Chapter I: Declension

A. NOUNS.

12. A Noun is the name of a _person_, _place_, _thing_, or _quality_; as, Caesar, _Caesar_; Rōma, _Rome_; penna, _feather_; virtūs, _courage_.

1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names of persons or places; as, Caesar, Rōma. Other nouns are Common: as, penna, virtūs.

2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.

a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mōns,
_mountain_; pēs, _foot_; diēs, _day_; mēns, _mind_.

Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legiō,
_legion_; comitātus, _retinue_.

b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, cōnstantia, _steadfastness_;
paupertās, _poverty_.

GENDER OF NOUNS.

13. There are three Genders,--Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or grammatical.

Natural Gender.

14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are--

1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,--

nauta, _sailor_; agricola, _farmer_.

2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,--

māter, _mother_; rēgīna, _queen_.

Grammatical Gender.

15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender:--

_A. Gender determined by Signification._

1. Names of _Rivers_, _Winds_, and _Months_ are Masculine; as,--

Sēquana, _Seine_; Eurus, _east wind_; Aprīlis, _April_.

2. Names of _Trees_, and such names of _Towns_ and _Islands_ as end in -us, are Feminine; as,--

quercus, _oak_; Corinthus, _Corinth_; Rhodus, _Rhodes_.

Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see _B_, below); as,--

Delphī, n.; Leuctra, n.; Tībur, n.; Carthāgō, f.

3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,--

nihil, _nothing_; nefās, _wrong_; amāre, _to love_.

NOTE.--Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the river), f.

_B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular._

The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular.[11]

NOTE 1.--_Common Gender._ Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdōs may mean either _priest_ or _priestess_, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also cīvis, _citizen_; parēns, _parent_; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be _common_.

NOTE 2.--Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, ānser, m., _goose_ or _gander_. So vulpēs, f., _fox_; aquīla, f., _eagle_.

NUMBER.

16. The Latin has two Numbers,--the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object, the Plural, more than one.

CASES.

17. There are six Cases in Latin:--

Nominative, Case of Subject;
Genitive, Objective with _of_, or Possessive;
Dative, Objective with _to_ or _for_;
Accusative, Case of Direct Object;
Vocative, Case of Address;
Ablative, Objective with _by_, _from_, _in_,
_with_.

1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words.

2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases.

3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.[12] Thus, _portam_ (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The _apparent case-ending_ thus resulting is called a termination.

THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.

18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows:--

DECLENSION. FINAL LETTER OF STEM. GEN. TERMINATION.
First ā -ae
Second ŏ -ī
Third ĭ / Some consonant -īs
Fourth ŭ -ūs
Fifth ē -ēī / -ĕī

Cases alike in Form.

19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension.

2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.

3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -ă.

4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative.

* * * * *

FIRST DECLENSION.

ā-Stems.

20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -ă, weakened from -ā, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows:--

Porta, _gate_; stem, portā-.

SINGULAR.
CASES. MEANINGS. TERMINATIONS.
_Nom._ porta _a gate_ (as subject) -ă
_Gen._ portae _of a gate_ -ae
_Dat._ portae _to_ or _for a gate_ -ae
_Acc._ portam _a gate_ (as object) -am
_Voc._ porta _O gate!_ -ă
_Abl._ portā _with, by, from, in a gate_ -ā

PLURAL.
_Nom._ portae _gates_ (as subject) -ae
_Gen._ portārum _of gates_ -ārum
_Dat._ portīs _to_ or _for gates_ -īs
_Acc._ portās _gates_ (as object) -ās
_Voc._ portae _O gates!_ -ae
_Abl._ portīs _with, by, from, in gates_ -īs

1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either _a gate_ or _the gate_; and in the Plural, _gates_ or _the gates_.

Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.

21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta, _sailor_; agricola, _farmer_; also, Hadria, _Adriatic Sea_.

2. Rare Case-Endings,--

a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -ās is preserved in the
combination pater familiās, _father of a family_; also in māter familiās,
fīlius familiās, fīlia familiās. But the regular form of the Genitive in
-ae is also admissible in these expressions; as, pater familiae.

b) In poetry a Genitive in -āī also occurs; as, aulāī.

c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, Rōmae, _at Rome_.

d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -ārum sometimes occurs; as,
Dardanidum instead of Dardanidārum. This termination -um is not a
contraction of -ārum, but represents an entirely different case-ending.

e) Instead of the regular ending -īs, we usually find -ābus in the Dative
and Ablative Plural of dea, _goddess_, and fīlia, _daughter_, especially
when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding
forms of deus, _god_, and fīlius, _son_. A few other words sometimes have
the same peculiarity; as, lībertābus (from līberta, _freedwoman_),
equābus (_mares_), to avoid confusion with lībertīs (from lībertus,
_freedman_) and equīs (from equus, _horse_).

Greek Nouns.

22. These end in -ē (Feminine); -ās and -ēs (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows:--

Archiās, Epitomē, Comētēs, _comet_.
_Archias_. _epitome_.
_Nom._ Archiās epitomē comētēs
_Gen._ Archiae epitomēs comētae
_Dat._ Archiae epitomae comētae
_Acc._ Archiam (or -ān) epitomēn comētēn
_Voc._ Archiā epitomē comētē (or -ă)
_Abl._ Archiā epitomē comētē (or -ā)

1. But most Greek nouns in -ē become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatica, _grammar_; mūsica, _music_; rhētorica, _rhetoric_.

2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.

* * * * *

SECOND DECLENSION.

ŏ-Stems.

23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative.

Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:--

Hortus, _garden_; Bellum, _war_;
stem, hortŏ-. stem, bellŏ-.
SINGULAR.
TERMINATION. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ hortus -us bellum -um
_Gen._ hortī -ī bellī -ī
_Dat._ hortō -ō bellō -ō
_Acc._ hortum -um bellum -um
_Voc._ horte -e bellum -um
_Abl._ hortō -ō bellō -ō

PLURAL.
_Nom._ hortī -ī bella -a
_Gen._ hortōrum -ōrum bellōrum -ōrum
_Dat._ hortīs -īs bellīs -īs
_Acc._ hortōs -ōs bella -a
_Voc._ hortī -ī bella -a
_Abl._ hortīs -īs bellīs -īs

Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:--

Puer, _boy_; Ager, _field_; Vir, _man_;
stem, puerŏ- stem, agrŏ- stem, virŏ-
SINGULAR. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ puer ager vir Wanting
_Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī
_Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō
_Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um
_Voc._ puer ager vir Wanting
_Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō

PLURAL.
_Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī
_Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum
_Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs
_Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs
_Voc._ puerī agrī virī -ī
_Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs

1. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular.

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further modified by the development of e before r.

2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer: adulter, _adulterer_; gener, _son-in-law_; Līber, _Bacchus_; socer, _father-in-law_; vesper, _evening_; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger.

Nouns in _-vus_, _-vum_, _-quus_.

24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin,--an earlier and a later,--as follows:--

_Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero)._
Servos, m., Aevom, n., Equos, m.,
_slave_. _age_. _horse_.
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ servos aevom equos
_Gen._ servī aevī equī
_Dat._ servō aevō equō
_Acc._ servom aevom equom
_Voc._ serve aevom eque
_Abl._ servō aevō equō

_Later inflection (after Cicero)._
SINGULAR.
_Nom._ servus aevum equus
_Gen._ servī aevī equī
_Dat._ servō aevō equō
_Act._ servum aevum equum
_Voc._ serve aevum eque
_Abl._ servō aevō equō

1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform.

Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension.

25. 1. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -ī (instead of -iī), and the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); as Vergílī, _of Virgil_, or _O Virgil_ (instead of Vergiliī, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in -ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -aī, -eī, as Pompejus, Pompeī.

2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -iī); as,--

_Nom._ ingenium fīlius
_Gen._ ingénī fīlī

These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.

3. Fīlius forms the Vocative Singular in -ī (for -ie); _viz_. fīlī, _O son!_

4. Deus, _god_, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows:--

_Nom._ dī (deī)
_Gen._ deōrum (deum)
_Dat._ dīs (deīs)
_Acc._ deōs
_Voc._ dī (deī)
_Abl._ dīs (deīs)

5. The Locative Singular ends in -ī; as, Corinthī, _at Corinth_.

6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -ōrum,--

a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum, _of talents_;
modium, _of pecks_; sēstertium, _of sesterces_.

b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum.

c) sometimes in other words; as, līberum, _of the children_; socium, _of
the allies_.

Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.

26. 1. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception:--

a) Names of towns, islands, trees--according to the general rule laid
down in § 15, 2; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus, _Egypt_.

b) Five special words,--

alvus, _belly_;
carbasus, _flax_;
colus, _distaff_;
humus, _ground_;
vannus, _winnowing-fan_.

c) A few Greek Feminines; as,--

atomus, _atom_;
diphthongus, _diphthong_.

2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter:--

pelagus, _sea_;
vīrus, _poison_;
vulgus, _crowd_.

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.

27. These end in -os, -ōs, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are declined as follows:--

Barbitos, m. Androgeōs, m., Īlion, n.,
and f., _Androgeos._ _Troy._
_lyre._
_Nom._ barbitos Androgeōs Īlion
_Gen._ barbitī Androgeō, -ī Īliī
_Dat._ barbitō Androgeō Īliō
_Acc._ barbiton Androgeō, -ōn Īlion
_Voc._ barbite Androgeōs Īlion
_Abl._ barbitō Androgeō Īliō

1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on; as, Dēlum, _Delos_.

2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.

3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted.

* * * * *

THIRD DECLENSION.

28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -ī, -ō, -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems,--

I. Pure Consonant-Stems.
II. ĭ-Stems.
III. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the
inflection of ĭ-Stems.
IV. A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong.
V. Irregular Nouns.

I. Consonant-Stems.

29. 1. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized.

2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant.

_A. Mute-Stems._

30. Mute-Stems may end,--

1. In a Labial (p); as, prīncep-s.

2. In a Guttural (g or c); as, rēmex (rēmeg-s); dux (duc-s).

3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); mīles (mīlet-s).

1. STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (p).

31. Prīnceps, m., _chief_.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ prīnceps -s
_Gen._ prīncipis -is
_Dat._ prīncipī -ī
_Acc._ prīncipem -em
_Voc._ prīnceps -s
_Abl._ prīncipe -e

PLURAL.
_Nom._ prīncipēs -ēs
_Gen._ prīncipum -um
_Dat._ prīncipibus -ibus
_Acc._ prīncipēs -ēs
_Voc._ prīncipēs -ēs
_Abl._ prīncipibus -ibus

2. STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g, c).

32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x.

Rēmex, m., _rower_. Dux, c., _leader_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ rēmex rēmigēs dux ducēs
_Gen._ rēmigis rēmigum ducis ducum
_Dat._ rēmigī rēmigibus ducī ducibus
_Acc._ rēmigem rēmigēs ducem ducēs
_Voc._ rēmex rēmigēs dux ducēs
_Abl._ rēmige rēmigibus duce ducibus

3. STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t).

33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nominative Singular before the ending -s.

Lapis, m., _stone_. Mīles, m., _soldier_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ lapis lapidēs mīles mīlitēs
_Gen._ lapidis lapidum mīlitis mīlitum
_Dat._ lapidī lapidibus mīlitī mīlitibus
_Acc._ lapidem lapidēs mīlitem mīlitēs
_Voc._ lapis lapidēs mīles mīlitēs
_Abl._ lapide lapidibus mīlite mīlitibus

_B. Liquid Stems._

34. These end in -l or -r.

Vigil, m., Victor, m., Aequor, n.,
_watchman_. _conqueror_. _sea_.

SINGULAR.
_Nom._ vigil victor aequor
_Gen._ vigilis victōris aequoris
_Dat._ vigilī victōrī aequorī
_Acc._ vigilem victōrem aequor
_Voc._ vigil victor aequor
_Abl._ vigile victōre aequore

PLURAL.
_Nom._ vigilēs victōrēs aequora
_Gen._ vigilum victōrum aequorum
_Dat._ vigilibus victōribus aequoribus
_Acc._ vigilēs victōrēs aequora
_Voc._ vigilēs victōrēs aequora
_Abl._ vigilibus victōribus aequoribus

1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative and Vocative Singular without termination.

2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension.

_C. Nasal Stems._

35. These end in -n,[13] which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.

Leō, m., _lion_. Nōmen, n., _name_
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ leō leōnēs nōmen nōmina
_Gen._ leōnis leōnum nōminis nōminum
_Dat._ leōnī leōnibus nōminī nōminibus
_Acc._ leōnem leōnēs nōmen nōmina
_Voc._ leō leōnēs nōmen nōmina
_Abl._ leōne leōnibus nōmine nōminibus

_D. s-Stems._

36. Mōs, m. Genus, n., Honor, m.,
_custom_. _race_. _honor_.

SINGULAR.
_Nom._ mōs genus honor
_Gen._ mōris generis honōris
_Dat._ mōrī generī honōrī
_Acc._ mōrem genus honōrem
_Voc._ mōs genus honor
_Abl._ mōre genere honōre

PLURAL.
_Nom._ mōrēs genera honōrēs
_Gen._ mōrum generum honōrum
_Dat._ mōribus generibus honōribus
_Acc._ mōrēs genera honōrēs
_Voc._ mōrēs genera honōrēs
_Abl._ mōribus generibus honōribus

1. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In many words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms honōs, colōs, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry.

II. ĭ-Stems.

_A. Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems._

37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singular, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -ī, and the Accusative Plural in -īs; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -ēs, the endings of Consonant-Stems.

38. Tussis, f., Īgnis, m., Hostis, c.,
_cough_; stem, _fire_; stem, _enemy_; stem,
tussi-. īgni-. hosti-.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ tussis īgnis hostis -is
_Gen._ tussis īgnis hostis -is
_Dat._ tussī īgnī hostī -ī
_Acc._ tussim īgnem hostem -im, -em
_Voc._ tussis īgnis hostis -is
_Abl._ tussī īgnī or e hoste -ī, -e

PLURAL.
_Nom._ tussēs īgnēs hostēs -ēs
_Gen._ tussium īgnium hostium -ium
_Dat._ tussibus īgnibus hostibus -ibus
_Acc._ tussīs or -ēs īgnīs or -ēs hostīs or -ēs -īs, -ēs
_Voc._ tussēs īgnēs hostēs -ēs
_Abl._ tussibus īgnibus hostibus -ibus

1. To the same class belong--

apis, _bee_. crātis, _hurdle_. †*secūris, _axe_.
auris, _ear_. *febris, _fever_. sēmentis, _sowing_.
avis, _bird_. orbis, _circle_. †*sitis, _thirst_.
axis, _axle_. ovis, _sheep_. torris, _brand_.
*būris, _plough-beam_. pelvis, _basin_. †*turris, _tower_.
clāvis, _key_. puppis, _stern_. trudis, _pole_.
collis, _hill_. restis, _rope_. vectis, _lever_.
and many others.

Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked with a † regularly have Abl. -ī. Of the others, many at times show -im and -ī. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -ī.

2. Not all nouns in -is are ĭ-Stems. Some are genuine consonant-stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably, canis, _dog_; juvenis, _youth_.[14]

3. Some genuine ĭ-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, _part_, for par(ti)s; anas, _duck_, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, _death_; dōs, _dowry_; nox, _night_; sors, _lot_; mēns, _mind_; ars, _art_; gēns, _tribe_; and some others.

_B. Neuter ĭ-Stems._

39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -ī in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine ĭ-Stems.

Sedile, Animal, Calcar,
_seat_; _animal_; _spur_;
stem, sedīli-. stem, stem,
animāli-. calcāri-.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION.
_Nom._ sedīle animal calcar -e or wanting
_Gen._ sedīlis animālis calcāris -is
_Dat._ sedīlī animālī calcārī -ī
_Acc._ sedīle animal calcar -e or wanting
_Voc._ sedīle animal calcar -e or wanting
_Abl._ sedīlī animālī calcārī -ī

PLURAL.
_Nom._ sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia
_Gen._ sedīlium animālium calcārium -ium
_Dat._ sedīlibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus
_Acc._ sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia
_Voc._ sedīlia animālia calcāria -ia
_Abl._ sedīlibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus

1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e.

2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e; as, Sōracte, _Mt. Soracte_; so also sometimes mare, _sea_.

III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of _ĭ_-Stems.

40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection of ĭ-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -īs in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singular, or -ī in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class:--

Caedēs, f., Arx, f., Linter, f.,
_slaughter_; _citadel_; _skiff_;
stem, caed-. stem, arc-. stem, lintr-.

SINGULAR.
_Nom._ caedēs arx linter
_Gen._ caedis arcis lintris
_Dat._ caedī arcī lintrī
_Acc._ caedem arcem lintrem
_Voc._ caedēs arx linter
_Abl._ caede arce lintre

PLURAL.
_Nom._ caedēs arcēs lintrēs
_Gen._ caedium arcium lintrium
_Dat._ caedibus arcibus lintribus
_Acc._ caedēs, -īs arcēs, -īs lintrēs, -īs
_Voc._ caedēs arcēs lintrēs
_Abl._ caedibus arcibus lintribus

1. The following classes of nouns belong here:--

a) Nouns in -ēs, with Genitive in -is; as, nūbēs, aedēs, clādēs, etc.

b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants; as,
urbs, mōns, stirps, lanx.

c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs as, cliēns, cohors.

d) Ūter, venter; fūr, līs, mās, mūs, nix; and the Plurals faucēs,
penātēs, Optimātēs, Samnitēs, Quirītēs.

e) Sometimes nouns in -tās with Genitive -tātis; as, cīvitās, aetās.
Cīvitās _usually_ has cīvitātium.

IV. Stems in _-ī_, _-ū_, and Diphthongs.

41. Vis, f., Sūs, c., Bōs, c., _ox_, Juppiter, m.,
_force_; _swine_; _cow_; _Jupiter_;
stem, vī-. stem, sū-. stem, bou-. stem, Jou-.

SINGULAR.
_Nom._ vīs sūs bōs Juppiter
_Gen._ ---- suis bovis Jovis
_Dat._ ---- suī bovī Jovī
_Acc._ vim suem bovem Jovem
_Voc._ vīs sūs bōs Juppiter
_Abl._ vī sue bove Jove

PLURAL.
_Nom._ vīrēs suēs bovēs
_Gen._ vīrium suum bovum, boum
_Dat._ vīribus suibus, subus bōbus, būbus
_Acc._ vīrēs suēs bovēs
_Voc._ vīrēs suēs bovēs
_Abl._ vīribus suibus, subus bōbus, būbus

1. Notice that the oblique cases of sūs have ŭ in the root syllable.

2. Grūs is declined like sūs, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus.

3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-ī, etc.

Nāvis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the ĭ-stems (§ 37). Its ablative often ends in -ī.

V. Irregular Nouns.

42. Senex, m., Carō, f., Os, n.,
_old man_. _flesh_. _bone_.

SINGULAR.
_Nom._ senex carō os
_Gen._ senis carnis ossis
_Dat._ senī carnī ossī
_Acc._ senem carnem os
_Voc._ senex carō os
_Abl._ sene carne osse

PLURAL.
_Nom._ senēs carnēs ossa
_Gen._ senum carnium ossium
_Dat._ senibus carnibus ossibus
_Acc._ senēs carnēs ossa
_Voc._ senēs carnēs ossa
_Abl._ senibus carnibus ossibus

1. Iter, itineris, n., _way_, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-.

2. Supellex, supellectilis, f., _furniture_, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The ablative has both -ī and -e.

3. Jecur, n., _liver_, forms its oblique cases from two stems,--jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris.

4. Femur, n., _thigh_, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis.

General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.

43. 1. Nouns in -ō, -or, -ōs, -er, -ĕs are Masculine.

2. Nouns in -ās, -ēs, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -dō, -gō (Genitive -inis); -iō (abstract and collective), -ūs (Genitive -ātis or -ūdis) are Feminine.

3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -ŭs are Neuter.

Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.

44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines.

1. Nouns in -ō.

a. Feminine: carō, _flesh_.

2. Nouns in -or.

a. Feminine: arbor, _tree_.

b. Neuter: aequor, _sea_; cor, _heart_; marmor, _marble_.

3. Nouns in -ōs.

a. Feminine: dōs, _dowry_.

b. Neuter: ōs (ōris), _mouth_.

4. Nouns in -er.

a. Feminine: linter, _skiff_.

b. Neuter: cadāver, _corpse_; iter, _way_; tūber, _tumor_; ūber, _udder_.
Also botanical names in -er; as, acer, _maple_.

5. Nouns in -ĕs.

a. Feminine: seges, _crop_.

45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines.

1. Nouns in -ās.

a. Masculine: vās, _bondsman_.

b. Neuter: vās, _vessel_.

2. Nouns in -ēs.

a. Masculine: ariēs, _ram_; pariēs, _wall_; pēs, _foot_.

3. Nouns in -is.

a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, _river_; īgnis,
_fire_; pānis, _bread_; sanguis, _blood_; unguis, _nail_.

Also--

axis, _axle_. piscis, _fish_.
collis, _hill_. postis, _post_.
fascis, _bundle_. pulvis, _dust_.
lapis, _stone_. orbis, _circle_.
mēnsis, _month_. sentis, _brier_.

4. Nouns in -x.

a. Masculine: apex, _peak_; cōdex, _tree-trunk_; grex, _flock_; imbrex,
_tile_; pollex, _thumb_; vertex, _summit_; calix, _cup_.

5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant.

a. Masculine: dēns, _tooth_; fōns, _fountain_; mōns, _mountain_; pōns,
_bridge_.

6. Nouns in -dō.

a. Masculine: cardō, _hinge_; ōrdō, _order_.

46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.

1. Nouns in -l.

a. Masculine: sōl, _sun_; sāl, _salt_.

2. Nouns in -n.

a. Masculine: pecten, _comb_.

3. Nouns in -ur.

a. Masculine: vultur, _vulture_.

4. Nouns in -ŭs.

a. Masculine: lepus, _hare_.

Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.

47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these:--

1. The ending -ă in the Accusative Singular; as, aetheră, _aether_; Salamīnă, _Salamis_.

2. The ending -ĕs in the Nominative Plural; as, Phrygĕs, _Phrygians_.

3. The ending -ăs in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygăs, _Phrygians_.

4. Proper names in -ās (Genitive -antis) have -ā in the Vocative Singular; as, Atlās (Atlantis), Vocative Atlā, _Atlas_.

5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -īs instead of -ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural; as, poēmatīs, _poems_.

6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension; as, Orpheī, Orpheō, etc.

7. Proper names in -ēs, like Periclēs, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -ī, as, Periclis or Periclī.

8. Feminine proper names in -ō have -ūs in the Genitive, but -ō in the other oblique cases; as,--

_Nom._ Didō _Acc._ Didō
_Gen._ Didūs _Voc._ Didō
_Dat._ Didō _Abl._ Didō

9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.

* * * * *

FOURTH DECLENSION.

_ŭ_-Stems.

48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Masculine, and -ū Neuter. They are declined as follows:--

Frūctus, m., _fruit_. Cornū, n., _horn_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ frūctus frūctūs cornū cornua
_Gen._ frūctūs frūctuum cornūs cornuum
_Dat._ frūctuī frūctibus cornū cornibus
_Acc._ frūctum frūctūs cornū cornua
_Voc._ frūctus frūctūs cornū cornua
_Abl._ frūctū frūctibus cornū cornibus

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension.

49. 1. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -ī, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senātī, ōrnātī. This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence.

2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -ū in the Dative Singular, instead of -uī; as, frūctū (for frūctuī).

3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artūs (Plural), _limbs_; tribus, _tribe_; and in dis-syllables in -cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus.

4. Domus, _house_, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second:--

domī (locative), _at home_;
domō, _from home_;
domum, _homewards_, _to one's home_;
domōs, _homewards_, _to their_ (etc.) _homes_

5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are: cornū, _horn_; genū, _knee_; and verū, _spit_.

Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.

50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, _needle_; domus, _house_; manus, _hand_; porticus, _colonnade_; tribus, _tribe_; Īdūs (Plural), _Ides_; also names of trees (§ 15, 2).

* * * * *

FIFTH DECLENSION.

ē-Stems.

51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -ēs, and are declined as follows:--

Diēs, m., _day_. Rēs, f., _thing_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ diēs diēs rēs rēs
_Gen._ diēī diērum rĕī rērum
_Dat._ diēī diēbus rĕī rēbus
_Acc._ diem diēs rem rēs
_Voc._ diēs diēs rēs rēs
_Abl._ diē diēbus rē rēbus

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.

52. 1. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -ĕī, instead of -ēī, when a consonant precedes; as, spĕī, rĕī, fidĕī.

2. A Genitive ending -ī (for -ĕī) is found in plēbī (from plēbēs = plēbs) in the expressions tribūnus plēbī, _tribune of the people_, and plēbī scītum, _decree of the people_; sometimes also in other words.

3. A Genitive and Dative form in -ē sometimes occurs; as, aciē.

4. With the exception of diēs and rēs, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural. But aciēs, seriēs, speciēs, spēs, and a few others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural.

Gender in the Fifth Declension.

53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except diēs, _day_, and merīdiēs, _mid-day_. But diēs is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an _appointed day_.

* * * * *

DEFECTIVE NOUNS.

54. Here belong--

1. Nouns used in the Singular only.

2. Nouns used in the Plural only.

3. Nouns used only in certain cases.

4. Indeclinable Nouns.

Nouns used in the Singular only.

55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus:--

1. Proper names; as, Cicerō, _Cicero_; Italia, _Italy_.

2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, _copper_; lac, _milk_.

3. Abstract nouns; as, ignōrantia, _ignorance_; bonitās, _goodness_.

4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus:--

a) Proper names,--to denote different members of a family, or specimens
of a type; as, Cicerōnēs, _the Ciceros_; Catōnēs, _men like Cato_.

b) Names of materials,--to denote objects made of the material, or
different kinds of the substance; as, aera, _bronzes_ (i.e. bronze
figures); ligna, _woods_.

c) Abstract nouns,--to denote instances of the quality; as, ignōrantiae,
_cases of ignorance_.

Nouns used in the Plural only.

56. Here belong--

1. Many geographical names; as, Thēbae, _Thebes_; Leuctra, _Leuctra_; Pompejī, _Pompeii_.

2. Many names of festivals; as, Megalēsia, _the Megalesian festival_.

3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important:--

angustiae, _narrow pass_. mānēs, _spirits of the
arma, _weapons_. dead_.
dēliciae, _delight_. moenia, _city walls_.
dīvitiae, _riches_. minae, _threats_.
Īdūs, _Ides_. nūptiae, _marriage_.
indūtiae, _truce_. posterī, _descendants_.
īnsidiae, _ambush_. reliquiae, _remainder_.
majōrēs, _ancestors_. tenebrae, _darkness_.
verbera, _blows_.

Also in classical prose regularly--

cervīcēs, _neck_. nārēs, _nose_.
fidēs, _lyre_. vīscerā, _viscera_.

Nouns used only in Certain Cases.

57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular as, jussū, _by the order_; injussū, _without the order_; nātū, _by birth_.

2. Used in Two Cases.

a. Fors (_chance_), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl. Sing.

b. Spontis (_free-will_), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing.

3. Used in Three Cases. Nēmō, _no one_ (Nom.), has also the Dat. nēminī and the Acc. nēminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nūllus; viz. nūllīus and nūllō.

4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and Acc. Plu.; viz. impetus, impetum, impetū, impetūs.

5. a. Precī, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.

b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.

6. Opis, dapis, and frūgis,--all lack the Nom. Sing.

7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.: as, cor, lūx, sōl, aes, ōs (ōris), rūs, sāl, tūs.

Indeclinable Nouns.

58. Here belong--

fās, n., _right_. nefās, n., _impiety_.
īnstar, n., _likeness_. nihil, n., _nothing_.
māne, n., _morning_. secus, n., _sex_.

1. With the exception of māne (which may serve also as Ablative, _in the morning_), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.

Heteroclites.

59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus:--

1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another; as,--

vās, vāsis (_vessel_); Plu., vāsa, vāsorōum, vāsīs, etc.
jūgerum, jūgerī (_acre_); Plu., jūgera, jūgerum, jūgeribus, etc.

2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus:--

a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and
Acc. of the Fifth; as, māteriēs, māteriem, _material_, as well as
māteria, māteriam.

b) Famēs, _hunger_, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. famē
of the Fifth.

c) Requiēs, requiētis, _rest_, regularly of the Third Declension, takes
an Acc. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requiētem.

d) Besides plēbs, plēbis, _common people_, of the Third Declension, we
find plēbēs, plēbĕī (also plēbī, see § 52, 2), of the Fifth.

Heterogeneous Nouns.

60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus:--

1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,--one Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, _shield_; carrus, carrum, _cart_.

2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural; as,--

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
balneum, n., _bath_; balneae, f., _bath-house_.
epulum, n., _feast_; epulae, f., _feast_.
frēnum, n., _bridle_; frēnī, m.(rarely frēna, n.), _bridle_.
jocus, m., _jest_; joca, n. (also jocī, m.), _jests_.
locus, m., _place_; loca, n., _places_; locī, m., _passages
or topics in an author_.
rāstrum, n., _rake_; rāstrī, m.; rāstra, n., _rakes_.

a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case
of the first two examples above.

Plurals with Change of Meaning.

61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural:--

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
aedēs, _temple_; aedēs, _house_.
auxilium, _help_; auxilia, _auxiliary troops_.
carcer, _prison_; carcerēs, _stalls for racing-chariot_.
castrum, _fort_; castra, _camp_.
cōpia, _abundance_; cōpiae, _troops_, _resources_.
fīnis, _end_; fīnēs, _borders_, _territory_.
fortūna, _fortune_; fortūnae, _possessions_, _wealth_.
grātia, _favor_, grātiae, _thanks_.
_gratitude_;
impedīmentum, impedīmenta, _baggage_.
_hindrance_;
littera, _letter_ (of the litterae, _epistle; literature_.
alphabet);
mōs, _habit_, _custom_; mōrēs, _character_.
opera, _help_, _service_; operae, _laborers_.
(ops) opis, _help_; opēs, _resources_.
pars, _part_; partēs, _party_; _rôle_.
sāl, _salt_; sălēs, _wit_.

* * * * *

B. ADJECTIVES.

62. Adjectives denote _quality_. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes,--

1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.

* * * * *

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.

63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like hortus:--

Bonus, _good_.

SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ bonus bona bonum
_Gen._ bonī bonae bonī
_Dat._ bonō bonae bonō
_Acc._ bonum bonam bonum
_Voc._ bone bona bonum
_Abl._ bonō bonā bonō

PLURAL.
_Nom._ bonī bonae bona
_Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum
_Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs
_Acc._ bonōs bonās bona
_Voc._ bonī bonae bona
_Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs

1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -iī (not in -ī as in case of Nouns; see § 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in ī. Thus eximius forms Gen. eximiī; Voc. eximie.

2. Distributives (see § 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and Neut. in -um instead of -ōrum (compare § 25, 6); as, dēnum centēnum; but always singulōrum.

64. Masculine like puer:--

Tener, _tender_.

SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE NEUTER.
_Nom._ tener tenera tenerum
_Gen._ tenerī tenerae tenerī
_Dat._ tenerō tenerae tenerō
_Acc._ tenerum teneram tenerum
_Voc._ tener tenera tenerum
_Abl._ tenerō tenerā tenerō

PLURAL.
_Nom._ tenerī tenerae tenera
_Gen._ tenerōrum tenerārum tenerōrum
_Dat._ tenerīs tenerīs tenerīs
_Acc._ tenerōs tenerās tenera
_Voc._ tenerī tenerae tenera
_Abl._ tenerīs tenerīs tenerīs

65. Masculine like ager:--

Sacer, _sacred_.

SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ sacer sacra sacrum
_Gen._ sacrī sacrae sacrī
_Dat._ sacrō sacrae sacrō
_Acc._ sacrum sacram sacrum
_Voc._ sacer sacra sacrum
_Abl._ sacrō sacrā sacrō

PLURAL.
_Nom._ sacrī sacrae sacra
_Gen._ sacrōrum sacrārum sacrōrum
_Dat._ sacrīs sacrīs sacrīs
_Acc._ sacrōs sacrās sacra
_Voc._ sacrī sacrae sacra
_Abl._ sacrīs sacrīs sacrīs

1. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following however, are declined like tener: asper, _rough_; lacer, _torn_; līber, _free_; miser, _wretched_; prōsper, _prosperous_; compounds in -fer and -ger; sometimes dexter, _right_.

2. Satur, _full_, is declined: satur, satura, saturum.

Nine Irregular Adjectives.

66. Here belong--

alius, _another_; alter, _the other_;
ūllus, _any_; nūllus, _none_;
uter, _which?_ (of two); neuter, _neither_;
sōlus, _alone_; tōtus, _whole_;
ūnus, _one_, _alone_.

They are declined as follows:--

SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ alius alia aliud
_Gen._ alterĭus alterĭus alterĭus[15]
_Dat._ aliī aliī aliī
_Acc._ alium aliam aliud
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ aliō aliā aliō

_Nom._ alter altera alterum
_Gen._ alterĭus alterĭus alterĭus
_Dat._ alterī alterī[16] alterī
_Acc._ alterum alteram alterum
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ alterō alterā alterō

_Nom._ uter utra utrum
_Gen._ utrīus utrīus utrīus
_Dat._ utrī utrī utrī
_Acc._ utrum utram utrum
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ utrō utrā utrō

_Nom._ tōtus tōta tōtum
_Gen._ tōtīus tōtīus tōtīus
_Dat._ tōtī tōtī tōtī
_Acc._ tōtum tōtam tōtum
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ tōtō tōtā tōtō

1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular.

2. Neuter is declined like uter.

* * * * *

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

67. These fall into three classes,--

1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,--one for each gender.

2. Adjectives of two terminations.

3. Adjectives of one termination.

a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned
below in § 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the
inflection of ĭ-stems; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -ī, the
Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -īs (as well as -ēs) in
the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in
-ia in Neuters.

Adjectives of Three Terminations.

68. These are declined as follows:--

Ācer, _sharp_.

SINGULAR.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ ācer ācris ācre
_Gen._ ācris ācris ācris
_Dat._ ācrī ācrī ācrī
_Acc._ ācrem ācrem ācre
_Voc._ ācer ācris ācre
_Abl._ ācrī ācrī ācrī

PLURAL.
_Nom._ ācrēs ācrēs ācria
_Gen._ ācrium ācrium ācrium
_Dat_, ācribus ācribus ācribus
_Acc._ ācrēs, -īs ācrēs, -īs ācria
_Voc._ ācrēs ācrēs ācria
_Abl._ ācribus ācribus ācribus

1. Like ācer are declined alacer, _lively_; campester, _level_; celeber, _famous_; equester, _equestrian_; palūster, _marshy_; pedester, _pedestrian_; puter, _rotten_; salūber, _wholesome_; silvester, _woody_; terrester, _terrestrial_; volucer, _winged_; also names of months in -ber, as September.

2. Celer, celeris, celere, _swift_, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural.

3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salūbris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry.

Adjectives of Two Terminations.

69. These are declined as follows:--

Fortis, _strong._ Fortior, _stronger._
SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.
_Nom._ fortis forte fortior fortius
_Gen._ fortis fortis fortiōris fortiōris
_Dat._ fortī fortī fortiōrī fortiōrī
_Acc._ fortem forte fortiōrem fortius
_Voc._ fortis forte fortior fortius
_Abl._ fortī fortī fortiōre fortiōre

PLURAL.
_Nom._ fortēs fortia fortiōrēs fortiōra
_Gen._ fortium fortium fortiōrum fortiōrum
_Dat._ fortibus fortibus fortiōribus fortiōribus
_Acc._ fortēs, -īs fortia fortiōrēs, -īs fortiōra
_Voc._ fortēs fortia fortiōrēs fortiōra
_Abl._ fortibus fortibus fortiōribus fortiōribus

1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way. The Acc. Plu. in -īs is rare.

Adjectives of One Termination.

70. Fēlīx, _happy._. Prūdēns, _prudent._

SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.
_Nom._ fēlīx fēlīx prūdēns prūdēns
_Gen._ fēlīcīs fēlīcis prūdentis prūdentis
_Dat._ fēlīcī fēlīcī prūdentī prūdentī
_Acc._ fēlīcem fēlīx prūdentem prūdēns
_Voc._ fēlīx fēlīx prūdēns prūdēns
_Abl._ fēlīcī fēlīcī prūdentī prūdentī

PLURAL.
_Nom._ fēlīcēs fēlīcia prūdentēs prūdentia
_Gen._ fēlīcium fēlīcium prūdentium prūdentium
_Dat._ fēlīcibus fēlīcibus prūdentibus prūdentibus
_Acc._ fēlīcēs, -īs fēlīcia prūdentēs, -īs prūdentia
_Voc._ fēlīcēs fēlīcia prūdentēs prūdentia
_Abl._ fēlīcibus fēlīcibus prūdentibus prūdentibus

Vetus, _old_. Plūs, _more_.

SINGULAR.
M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT.
_Nom._ vetus vetus ---- plūs
_Gen._ veteris veteris ---- plūris
_Dat._ veterī veterī ---- ----
_Acc._ veterem vetus ---- plūs
_Voc._ vetus vetus ---- ----
_Abl._ vetere vetere ---- plūre

PLURAL.
_Nom._ veterēs vetera plūrēs plūra
_Gen._ veterum veterum plūrium plūrium
_Dat._ veteribus veteribus plūribus plūribus
_Acc._ veterēs vetera plūrēs, -īs plūra
_Voc._ veterēs vetera ---- ----
_Abl._ veteribus veteribus plūribus plūribus

1. It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-Stem; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -ēs only. In the same way are declined compos, _controlling_; dīves, _rich_; particeps, _sharing_; pauper, _poor_; prīnceps, _chief_; sōspes, _safe_; superstes, _surviving_. Yet dīves always has Neut. Plu. dītia.

2. Inops, _needy_, and memor, _mindful_, have Ablative Singular inopī, memorī, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum.

3. Participles in -āns and -ēns follow the declension of ī-stems. But they do not have -ī the Ablative, except when employed as adjectives; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,--

ā sapientī virō, _by a wise man_; but
ā sapiente, _by a philosopher._
Tarquiniō rēgnante, _under the reign of Tarquin._

4. Plūs, in the Singular, is always a noun.

5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,--

a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,--

aequālis, _contemporary_, Abl. aequālī.
cōnsulāris, _ex-consul_, Abl. cōnsulārī

So names of Months; as, Aprīlī, _April_; Decembrī, _December_.

b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular;
as, Celere, Celer; Juvenāle, _Juvenal_.

c) Patrials in -ās, -ātis and -īs, -ītis, when designating places
regularly have -ī; as, in Arpīnātī, _on the estate at Arpinum_, yet -e,
when used of persons; as, ab Arpīnāte, _by an Arpinatian_.

6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frūgī, _frugal_; nēquam, _worthless_.

7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, _of those coming_.

* * * * *

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,--the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel; as,--

altus, _high_, altior, _higher_, altissimus, _highest_,
_very high_.
fortis, _brave_, fortior, fortissimus.
fēlīx, _fortunate_, fēlīcior, fēlīcissimus.

So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,--

doctus, _learned_, doctior, doctissimus.
egēns, _needy_, egentior, egentissimus.

3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus:--

asper, _rough_, asperior, asperrimus.
pulcher, _beautiful_, pulchrior, pulcherrimus.
ācer, _sharp_, ācrior, ācerrimus.
celer, _swift_, celerior, celerrimus.

a. Notice mātūrus, mātūrior, mātūrissimus or mātūrrimus.

4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is regular. Thus:--

facilis, _easy_, facilior, facillimus.
difficilis, _diffcult_, difficilior, difficillimus.
similis, _like_, similior, simillimus.
dissimilis, _unlike_, dissimilior, dissimillimus.
humilis, _low_, humilior, humillimus.

5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dīcēns, -ficēns, -volēns. Thus:--

maledicus, _slanderous_, maledīcentior, maledīcentissimus.
magnificus, _magnificent_, magnificentior, magnificentissimus.
benevolus, _kindly_, benevolentior, benevolentissimus.

a. Positives in -dīcēns and -volēns occur in early Latin; as maledīcēns,
benevolēns.

6. Dīves has the Comparative dīvitior or dītior; Superlative dīvitissimus or dītissimus.

Irregular Comparison.

72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; _viz_.--

bonus, _good_, melior, optimus.
malus, _bad_, pejor, pessimus.
parvus, _small_, minor, minimus.
magnus, _large_, major, maximus.
multus, _much_, plūs, plūrimus,
frūgī, _thrifty_, frūgālior, frūgālissimus,
nēquam, _worthless_, nēquior, nēquissimus.

Defective Comparison.

73. 1. Positive lacking entirely,--

(Cf. prae, _in front prior, _former_, prīmus, _first_
of_.)
(Cf. citrā, _this side citerior, _on this citimus, _near_.
of_.) side_,
(Cf. ultrā, _beyond_.) ulterior, _farther_, ultimus, _farthest_.
(Cf. intrā, _within_.) interior, _inner_, intimus, _inmost_
(Cf. prope, _near_.) propior, _nearer_, proximus, _nearest_.
(Cf. dē, _down_.) dēterior, _inferior_, dēterrimus, _worst_.
(Cf. archaic potis, potior, _preferable_, potissimus, _chiefest_
_possible_.)

2. Positive occurring only in special cases,--

posterō diē, annō, posterior, _later_, postrēmus, _latest_,
etc. _the following _last_.
day_, etc., postumus, _late-born_,
posterī, _posthumous_.
_descendants_,
exteri, exterior, _outer_ extrēmus, extimus,
_foreigners_, _outermost_.
nātiōnēs exterae,
_foreign nations_,
inferī, _gods of the īnferior, _lower_, īnfimus, īmus,
lower world_, _lowest_.
Mare Inferum,
_Mediterranean Sea_,
superī, _gods superior, _higher_, suprēmus, _last_.
above_, summus, _highest_.
Mare Superum,
_Adriatic Sea_,

3. Comparative lacking.

vetus, _old_, ----[17] veterrimus.
fīdus, _faithful_, ---- fīdissimus.
novus, _new_, ----[18] novissimus,[19] _last_.
sacer, _sacred_, ---- sacerrimus.
falsus, _false_, ---- falsissimus.

Also in some other words less frequently used.

4. Superlative lacking.

alacer, _lively_, alacrior, ----
ingēns, _great_, ingentior, ----
salūtāris, _wholesome_, salūtārior, ----
juvenis, _young_, jūnior, ----[20]
senex, _old_, senior. ----[21]

a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -ālis, -īlis,
-ĭlis, -bilis, and in a few others.

Comparison by _Magis_ and _Maximē_.

74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (_more_) and maximē (_most_). Here belong--

1. Many adjectives ending in -ālis, -āris, -idus, -īlis, -icus, imus, īnus, -ōrus.

2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idōneus, _adapted_; arduus, _steep_; necessārius, _necessary_.

a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first
u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant.

Adjectives not admitting Comparison.

75. Here belong--

1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, _of to-day_; annuus, _annual_; mortālis, _mortal_.

2. Some special words; as, mīrus, gnārus, merus; and a few others.

* * * * *

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon them for their comparison.

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -ī of the Genitive Singular to -ē; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter; as,--

cārus, cārē, _dearly_;
pulcher, pulchrē, _beautifully_;
ācer, ācriter, _fiercely_;
levis, leviter, _lightly_.

a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter),
to form the Adverb; as,--

sapiēns, sapienter, _wisely_;
sollers, sollerter, _skillfully_.

Note audāx, audācter, _boldly_.

2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -ī of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -ē. Thus--

(cārus) cārē, _dearly_, cārius, cārissimē.
(pulcher) pulchrē, _beautifully_, pulchrius, pulcherrimē.
(ācer) ācriter, _fiercely_, ācrius, ācerrimē.
(levis) leviter, _lightly_, levius, levissimē.
(sapiēns) sapienter, _wisely_, sapientius, sapientissimē.
(audāx) audācter, _boldly_, audācius, audācissimē.

Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.

77. 1., _well_, melius, optimē.
malĕ, _ill_, pejus, pessimē.
magnopere, _greatly_, magis, maximē.
multum, _much_, plūs, plūrimum.
nōn multum, _little_, minus, minimē.
parum,
diū, _long_, diūtius, diūtissimē.
nēquiter, _worthlessly_, nēquius, nēquissimē.
saepe, _often_, saepius, saepissimē.
mātūrē, _betimes_, mātūrius, mātūrrimē.
mātūrissimē.
prope, _near_, propius, proximē.
nūper, _recently_, ---- nūperrimē.
---- potius, _rather_, potissimum,
_especially_.
---- prius, _previously_, prīmum, _first_.
_before_,
secus, _otherwise_, sētius, _less_.

2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -ō, instead of -ē; as,--

crēbrō, _frequently_; falsō, _falsely_;
continuō, subitō, _suddenly_;
_immediately_;
rārō, _rarely_, and a few
others.

a. cito, quickly, has -ŏ.

3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb; as,--

multum, _much_; paulum, facile,
_little_; _easily_.

4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter; as,--

fīrmus, fīrmiter, _firmly_; hūmānus, hūmāniter, _humanly_;
largus, largiter, _copiously_; alius, aliter, _otherwise_.

a. violentus has violenter.

5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are -tus and -tim; as, antīquitus, _anciently_; paulātim, _gradually_.

* * * * *

NUMERALS.

78. Numerals may be divided into--

I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising--

a. _Cardinals_; as, ūnus, _one_; duo, _two_; etc.

b. _Ordinals_; as, prīmus, _first_; secundus, _second_; etc.

c. _Distributives_; as, singulī, _one by one_; bīnī, _two by two_; etc.

II. Numeral Adverbs; as, semel, _once_; bis, _twice_; etc.

79. TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

CARDINALS. ORDINALS.
1. ūnus, ūna, ūnum prīmus, _first_
2. duo, duae, duo secundus, _second_
3. trēs, tria tertius, _third_
4. quattuor quārtus, _fourth_
5. quīnque quīntus, _fifth_
6. sex sextus
7. septem septimus
8. octo octāvus
9. novem nōnus
10. decem decimus
11. ūndecim ūndecimus
12. duodecim duodecimus
13. tredecim tertius decimus
14. quattuordecim quārtus decimus
15. quīndecim quīntus decimus
16. sēdecim, sextus decimus
sexdecim
17. septendecim septimus decimus
18. duodēvīgintī duodēvīcēsimus
19. ūndēvīgintī ūndēvīcēsimus
20. vīgintī vīcēsimus
21. vīgintī ūnus, vīcēsimus prīmus,
ūnus et vīgintī ūnus et vīcēsimus
22. vīgintī duo, vīcēsimus secundus,
duo et vīgintī alter et vīcēsimus
30. trīgintā trīcēsimus
40. quadrāgintā quadrāgēsimus
50. quīnquāgintā quīnquāgēsimus
60. sexāgintā sexāgēsimus
70. septuāgintā septuāgēsimus
80. octōgintā octōgēsimus
90. nōnāgintā nōnāgēsimus
100. centum centēsimus
101. centum ūnus, centēsimus prīmus,
centum et ūnus centēsimus et prīmus
200. ducentī, -ae, -a ducentēsimus
300. trecentī trecentēsimus
400. quadringentī quadringentēsimus
500. quīngentī quīngentēsimus
600. sescentī sescentēsimus
700. septingentī septingentēsimus
800. octingentī octingentēsimus
900. nōngentī nōngentēsimus
1,000. mīlle mīllēsimus
2,000. duo mīlia bis mīllēsimus
100,000. centum mīlia centiēs mīllēsimus
1,000,000. deciēs centēna mīlia deciēs centiēs mīllēsimus

DISTRIBUTIVES. ADVERBS.
1. singuli, _one by one_ semel, _once_
2. bīnī, _two by two_ bis
3. ternī (trīnī) ter
4. quaternī quater
5. quīnī quīnquiēs
6. sēnī sexiēs
7. septēnī septiēs
8. octōnī octiēs
9. novēnī noviēs
10. dēnī deciēs
11. ūndēnī ūndeciēs
12. duodēnī duodeciēs
13. ternī denī terdeciēs
14. quaternī denī quaterdeciēs
15. quīnī dēnī quīnquiēs deciēs
16. sēnī dēnī sexiēs deciēs
17. septēnī dēnī septiēs deciēs
18. duodēvicēnī octiēs deciēs
19. ūndēvīcēnī noviēs deciēs
20. vīcēnī vīciēs
21. vīcēnī singulī, vīciēs semel
singulī et vīcēnī
22. vīcēni bīnī, vīciēs bis
bīnī et vīcēnī
30. trīcēnī trīciēs
40. quadrāgēnī quadrāgiēs
50. quīnquāgēnī quīnquāgiēs
60. sexāgēnī sexāgiēs
70. septuāgēnī septuāgiēs
80. octōgēnī octōgiēs
90. nōnāgēnī nōnāgiēs
100. centēnī centiēs
101. centēnī singulī, centiēs semel
centēnī et singulī
200. ducēnī ducentiēs
300. trecēnī trecentiēs
400. quadringēnī quadringentiēs
500. quīngēnī quīngentiēs
600. sescēnī sescentiēs
700. septingēnī septingentiēs
800. octingēnī octingentiēs
900. nōngēnī nōngentiēs
1,000. singula mīlia mīliēs
2,000. bīna mīlia bis mīliēs
100,000. centēna mīlia centiēs mīliēs
1,000,000. deciēs centēna mīlia deciēs centiēs mīliēs

NOTE.-- -ēnsimus and -iēns are often written in the numerals instead of -ēsimus and -iēs.

Declension of the Cardinals.

80. 1. The declension of ūnus has already been given under § 66.

2. Duo is declined as follows:--

_Nom._ duo duae duo
_Gen._ duōrum duārum duōrum
_Dat._ duōbus duābus duōbus
_Acc._ duōs, duo duās duo
_Abl._ duōbus duābus duōbus

a. So ambō, _both_, except that its final o is long.

3. Trēs is declined,--

_Nom._ trēs tria
_Gen._ trium trium
_Dat._ tribus tribus
_Acc._ trēs (trīs) tria
_Abl._ tribus tribus

4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus.

5. Mīlle is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable. In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects enumerated; § 201, 1), and is declined,--

_Nom._ mīlia _Acc._ mīlia
_Gen._ mīlium _Voc._ mīlia
_Dat._ mīlibus _Abl._ mīlibus

Thus mīlle hominēs, _a thousand men_; but duo mīlia hominum, _two thousand men_, literally _two thousands of men_.

a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction; as, mīlle
hominum.

6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals.

81. 1. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used. Thus:--

trīgintā sex or sex et trīgintā, _thirty-six_.

2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by subtraction; as,--

duodēvīgintī, _eighteen_ (but also octōdecim);

ūndēquadrāgintā, _thirty-nine_ (but also trīgintā novem or novem et
trīgintā).

3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others follow without et; as,--

centum vīgintī septem, _one hundred and twenty-seven_.

annō octingentēsimō octōgēsimō secundō, _in the year 882_.

Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of the tens; as,--

centum et septem, _one hundred and seven_;

centum et quadrāgintā, _one hundred and forty_.

4. The Distributives are used--

a) To denote _so much each_, _so many apiece_; as,--

bīna talenta eīs dedit, _he gave them two talents each_.

b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in
meaning, are employed in a Plural sense; as,--

bīnae litterae, _two epistles_.

But in such cases, ūnī (not singulī) is regularly employed for _one_, and
trīnī (not ternī) for three; as,--

ūnae litterae, _one epistle_; trīnae litterae, _three epistles_.

c) In multiplication; as,--

bis bīna sunt quattuor, _twice two are four_.

d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals; as,--

bīna hastīlia, _two spears_.

* * * * *

C. PRONOUNS.

82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it.

83. There are the following classes of pronouns:--

I. Personal. V. Intensive.
II. Reflexive. VI. Relative.
III. Possessive. VII. Interrogative.
IV. Demonstrative. VIII. Indefinite.

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

84. These correspond to the English _I_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., and are declined as follows:--

First Person. Second Person. Third Person.

SINGULAR.
_Nom._ ego, _I_ tū, _thou_ is, _he_; ea, _she_; id,
_it_
_Gen._ meī tuī (For declension see § 87.)
_Dat._ mihi[22] tibi[22]
_Acc._ mē tē
_Voc._ ---- tū
_Abl._ mē tē

PLURAL.
_Nom._ nōs, _we_ vōs, _you_
_Gen._ nostrum, nostrī vestrum, vestrī
_Dat._ nōbīs vōbīs
_Acc._ nōs vōs
_Voc._ ---- vōs
_Abl._ nōbīs vōbīs

1. A Dative Singular mī occurs in poetry.

2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet, _I myself_; tibimet, _to you yourself_; tū has tūte and tūtemet (written also tūtimet).

3. In early Latin, mēd and tēd occur as Accusative and Ablative forms.

* * * * *

II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; like _myself_, _yourself_, in '_I see myself_,' etc. They are declined as follows:--

_First Person._ _Second Person._ _Third Person._
Supplied by oblique Supplied by oblique
cases of ego. cases of tū.
_Gen._ meī, _of myself_ tuī, _of thyself_ suī
_Dat._ mihi, _to myself_ tibi, _to thyself_ sibi[22]
_Acc._ mē, _myself_ tē, _thyself_ sē or sēsē
_Voc._ ---- ---- ----
_Abl._ mē, _with myself_, tē, _with thyself_, sē or sēsē
etc. etc.

1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for _all genders_ and for _both numbers_. Thus sui may mean, _of himself_, _herself_, _itself_, or _of themselves_; and so with the other forms.

2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a _reciprocal_ force; as,--

inter sē pugnant, _they fight with each other_.

3. In early Latin, sēd occurs as Accusative and Ablative.

* * * * *

III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are--

_First Person._ _Second Person._
meus, -a, -um, _my_; tuus, -a, -um, _thy_;
noster, nostra, nostrum, vester, vestra, vestrum,
_our_; _your_;

_Third Person._
suus, -a, -um, _his_, _her_, _its_, _their_.

1. Suus is exclusively Reflexive; as,--

pater līberōs suōs amat, _the father loves his children_.

Otherwise, _his_, _her_, _its_ are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular of is, viz. ejus; and _their_ by the Genitive Plural, eōrum, eārum.

2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mī.

3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly common in case of suō, suā; as, suōpte, suāpte.

* * * * *

IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned. They are--

hīc, _this_ (where I am);
iste, _that_ (where you are);
ille, _that_ (something distinct from the speaker);
is, _that_ (weaker than ille);
īdem, _the same_.

Hīc, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively.

Hīc, _this_.
SINGULAR PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ hīc haec hōc hī hae haec
_Gen._ hūjus[23] hūjus hūjus hōrum hārum hōrum
_Dat._ huic huic huic hīs hīs hīs
_Acc._ hunc hanc hōc hōs hās haec
_Abl._ hōc hāc hōc hīs hīs hīs

Iste, _that_, _that of yours._
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ iste ista istud[24] istī istae ista[24]
_Gen._ istīus istīus istīus istōrum istārum istōrum
_Dat._ istī istī istī istīs istīs istīs
_Acc._ istum istam istud istōs istās ista[24]
_Abl._ istō istā istō istīs istīs istīs

Ille (archaic olle), _that_, _that one_, _he_, is declined like iste.[25]

Is, _he_, _this_, _that_.
SINGULAR PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom_. is ea id eī, iī, eae ea
(ī)
_Gen._ ejus ejus ejus eōrum eārum eōrum
_Dat._ eī eī eī eīs, iīs eīs, iīs eīs, iīs
_Acc._ eum eam id eōs eās ea
_Abl._ eō eā eō eīs, iīs eīs, iīs eīs, iīs

Īdem, _the same_.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom_. īdem eadem idem eīdem, eaedem eadem
iīdem
_Gen._ ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eōrundem eārundem eōrundem
_Dat._ eīdem eīdem eīdem eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem
_Acc._ eundem eandem idem eōsdem eāsdem eadem
_Abl._ eōdem eādem eōdem eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem

The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has īdem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. īsdem or iīsdem

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V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.

88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corresponds to the English _myself_, etc., in '_I myself_, _he himself._'

SINGULAR PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ ipse ipsa ipsum ipsī ipsae ipsa
_Gen._ ipsīus ipsīus ipsīus ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum
_Dat._ ipsī ipsī ipsī ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs
_Acc._ ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsōs ipsās ipsa
_Abl._ ipsō ipsā ipsō ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs

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VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

89. The Relative Pronoun is quī, who. It is declined:--

SINGULAR PLURAL.
MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER.
_Nom._ quī quae quod quī quae quae
_Gen._ cūjus cūjus cūjus quōrum quārum quōrum
_Dat._ cui cui cui quibus[26] quibus quibus
_Acc._ quem quam quod quōs quās quae
_Abl._ quō[27] quā[27] quō quibus[26] quibus quibus

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VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, _who?_ (substantive) and quī, _what? what kind of?_ (adjective).

1. Quis, _who_?

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER
_Nom._ quis quid The rare Plural
_Gen._ cūjus cūjus follows the declension
_Dat._ cui cui of the Relative Pronoun.
_Acc._ quem quid
_Abl._ quō quō

2. Quī, _what? what kind of?_ is declined precisely like the Relative Pronoun; viz. quī, quae, quod, etc.

a. An old Ablative quī occurs, in the sense of _how? why?_

b. Quī is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions.

c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective.
But in such cases quis homō = _what man?_ whereas quī homō = _what sort
of man?_

d. Quis and quī may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:--

Substantive: quisnam, _who, pray?_ quidnam, _what, pray?_
Adjective: quīnam, quaenam, quodnam, _of what kind, pray?_

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VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

91. These have the general force of _some one_, _any one_.

SUBSTANTIVES. ADJECTIVES.
M. AND F. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
quis, quid, quī, quae, qua, quod,
_any one_, _anything_. _any_.
aliquis, aliquid, aliquī, aliqua, aliquod,
_some one_, _any_.
_something_.
quisquam, quidquam, quisquam, quidquam,
_any one_, _anything_. _any_ (rare)
quispiam, quidpiam, quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam,
_any one_, _anything_. _any_.
quisque, quidque, quisque, quaeque, quodque,
_each_. _each_.
quīvīs, quaevīs, quidvīs, quīvis, quaevīs, quodvis,
quīlibet, quaelibet, quidlibet quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet,
_any one_ (_anything_) _any you wish_
_you wish_
quīdam, quaedam, quiddam, quīdam, quaedam, quoddam,
_a certain person_, or _a certain_
_thing_.

1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined. Thus: Genitive Singular alicūjus, cūjuslibet, etc.

2. Note that aliquī has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Feminine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Quī has both qua and quae in these same cases.

3. Quīdam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam; Genitive Plural quōrundam, quārundam; the m being assimilated to n before d.

4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliquī substantively.

5. In combination with nē, sī, nisi, num, either quis or quī may stand as a Substantive. Thus: sī quis or sī quī.

6. Ecquis, _any one_, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms,--substantive, ecquis, ecquid; adjective, ecquī, ecquae and ecqua, ecquod.

7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural.

8. There are two Indefinite Relatives,--quīcumque and quisquis, _whoever_. Quīcumque declines only the first part; quisquis declines both but has only quisquis, quidquid, quōquō, in common use.

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PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

92. The following adjectives, also, frequently have pronominal force:--

1. alius, _another;_ alter, _the other;_
uter, _which of two?_ (interr.); neuter, _neither;_
_whichever of two_ (rel.);
ūnus, _one_; nūllus, _no one_ (in oblique
cases)

2. The compounds,--

uterque, utraque, utrumque, _each of two;_
utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, _whoever of two;_
uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, _either one you please;_
utervīs, utravīs, utrumvīs, _either one you please;_
alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, _the one or the other_.

In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts; as,--

_Nom._ alteruter altera utra alterum utrum
_Gen._ alterius utrīus, etc.

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