come_.

II. With jubeō, _order_, and vetō, _forbid_; as,--

Caesar mīlitēs pontem facere jussit, _Caesar ordered the soldiers to
make a bridge_.

a. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do
something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeō and vetō is put in the
Passive; as, Caesar pontem fierī jussit.

III. With patior and sinō, _permit_, _allow_; as,--

nūllō sē implicārī negōtiō passus est, _he did not permit himself to be
involved in any difficulty_.

IV. With volō, nōlō, mālō, cupiō, when the Subject of the Infinitive is different from that of the governing verb; as,--

nec mihi hunc errōrem extorquērī volō, _nor do I wish this error to be
wrested from me_;

eās rēs jactārī nōlēbat, _he was unwilling that these matters should be
discussed_;

tē tuā fruī virtūte cupimus, _we desire that you enjoy your worth_.

a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is
regularly used in accordance with § 328, 1. But exceptions occur,
especially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives as,--

cupiō mē esse clēmentem, _I desire to be lenient_;

Tīmoleōn māluit sē diligī quam metuī, _Timoleon preferred to be loved
rather than feared_.

b. Volō also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut; nōlō the
Subjunctive alone. (See § 296, 1, a.)

V. With Verbs of _emotion_ (_joy_, _sorrow_, _regret_, etc.), especially gaudeō, laetor, doleō; aegrē ferō, molestē ferō, graviter ferō, _am annoyed_, _distressed_; mīror, queror, indignor; as,--

gaudeō tē salvum advenīre, _I rejoice that you arrive safely_;

nōn molestē ferunt sē libīdinum vinculīs laxātōs ēsse, _they are not
troubled at being released from the bonds of passion_;

mīror tē ad mē nihil scrībere, _I wonder that you write me nothing_.

a. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a quod-
clause as Object. (See § 299.) Thus:--

mīror quod nōn loqueris, _I wonder that you do not speak_.

VI. Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and the other of the Thing (§ 178, 1), may substitute an Infinitive for the second Accusative; as,--

cōgō tē hōc facere, _I compel you to do this_ (_cf._ tē hōc cōgō);

docuī tē contentum esse, _I taught you to be content_ (_cf._ tē
modestiam docuī, _I taught you temperance_).

Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.

332. Those verbs which in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction of the Passive. This is true of the following and of some others:--

a) jubeor, vetor, sinor; as,--

mīlitēs pontem facere jussī sunt, _the soldiers were ordered to build a
bridge_;

pōns fierī jussus est, _a bridge was ordered built_;

mīlitēs castrīs exīre vetitī sunt, _the troops were forbidden to go out
of the camp_;

Sēstius Clōdium accūsāre nōn est situs, _Sestius was not allowed to
accuse Clodius_.

b) videor, _I am seen_, _I seem_; as,--

vidētur comperisse, _he seems to have discovered_.

c) dīcor, putor, exīstimor, jūdicor (in all persons); as,--

dīcitur in Italiam vēnisse, _he is said to have come into Italy_;

Rōmulus prīmus rēx Rōmānōrum fuisse putātur, _Romulus is thought to
have been the first king of the Romans_.

d) fertur, feruntur, trāditur, trāduntur (only in the third person);
as,--

fertur Homērus caecus fuisse, _Homer is said to have been blind_;

carmina Archilochī contumēliīs referta esse trāduntur, _Archilochus's
poems are reported to have been full of abuse_.

NOTE.--In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of verbs, c), d), more commonly take the impersonal construction; as--

trāditum est Homērum caecum fuisse, _the story goes that Homer was
blind_.

Infinitive with Adjectives.

333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except parātus, assuētus, etc.; see § 328, 1) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose writers; as,--

contentus dēmōnstrāsse, _contented to have proved_;

audāx omnia perpetī, _bold for enduring everything_.

Infinitive in Exclamations.

334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying _scorn_, _indignation_, or _regret_. An intensive -ne is often attached to some word in the clause. Examples:--

huncine sōlem tam nigrum surrēxe mihi, _to think that to-day's sun rose
with such evil omen for me!_

sedēre tōtōs diēs in vīllā, _to stay whole days at the villa_.

Historical Infinitive.

335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative; as,--

interim cottīdiē Caesar Haeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre, _meanwhile Caesar
was daily demanding grain of the Haedui_.

PARTICIPLES.

Tenses of the Participle.

336. 1. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the infinitive (see § 270), express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends.

2. The Present Participle denotes action _contemporary with_ that of the verb. Thus:--

audiō tē loquentem = _you_ ARE _speaking and I hear you_;

audiēbam tē loquentem = _you_ WERE _speaking and I heard you_;

audiam tē loquentem = _you_ WILL BE _speaking and I shall hear you._

a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative force;
as,--

assurgentem rēgem resupīnat, _as the king was trying to rise, he threw
him down._

3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action _prior to_ that of the verb. Thus:--

locūtus taceō = _I_ HAVE _spoken and am silent_;

locūtus tacui = _I_ HAD _spoken and then was silent_;

locūtus tacēbō = _I_ SHALL _speak and then shall be silent._

4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is determined entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected.

5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs are used as Presents; viz. arbitrātus, ausus, ratus, gāvīsus, solitus, ūsus, cōnfīsus, diffīsus, secūtus, veritus.

Use of Participles.

337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive.

1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Examples are:--

glōria est cōnsentiēns laus bonōrum, _glory is the unanimous praise of
the good_;

Conōn mūrōs ā Lysandrō dīrutōs reficit, _Conon restored the walls
destroyed by Lysander._

2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordinate clause. Thus the Participle may denote:--

a) Time; as,--

omne malum nāscēns facile opprimitur, _every evil is easily crushed at
birth._

b) A Condition; as,--

mente ūtī nōn possumus cibō et pōtiōne complētī, _if gorged with food
and drink, we cannot use our intellects_.

c) Manner; as,--

Solōn senēscere sē dīcēbat multa in diēs addiscentem, _Solon said he
grew old learning many new things daily._

d) Means; as,--

sōl oriēns diem cōnficit, _the sun, by its rising, makes the day._

e) Opposition ('_though_'); as,--

mendācī hominī nē vērum quidem dīcentī crēdimus, _we do not believe a
liar, though he speaks the truth._

f) Cause; as,--

perfidiam veritus ad suōs recessit, _since he feared treachery, he
returned to his own troops._

3. Videō and audiō, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Participle in the Predicate use; as,--

videō tē fugientem, _I see you fleeing._

a. So frequently faciō, fingō, indūcō, etc.; as,--

eīs Catōnem respondentem facimus, _we represent Cato replying to them_;

Homērus Laërtem colentem agrum facit, _Homer represents Laërtes tilling
the field._

4. The Future Active Participle (except futūrus) is regularly confined to its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it is used independently, especially to denote _purpose_; as,--

vēnērunt castra oppugnātūrī, _they came to assault the camp._

5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a coördinate clause; as,--

urbem captam dīruit, _he captured and destroyed the city_ (lit. _he
destroyed the city captured_).

6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive; as,--

post urbem conditam, _after the founding of the city_;

Quīnctius dēfēnsus, _the defense of Quinctius_;

quibus animus occupātus, _the preoccupation of the mind with which._

7. Habeō sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predicate construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative; as,--

equitātus quem coāctum habēbat, _the cavalry which he had collected._

8. The Gerundive denotes _obligation_, _necessity_, etc. Like other Participles it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.

a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus:--

liber legendus, _a book worth reading_;

lēgēs observandae, _laws deserving of observance_.

b) More frequently as Predicate.

1) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus est, etc.). In this
use Intransitive Verbs can be used only impersonally, but admit their
ordinary case-construction (Gen., Dat., Abl.); as,--

veniendum est, _it is necessary to come_;

oblīvīscendum est offēnsārum, _one must forget injuries_;

numquam prōditōrī crēdendum est, _you must never trust a traitor_;

suō cuique ūtendum est jūdiciō, _every man must use his own judgment_.

2) After cūrō, _provide for_; dō, trādō, _give over_; relinquō,
_leave_; concēdō, _hand over_, and some other verbs, instead of an
object clause, or to denote purpose; as,--

Caesar pontem in Ararī faciendum cūrāvit, _Caesar provided for the
construction of a bridge over the Arar_;

imperātor urbem mīlitibus dīripiendam concessit, _the general handed
over the city to the soldiers to plunder_.

9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see § 339, 1.

THE GERUND.

338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun constructions as follows:--

1. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used--

a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see §§ 200, 202);
as,--

cupiditās dominandī, _desire of ruling_;

ars scrībendī, _the art of writing_.

b) With Adjectives; as,--

cupidus audiendī, _desirous of hearing_.

c) With causā, grātiā; as,--

discendī causā, _for the sake of learning_.

2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used--

a) With Adjectives; as,--

aqua ūtilis est bibendō, _water is useful for drinking_.

b) With Verbs (rarely); as,--

adfuī scrībendō, _I was present at the writing_.

3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions, chiefly ad and in to denote purpose; as,--

homō ad agendum nātus est, _man is born for action_.

4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used--

a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see §§
218, 219); as,--

mēns discendō alitur et cōgitandō, _the mind is nourished by learning
and reflection_.

Themistoclēs maritimōs praedōnēs cōnsectandō mare tūtum reddidit,
_Themistocles made the sea safe by following up the pirates_.

b) After the prepositions ā, dē, ex, in; as,--

summa voluptās ex discendō capitur, _the keenest pleasure is derived
from learning_;

multa dē bene beātēque vīvendō ā Platōne disputāta sunt, _there was
much discussion by Plato on the subject of living well and happily_.

5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a preposition) admit a Direct Object.

Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.

339. 1. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct Object, another construction _may be, and very often is, used_. This consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This is called the Gerundive Construction. Thus:--

GERUND CONSTRUCTION. GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION.
cupidus urbem videndī, _desirous of cupidus urbis videndae;
seeing the city_.
dēlector ōrātōrēs legendō, _I am dēlector ōrātōribus legendīs
charmed with reading the orators_.

2. The Gerundive Construction _must be used_ to avoid a Direct Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition; as,--

locus castrīs mūniendīs aptus, _a place adapted to fortifying a camp_;

ad pācem petendam vēnērunt, _they came to ask peace_;

multum temporis cōnsūmō in legendīs poētīs, _I spend much time in
reading the poets_.

3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see § 236, 2), the Gerundive Construction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively. Thus regularly--

philosophī cupidī sunt vērum invēstīgandī, _philosophers are eager for
discovering truth_ (rarely vērī invēstīgandī);

studium plūra cognōscendī, _a desire of knowing more_ (not plūrium
cognōscendōrum).

4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the Gerundive construction; but ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior (originally transitive) regularly admit it; as,--

hostēs in spem potiundōrum castrōrum vēnerant, _the enemy had conceived
the hope of gaining possession of the camp_.

5. The Genitives meī, tuī, suī, nostrī, vestrī, when used in the Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives used substantively. Thus:--

mulier suī servandī causā aufūgit, _the woman fled for the sake of
saving herself_;

lēgātī in castra vēnērunt suī pūrgandī causā, _the envoys came into
camp for the purpose of clearing themselves_.

So nostrī servandī causā, _for the sake of saving ourselves_.

6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to denote _purpose_; as,--

quae ille cēpit lēgum ac lībertātis subvertundae, _which he undertook
for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty_.

7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some expressions which have the character of formulas; as,--

decemvirī lēgibus scrībundīs, _decemvirs for codifying the laws_;

quīndecimvirī sacrīs faciundīs, _quindecimvirs for performing the
sacrifices_.

THE SUPINE.

340. 1. The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express _purpose_; as,--

lēgātī ad Caesarem grātulātum convēnērunt, _envoys came to Caesar to
congratulate him_.

a. The Supine in -um may take an Object; as,--

pācem petītum ōrātōrēs Rōmam mittunt, _they send envoys to Rome to ask
for peace_.

b. Note the phrase:--

dō (collocō) fīliam nūptum, _I give my daughter in marriage_.

2. The Supine in -ū is used as an Ablative of Specification with facilis, difficilis, incrēdibilis, jūcundus, optimus, etc.; also with fās est, nefās est, opus est; as,--

haec rēs est facilis cognitū, _this thing is easy to learn_;

hōc est optimum factū, _this is best to do_.

a. Only a few Supines in -ū are in common use, chiefly audītū, cognitū,
dictū, factū, vīsū.

b. The Supine in -ū never takes an Object.

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