Chapter CXXVIII: Conclusion

All the separate nations which have lived side by side, or followed one another, are embraced under the general name, humanity. Who would deny the existence of a point, viewed from which humanity might be seen to constitute one great whole; all the variations and differences in its life only one great plan, one wonderful sovereign decree of the divine will, grandly and wonderfully executed by God? Or who is so bold as to say that he stands on this point himself? Theologians should be the last to do it, since even the apostle Paul calls God's ways inscrutable. So long as we do not even know whether we live in one of the first or one of the last decades of humanity, every system of universal history in which each nation and period is made to take its place in due subordination to its superiors, can be only a castle in the air; and it is a matter of indifference whether the basis of the system is philosophical, socialistic, or natural-philosophical.[265-1]

The usual error into which the builders of such history fall, is that they consider the peculiarities of certain stages of civilization, which may be shown to exist among all nations in the corresponding period of their history as the national peculiarity of the single people with whose history they are, for the time being, concerned. They deduce wonderful consequences, from the premises they laid down, but which our increasing acquaintance with other nations immediately shows to be unfounded.

There is, however, a number of facts really peculiar to a people which make up the national character, and which may give to an observer endowed with an imaginative mind, an inkling to the special vocation in the economy of providence of a particular people. That a positive system can be constructed from the material of such facts, I do not, indeed, think. But they are at least a safeguard against false systems, against the improper application of analogies, against the idle, fatalistic exaggeration of the maxim: "nothing new under the sun!" It had almost become the fashion to compare our present with the period of decline of the Greek and Roman republics. Frightful parallel, in which the greatest and most undoubted differences were frequently overlooked for smaller and certainly questionable similarities. Is not the abolition of slavery, which has been accomplished among all the most important nations of the present, something new and of great import from a moral and economic point of view?[265-2] Can the national wealth, which depends on labor and frugality, be in any way compared with that which was based on plunder? And so, no one can calculate the benefits which may be reaped by posterity from the mere continuation of the scientific and especially natural-philosophical results obtained by former generations. The discovery of the whole earth soon to be completed, and its probable consequence, the civilization of all nations of any importance, must remove the danger to which all the civilized nations of antiquity eventually succumbed, namely, destruction by entirely barbarous hordes. Nor should the significance of the state-system of Europe, which might be extended soon enough into a state-system embracing the world, be under-estimated. Macedonia would not so readily have subjugated the Hellenes and the Persians if the great powers of the west, Rome and Carthage, had intervened at the right time. And there, too, is Christianity, whose means of grace are at hand for every one at all times, for his complete moral regeneration.

In one word, the usual argument with which the "man of experience" meets the man of inventive genius, that there never was anything of the like seen before, may suffice in thousands and thousands of cases; but it affords no strict proof. It is the province of genius to compel rules to extend their limits. But science should never forget that self-denial is necessary to the discovery of truth.[265-3]

[Footnote 265-1: I mean here, especially, the attempt so
frequently made (by _Herder_, for instance) to draw a
parallel between the periods of universal history and the
age at different times of the individual, or with the
seasons. If there were a great many humanities between which
we might institute a comparison, we might accomplish
something with the analogy, but----!]

[Footnote 265-2: However, even such a man as Minister
_Stein_, thinks that a laboriously acquired wealth may
affect a people's morality injuriously. "The striving after
wealth is the striving for the possession of the means of
satisfying chiefly sensuous wants. This striving may
suppress all nobler feelings, whether it find expression in
violence or industry." Contrariwise, it is possible that
some of the noblest of human qualities may be found side by
side with the forcible acquisition of wealth, viz.: courage,
patriotism. (_Pertz_, Leben Steins, II, 466.)]

[Footnote 265-3: Compare my discourse on the relation of
Political Economy to classic antiquity in the transactions
of the royal Saxon Academy of Sciences, May, 1849; also many
excellent remarks in _Knies_, Polit. Oekonomie. _Chr. J.
Kraus_, has zealously discussed the question whether the
development of humanity turns about eternally in a circle,
or whether it forever advances to a progressively better
future. He strongly advocates the latter view, and on
grounds which appeal both to the head and to the heart.
(Vermischte Schriften, III, 146 ff.; IV, 277 ff.)]

APPENDIX II.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE.