Chapter XXXVI: Section 10: No State Shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or (6)

[1180] James _v._ Campbell, 104 U.S. 356, 358 (1882). _See also_ United States _v._ Burns, 12 Wall. 246, 252 (1871); Cammeyer _v._ Newton, 94 U.S. 225, 234 (1877); Hollister _v._ Benedict Manufacturing Co., 113 U.S. 59, 67 (1885); United States _v._ Palmer, 128 U.S. 262, 271 (1888); Belknap _v._ Schild, 161 U.S. 10, 16 (1896).

[1181] McClurg _v._ Kingsland, 1 How. 202, 206 (1843).

[1182] Bloomer _v._ McQuewan, 14 How. 539, 553 (1852).

[1183] _See_ Motion Picture Co. _v._ Universal Film Co., 243 U.S. 502 (1917); Morton Salt Co. _v._ Suppiger Co., 314 U.S. 488 (1942); United States _v._ Masonite Corp., 316 U.S. 265 (1942); and United States _v._ New Wrinkle, Inc., 342 U.S. 371 (1952), where the Justices divide 6 to 3 as to the significance for the case of certain leading precedents. _See also_ Inlow, The Patent Clause, Chap. V.

[1184] Patterson _v._ Kentucky, 97 U.S. 501 (1879).

[1185] Allen _v._ Riley, 203 U.S. 347 (1906): Woods & Sons _v._ Carl, 203 U.S. 358 (1906); Ozan Lumber Co. _v._ Union County Bank, 207 U.S. 251 (1907).

[1186] Fox Film Corp. _v._ Doyal, 280 U.S. 123 (1932)--overruling Long _v._ Rockwood, 277 U.S. 142 (1928).

[1187] 100 U.S. 82 (1879).

[1188] Ibid. 94.

[1189] Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. _v._ Sarony, 111 U.S. 53 (1884).

[1190] Bleistein _v._ Donaldson Lithographing Co., 188 U.S. 239, 252 (1903).

[1191] Kent, Commentaries, 1-2, (12th ed. 1873).

[1192] XIX Journals of the Continental Congress 315, 361 (1912). XX Id. 762, XXI id. 1136-1137, 1158.

[1193] Article IX.

[1194] Madison, Journal of the Constitutional Convention, II, 82 (Hunt's ed. 1908).

[1195] Ibid. 185-186, 372.

[1196] United States _v._ Smith, 5 Wheat. 153, 160, 162 (1820). _See also_ The Marianna Flora, 11 Wheat. 1, 40-41 (1826); United States _v._ Brig Malek Abhel, 2 How. 210, 232 (1844).

[1197] 317 U.S. 1, 27 (1942).

[1198] Ibid. 28.

[1199] United States _v._ Arjona, 120 U.S. 479, 487, 488 (1887).

[1200] United States _v._ Flores, 3 F. Supp. 134 (1932).

[1201] 289 U.S. 137, 149-150 (1933).

[1202] United States _v._ Furlong, 5 Wheat. 184, 200 (1920).

[1203] The Federalist No. 23.

[1204] Penhallow _v._ Doane, 3 Dall. 54 (1795).

[1205] 4 Wheat. 316 (1819).

[1206] Ibid. 407. Emphasis supplied.

[1207] Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 2, 139 (1866) (dissenting opinion); _see also_ Miller _v._ United States, 11 Wall. 268, 305 (1871); and United States _v._ Macintosh, 283 U.S. 605, 622 (1931).

[1208] 58 Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 1st sess., App. 1 (1861).

[1209] Hamilton _v._ Dillin, 21 Wall. 73, 86 (1875).

[1210] Northern P.R. Co. _v._ North Dakota, 250 U.S. 135, 149 (1919).

[1211] Home Bldg. & Loan Assoc. _v._ Blaisdell, 290 U.S. 398 (1934).

[1212] Northern P.R. Co. _v._ North Dakota, 250 U.S. 135, 149 (1919).

[1213] 299 U.S. 304 (1936).

[1214] Ibid. 316, 318.

[1215] 334 U.S. 742 (1948).

[1216] Ibid. 757-758.

[1217] Ibid. 755.

[1218] II Madison Journal of the Constitutional Convention 82 (Hunt's ed. 1908).

[1219] Ibid. 188.

[1220] 11 Annals of Congress 11 (1801).

[1221] Works of Alexander Hamilton, VII, 746 (Hamilton's ed. 1851). _Cf._ Bas _v._ Tingy, 4 Dall. 37 (1800).

[1222] 2 Stat. 129, 130 (1802). Emphasis supplied.

[1223] The Prize Cases, 2 Bl. 635, 668 (1863).

[1224] Ibid. 683, 688.

[1225] 12 Wall. 700 (1872).

[1226] Ibid. 702.

[1227] I Blackstone, Commentaries 263, (Wendell's ed. 1857).

[1228] II Story, Commentaries, Sec. 1187 (4th ed. 1873).

[1229] 25 Op. Atty. Gen. 105, 108 (1904).

[1230] 40 Op. Atty. Gen. 555 (1948).

[1231] 61 Stat. 405 (1947).

[1232] H.J. Res. 298, 80th Cong., 2d sess. (1948).

[1233] Selective Draft Law Cases, 245 U.S. 366, 380 (1918); Cox _v._ Wood, 247 U.S. 3 (1918).

[1234] 245 U.S. at 385.

[1235] Ibid. 386-388. The measure was upheld by a State court, Kneedler _v._ Lane, 45 Pa. 238 (1863).

[1236] Selective Draft Law Cases, 245 U.S. 366, 381, 382 (1918)

[1237] Butler _v._ Perry, 240 U.S. 328, 333 (1916).

[1238] 245 U.S. 366 (1918).

[1239] Ibid. 390.

[1240] United States _v._ Williams, 302 U.S. 46 (1937). _See also_ In re Grimley, 137 U.S. 147, 153 (1890); In re Morrissey, 137 U.S. 157 (1890).

[1241] Wissner _v._ Wissner, 338 U.S. 655, 660 (1950).

[1242] McKinley _v._ United States, 249 U.S. 397 (1919).

[1243] Dynes _v._ Hoover, 20 How. 65, 79 (1858).

[1244] Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 2, 123, 138-139 (1866). Ex parte Quirin, 317 U.S. 1, 40 (1942).

[1245] Wade _v._ Hunter, 336 U.S. 684, 687 (1949).

[1246] Dynes _v._ Hoover, 20 How. 65, 82 (1858).

[1247] Swaim _v._ United States, 165 U.S. 553 (1897); Carter _v._ Roberts, 177 U.S. 496 (1900); Hiatt _v._ Brown, 339 U.S. 103 (1950).

[1248] Mullan _v._ United States, 212 U.S. 516 (1909); Smith _v._ Whitney, 116 U.S. 167, 177 (1886); Hiatt _v._ Brown, 339 U.S. 103 (1950).

[1249] Clark, Emergency Legislation Passed Prior to December 1917, 211 (1918).

[1250] Ibid. 214

[1251] Ibid. 250, 332, 380, 438, 497.

[1252] Ibid. 420, 466, 535, 595, 636, 823. Many of these were soon suspended or repealed. Ibid. 458, 553, 601, 733.

[1253] Ibid. 482, 543, 963, 969.

[1254] Ibid. 916.

[1255] Ibid. 280.

[1256] Hepburn _v._ Griswold, 8 Wall. 603, 617 (1870).

[1257] Ibid. 626.

[1258] Knox _v._ Lee (Legal Tender Cases), 12 Wall. 457, 540 (1871).

[1259] 40 Stat. 276 (1917).

[1260] Ibid. 272.

[1261] Ibid. 411.

[1262] Ibid. 451 (1918).

[1263] Ibid. 904.

[1264] 55 Stat. 236 (1941).

[1265] 56 Stat. 176 (1942).

[1266] Ibid. 23.

[1267] 57 Stat. 163 (1943).

[1268] Lichter _v._ United States, 334 U.S. 742, 754-756, 765, 766 (1948). _See also_ United States _v._ Bethlehem Steel Corp., 315 U.S. 289, 305 (1942); Clallam County _v._ United States, 263 U.S. 341 (1923); Sloan Shipyards _v._ United States Fleet Corp., 258 U.S. 549 (1922).

[1269] Lichter _v._ United States, 334 U.S. 742, 779 (1948).

[1270] 245 U.S. 366, 389 (1918).

[1271] Yakus _v._ United States, 321 U.S. 414, 424 (1944).

[1272] 21 Wall. 73 (1875).

[1273] Ibid. 96-97. _Cf._ United States _v._ Chemical Foundation, 272 U.S. 1 (1926).

[1274] 320 U.S. 81 (1943).

[1275] Ibid. 91-92, 104.

[1276] Ibid. 104.

[1277] 334 U.S. 742 (1948).

[1278] Ibid. 778-779.

[1279] Ibid. 782-783.

[1280] Story Commentaries on the Constitution, II, Sec. 1185 (4th ed., 1873).

[1281] 297 U.S. 288 (1936).

[1282] 39 Stat. 166 (1916).

[1283] 297 U.S. 288, 327-328 (1936).

[1284] 60 Stat. 755 (1946).

[1285] Stewart _v._ Kahn, 11 Wall. 493, 507 (1871). _See also_ Mayfield _v._ Richards, 115 U.S. 137 (1885).

[1286] 251 U.S. 146, 163 (1919). _See also_ Ruppert _v._ Caffey, 251 U.S. 264 (1920).

[1287] Block _v._ Hirsh, 256 U.S. 135 (1921).

[1288] Chastleton Corp. _v._ Sinclair, 264 U.S. 543 (1924).

[1289] 333 U.S. 138 (1948). _See also_ Fleming _v._ Mohawk Wrecking & Lumber Co., 331 U.S. 111 (1947).

[1290] 333 U.S. 138, 143-144 (1948).

[1291] Ludecke _v._ Watkins, 335 U.S. 160, 170 (1948).

[1292] 100 U.S. 158 (1880).

[1293] Ibid. 170.

[1294] 4 Wall. 2 (1866).

[1295] Ibid. 127.

[1296] Ibid. 132, 138.

[1297] 327 U.S. 304 (1946).

[1298] 8 Cr. 110 (1814). _See also_ Conrad _v._ Waples, 96 U.S. 279, 284 (1878).

[1299] Miller _v._ United States, 11 Wall. 268 (1871).

[1300] Stoehr _v._ Wallace, 255 U.S. 239 (1921); Central Union Trust Co. _v._ Garvan, 254 U.S. 554 (1921); United States _v._ Chemical Foundation, 272 U.S. 1 (1926); Silesian-American Corp. _v._ Clark, 332 U.S. 469 (1947); Cities Service Co. _v._ McGrath, 342 U.S. 330 (1952).

[1301] The "Siren," 13 Wall. 389 (1871).

[1302] The "Hampton," 5 Wall. 372, 376 (1867).

[1303] The "Paquete Habana," 175 U.S. 677, 700, 711 (1900).

[1304] Block _v._ Hirsh, 256 U.S. 135, 156, 157 (1921).

[1305] Bowles _v._ Willingham, 321 U.S. 503, 519 (1944).

[1306] Ibid. 521.

[1307] 255 U.S. 81 (1921).

[1308] Ibid. 89.

[1309] Schenck _v._ United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919); Debs _v._ United States, 249 U.S. 211 (1919); Sugarman _v._ United States, 249 U.S. 182 (1919); Frohwerk _v._ United States, 249 U.S. 204 (1919); Abrams _v._ United States, 250 U.S. 616 (1919).

[1310] 40 Stat. 217 (1917); amended by 40 Stat. 553 (1918).

[1311] 249 U.S. 47 (1919).

[1312] Ibid. 52.

[1313] Gilbert _v._ Minnesota, 254 U.S. 325 (1920).

[1314] Hirabayashi _v._ United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943).

[1315] Korematsu _v._ United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944).

[1316] Ex parte Endo, 323 U.S. 283 (1944).

[1317] 1 Stat. 577 (1798).

[1318] Writings of James Madison, VI, 360-361 (Hunt's ed., 1906).

[1319] 40 Stat. 531 (1918).

[1320] 335 U.S. 160 (1948).

[1321] Mitchell _v._ Harmony, 13 How. 115, 134 (1852).

[1322] 13 Wall. 623, 627 (1871).

[1323] 120 U.S. 227 (1887).

[1324] Ibid. 239.

[1325] H.R. Rep. No. 262, 43d Cong., 1st sess., 39-40 (1874).

[1326] United States _v._ Commodities Trading Corp., 339 U.S. 121 (1950); United States _v._ Toronto Nav. Co., 338 U.S. 396 (1949); Kimball Laundry Co. _v._ United States, 338 U.S. 1 (1949); United States _v._ Cors, 337 U.S. 325 (1949); United States _v._ John J. Felin & Co., 334 U.S. 624 (1948); United States _v._ Petty Motor Co., 327 U.S. 372 (1946); United States _v._ General Motors Corp., 323 U.S. 373 (1945).

[1327] Moore _v._ Houston, 3 S. & R. (Pa.) 169 (1817), affirmed in Houston _v._ Moore, 5 Wheat. 1 (1820).

[1328] Texas _v._ White, 7 Wall. 700 (1869); Tyler _v._ Defrees, 11 Wall. 331 (1871).

[1329] 1 Stat. 424 (1795).

[1330] Martin _v._ Mott, 12 Wheat. 19, 32 (1827).

[1331] Houston _v._ Moore, 5 Wheat. 1 (1820); Martin _v._ Mott, 12 Wheat. 19 (1827).

[1332] Houston _v._ Moore, 5 Wheat. 1, 16 (1820).

[1333] 39 Stat. 166, 197 (1916).--By the act of June 28, 1947 (61 Stat. 191, 192) the age of enlistment in the National Guard was lowered to 17 years.

[1334] United States _v._ Hammond, 1 Cr. C.C. 15 (1801).

[1335] 2 Stat. 103 (1801).

[1336] 2 Stat. 195 (1802).

[1337] 20 Stat. 102 (1878).

[1338] Metropolitan R. Co. _v._ District of Columbia, 132 U.S. 1, 9 (1889).

[1339] District of Columbia _v._ Bailey, 171 U.S. 161 (1898).

[1340] Shoemaker _v._ United States, 147 U.S. 282, 299 (1893).

[1341] Morris _v._ United States, 174 U.S. 196 (1899).

[1342] United States ex rel. Greathouse _v._ Dern, 289 U.S. 352, 354 (1933); Smoot Sand & Gravel Corp. _v._ Washington Airport, 283 U.S. 348 (1931); Maryland _v._ West Virginia, 217 U.S. 577 (1910); Marine R. & Coal Co. _v._ United States, 257 U.S. 47 (1921); Morris _v._ United States, 174 U.S. 196 (1899).

[1343] Phillips _v._ Payne, 92 U.S. 130 (1876).

[1344] 1 Stat. 139 (1790).

[1345] United States _v._ Simms, 1 Cr. 252, 256 (1803).

[1346] 2 Stat. 103, 104 (1801). _See_ Tayloe _v._ Thomson, 5 Pet. 358, 368 (1831); Ex parte Watkins, 7 Pet. 568 (1833); Stelle _v._ Carroll, 12 Pet. 201, 205 (1838); Van Ness _v._ Bank of United States, 13 Pet. 17 (1839); United States _v._ Eliason, 16 Pet. 291, 301 (1842).

[1347] Reily _v._ Lamar, 2 Cr. 344, 356 (1805).

[1348] Korn _v._ Mutual Assur. Soc., 6 Cr. 192, 199 (1810).

[1349] Mutual Assur. Soc. _v._ Watts, 1 Wheat. 279 (1816).

[1350] Hepburn _v._ Ellzey, 2 Cr. 445, 452 (1805); _see also_ Sere _v._ Pitot, 6 Cr. 332, 336 (1810); New Orleans _v._ Winter, 1 Wheat. 91, 94 (1816). The District has been held to be a "State" within the terms of a treaty regulating the inheritance of property within the "States of the Union." De Geofroy _v._ Riggs, 133 U.S. 258 (1890).

[1351] Barney _v._ Baltimore, 6 Wall. 280 (1868); Hooe _v._ Jamieson, 166 U.S. 395 (1897); Hooe _v._ Werner, 166 U.S. 399 (1897).

[1352] National Mut. Ins. Co. _v._ Tidewater Transfer Co., Inc., 337 U.S. 582 (1949).

[1353] Ibid. 588-600 (opinion of Justice Jackson, with whom Justices Black and Burton concurred).

[1354] Ibid. 604 (opinion of Justice Rutledge, with whom Justice Murphy concurred).

[1355] Callan _v._ Wilson, 127 U.S. 540 (1888); Capital Traction Co. _v._ Hof, 174 U.S. 1 (1899).

[1356] United States _v._ Moreland, 258 U.S. 433 (1922).

[1357] Wight _v._ Davidson, 181 U.S. 371, 384 (1901); _Cf._ Adkins _v._ Children's Hospital, 261 U.S. 525 (1923) overruled by West Coast Hotel Co. _v._ Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937).

[1358] Kendall _v._ United States ex rel. Stokes, 12 Pet. 524, 619 (1838); Shoemaker _v._ United States, 147 U.S. 282, 300 (1893); Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers _v._ United States, 286 U.S. 427, 435 (1932); O'Donoghue _v._ United States 289 U.S. 516, 518 (1933).

[1359] 6 Wheat. 264 (1821).

[1360] Ibid. 428.

[1361] Loughborough _v._ Blake, 5 Wheat. 317 (1820).

[1362] Gibbons _v._ District of Columbia, 116 U.S. 404, 408 (1886); Welch _v._ Cook, 97 U.S. 541 (1879).

[1363] Loughborough _v._ Blake, 5 Wheat. 317, 320 (1820); Heald _v._ District of Columbia, 259 U.S. 114 (1922).

[1364] Thompson _v._ Roe ex dem. Carroll, 22 How. 422, 435 (1860); Stoutenburgh _v._ Hennick, 129 U.S. 141, 147 (1889).

[1365] Willard _v._ Presbury, 14 Wall. 676, 680 (1870); Briscoe _v._ Rudolph, 221 U.S. 547 (1911).

[1366] Washington Market Co. _v._ District of Columbia, 172 U.S. 361, 367 (1899).

[1367] Mattingly _v._ District of Columbia, 97 U.S. 687, 690 (1878).

[1368] 129 U.S. 141, 148 (1889).

[1369] Keller _v._ Potomac Electric Power Co., 261 U.S. 428 (1923).

[1370] O'Donoghue _v._ United States, 289 U.S. 516 (1933).

[1371] Embry _v._ Palmer, 107 U.S. 3 (1883).

[1372] James _v._ Dravo Contracting Co., 302 U.S. 134, 143 (1937).

[1373] Battle _v._ United States, 209 U.S. 36 (1908).

[1374] Arlington Hotel Co. _v._ Fant, 278 U.S. 439 (1929).

[1375] James _v._ Dravo Contracting Co, 302 U.S. 134, 143 (1937).

[1376] Collins _v._ Yosemite Park Co., 304 U.S. 518, 530 (1938).

[1377] Ibid. 528.

[1378] Battle _v._ United States, 209 U.S. 36 (1908); Johnson _v._ Yellow Cab Co., 321 U.S. 383 (1944); Bowen _v._ Johnston, 306 U.S. 19 (1939).

[1379] Surplus Trading Co. _v._ Cook, 281 U.S. 647 (1930).

[1380] Western Union Teleg. Co. _v._ Chiles, 214 U.S. 274 (1909); Arlington Hotel Co. _v._ Fant, 278 U.S. 439 (1929); Pacific Coast Dairy _v._ Dept. of Agri., 318 U.S. 285 (1943).

[1381] Chicago, R.I. & P.R. Co. _v._ McGlinn, 114 U.S. 542, 545 (1885); James Stewart & Co. _v._ Sadrakula, 309 U.S. 94 (1940).

[1382] Palmer _v._ Barrett, 162 U.S. 399 (1896).

[1383] United States _v._ Unzeuta, 281 U.S. 138 (1930).

[1384] Benson _v._ United States, 146 U.S. 325, 331 (1892).

[1385] Palmer _v._ Barrett, 162 U.S. 399 (1896).

[1386] S.R.A., Inc. _v._ Minnesota, 327 U.S. 558, 564 (1946).

[1387] Ibid. 570, 571.

[1388] Fort Leavenworth R. Co. _v._ Lowe, 114 U.S. 525, 532 (1885); United States _v._ Unzeuta, 281 U.S. 138, 142 (1930); Surplus Trading Co. _v._ Cook, 281 U.S. 647, 652 (1930).

[1389] United States _v._ Cornell, 25 Fed. Cas. No. 14,867 (1819).

[1390] James _v._ Dravo Contracting Co., 302 U.S. 134, 145 (1937).

[1391] Silas Mason Co. _v._ Tax Commission of Washington, 302 U.S. 186 (1937). _See also_ Atkinson _v._ State Tax Commission, 303 U.S. 20 (1938).

[1392] 4 Wheat. 316 (1819).

[1393] Ibid. 420. This decision had been clearly foreshadowed fourteen years earlier by Marshall's opinion in United States _v._ Fisher, 2 Cr. 358, 396 (1805). Upholding an act which gave priority to claims of the United States against the estate of a bankrupt he wrote: "The government is to pay the debt of the Union, and must be authorized to use the means which appear to itself most eligible to effect that object. It has, consequently, a right to make remittances, by bills or otherwise, and to take those precautions which will render the transaction safe."

[1394] _See_ pp. 74-82, _supra_.

[1395] Neely _v._ Henkel, 180 U.S. 109, 121 (1901). _See also_ Missouri _v._ Holland, 252 U.S. 416 (1920).

[1396] _See_ p. 426, _supra_.

[1397] Den ex dem. Murray _v._ Hoboken Land & Improvement Co., 18 How. 272, 281 (1856).

[1398] Kohl _v._ United States, 91 U.S. 367, 373 (1876); United Slates _v._ Fox, 94 U.S. 315, 320 (1877).

[1399] _See_ pp. 110-117, 266-267.

[1400] United States _v._ Fox, 95 U.S. 670, 672 (1878); United States _v._ Hall, 98 U.S. 343, 357 (1879); United States _v._ Worrall, 2 Dall. 384, 394 (1790); McCulloch _v._ Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316 (1819). That this power has been freely exercised is attested by the 180 pages of the United States Code (1950 ed.) devoted to Title 18, entitled "Criminal Code and Criminal Procedure." In addition numerous regulatory measures prescribe criminal penalties for infractions thereof.

[1401] Ex parte Carll, 106 U.S. 521 (1883).

[1402] United States _v._ Marigold, 9 How. 560, 567 (1850).

[1403] Logan _v._ United States, 144 U.S. 263 (1892).

[1404] United States _v._ Barnow, 239 U.S. 74 (1915).

[1405] Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 U.S. 651 (1884); United States _v._ Waddell, 112 U.S. 76 (1884); In re Quarles, 158 U.S. 532, 537 (1895); Motes _v._ United States, 178 U.S. 458 (1900); United States _v._ Mosley, 238 U.S. 383 (1915). _See also_ Rakes _v._ United States, 212 U.S. 55 (1909).

[1406] Ex parte Curtis, 106 U.S. 371 (1882).

[1407] The Alien Registration Act of 1940, 54 Stat. 670, 18 U.S.C.A. Sec. 2385.

[1408] McCulloch _v._ Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 407 (1819).

[1409] Osborn _v._ Bank of the United States, 9 Wheat. 738, 862 (1824). _See also_ Pittman _v._ Home Owners' Loan Corp., 308 U.S. 21 (1939).

[1410] First Nat. Bank _v._ Fellows ex rel. Union Trust Co., 244 U.S. 416 (1917); Burnes Nat. Bank _v._ Duncan, 265 U.S. 17 (1924).

[1411] Smith _v._ Kansas City Title and Trust Co., 255 U.S. 180 (1921).

[1412] Juilliard _v._ Greenman, 110 U.S. 421, 449 (1884).

[1413] Veazie Bank _v._ Fenno, 8 Wall. 533 (1869).

[1414] Juilliard _v._ Greenman, 110 U.S. 421 (1884). _See also_ Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 457 (1871).

[1415] Norman _v._ Baltimore & O.R. Co., 294 U.S. 240, 303 (1935).

[1416] Pacific Railroad Removal Cases (Union P.R. Co. _v._ Myers), 115 U.S. 1, 18 (1885); California _v._ Central P.R. Co., 127 U.S. 1, 39 (1888).

[1417] Luxton _v._ North River Bridge Co., 153 U.S. 525 (1894).

[1418] Clallam County _v._ United States, 263 U.S. 341 (1923).

[1419] Sloan Shipyards _v._ United States Fleet Corp., 258 U.S. 549 (1922). In 1944, the Congressional Joint Committee on Nonessential Federal Expenditures reported that there were then in existence one hundred government corporations, including subsidiaries and quasi-private corporations in which the Government had some special contractual or proprietary interest. S. Doc. No. 227, 78th Cong., 2d sess. 2 (1944).

[1420] Rhode Island _v._ Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 657, 721 (1838).

[1421] Tennessee _v._ Davis, 100 U.S. 257, 263 (1880).

[1422] Chicago & Northwestern R. Co. _v._ Whitton, 13 Wall. 270, 287 (1872).

[1423] Embry _v._ Palmer, 107 U.S. 3 (1883).

[1424] Bank of United States _v._ Halstead, 10 Wheat. 51, 53 (1825).

[1425] United States Exp. Co. _v._ Kountze Bros., 8 Wall. 342, 350 (1860).

[1426] Ex parte Bakelite Corp., 279 U.S. 438, 449 (1929).

[1427] 43 Stat. 5 (1924). _See_ Sinclair _v._ United States, 279 U.S. 263 (1929).

[1428] Paramino Lumber Co. _v._ Marshall, 309 U.S. 370 (1940).

[1429] Pope _v._ United States, 323 U.S. 1 (1944).

[1430] Detroit Trust Company _v._ The "Thomas Barium," 293 U.S. 21 (1934).

[1431] Knickerbocker Ice Co. _v._ Stewart, 253 U.S. 149 (1920); Washington _v._ Dawson & Co., 264 U.S. 219 (1924).

[1432] Barron _v._ Baltimore, 7 Pet. 243 (1833); Morgan's L. & T.R. & S.S. Co. _v._ Louisiana Board of Health, 118 U.S. 455, 467 (1886).

[1433] Munn _v._ Illinois, 94 U.S. 113, 135 (1877); Johnson _v._ Chicago & P. Elevator Co., 119 U.S. 388, 400 (1886).

[1434] 19 How. 393, 411 (1857).

[1435] Gasquet _v._ Lapeyre, 242 U.S. 367 (1917).

[1436] 1 Stat. 73, 81 (1789).

[1437] Ex parte Watkins, 3 Pet. 193, 202 (1830).

[1438] Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 75, 101 (1807).

[1439] Price _v._ Johnston, 334 U.S. 266, 282 (1948).

[1440] United States _v._ Smith, 331 U.S. 469, 475 (1947).

[1441] Gusik _v._ Schilder, 339 U.S. 977 (1950).

[1442] Frank _v._ Mangum, 237 U.S. 309, 330 (1915).

[1443] 1 Stat. 73, 81 (1789).

[1444] Ex parte Watkins, 3 Pet. 193, 202 (1830); Ex parte Kearney, 7 Wheat. 38 (1822).

[1445] 14 Stat. 385 (1867).

[1446] Frank _v._ Mangum, 237 U.S. 309, 331 (1915).

[1447] Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 75 (1807).

[1448] Adams _v._ United States ex rel. McCann, 317 U.S. 269, 274 (1942); Glasgow _v._ Moyer, 225 U.S. 420, 428 (1912); Matter of Gregory, 219 U.S. 210, 213 (1911).

[1449] Adams _v._ United States ex rel. McCann, 317 U.S. 269, 274 (1942).

[1450] Walker _v._ Johnston, 312 U.S. 275 (1941); Waley _v._ Johnston, 316 U.S. 101 (1942).

[1451] Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 2, 110 (1866).

[1452] McNally _v._ Hill, 293 U.S. 131 (1934).

[1453] Goto _v._ Lane, 265 U.S. 393 (1924).

[1454] Salinger _v._ Loisel, 265 U.S. 224 (1924).

[1455] Wong Doo _v._ United States, 265 U.S. 239 (1924).

[1456] Price _v._ Johnston, 334 U.S. 266, 294 (1948).

[1457] Corwin, The President, Office and Powers, 178 (3d ed., 1948).

[1458] Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 75, 101 (1807).

[1459] Messages and Papers of the Presidents, VII, 3219 (1897).

[1460] Fed. Cas. No. 9, 487 (1861).

[1461] 10 Op. Atty. Gen. 74, 89 (1861-1863).

[1462] 12 Stat. 755 (1863).

[1463] 4 Wall. 2 (1866).

[1464] Ibid. 114.

[1465] Story, Commentaries on the Constitution, II, Sec. 1344 (4th ed., 1873).

[1466] Cummings _v._ Missouri, 4 Wall. 277, 323 (1867).

[1467] United States _v._ Lovett, 328 U.S. 303, 315 (1946).

[1468] Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 333, 377 (1867).

[1469] United States _v._ Lovett, 328 U.S. 303 (1946).

[1470] Story, Commentaries on the Constitution, II, Sec. 1345.

[1471] 3 Dall. 386, 393 (1798).

[1472] Bankers Trust Co. _v._ Blodgett, 260 U.S. 647, 652 (1923).

[1473] Burgess _v._ Salmon, 97 U.S. 381 (1878).

[1474] Calder _v._ Bull, 3 Dall. 386, 390 (1798); Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 333, 377 (1867); Burgess _v._ Salmon, 97 U.S. 381, 384 (1878).

[1475] United States _v._ Powers, 307 U.S. 214 (1939).

[1476] Neely _v._ Henkel, 180 U.S. 109, 123 (1901). _Cf._ In re Yamashita, 327 U.S. 1, 26 (1946) (dissenting opinion of Justice Murphy); Hirota _v._ MacArthur, 338 U.S. 197, 199 (1948) (concurring opinion of Justice Douglas).

[1477] Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 333 (1867).

[1478] Murphy _v._ Ramsey, 114 U.S. 15 (1885).

[1479] Mahler _v._ Eby, 264 U.S. 32 (1924); Bugajewitz _v._ Adams, 228 U.S. 585 (1913).

[1480] Johannessen _v._ United States, 225 U.S. 227 (1912).

[1481] Cook _v._ United States, 138 U.S. 157, 183 (1891).

[1482] Calder _v._ Bull, 3 Dall. 386, 390 (1798).

[1483] Hopt _v._ Utah, 110 U.S. 574, 589 (1884).

[1484] 157 U.S. 429, 573 (1895).

[1485] 2 Madison, The Constitutional Convention, 208 (Hunt's ed., 1908).

[1486] 3 Dall. 171 (1796).

[1487] 7 Hamilton's Works, 845, 848 (Hamilton's ed., 1851). "If the meaning of the word _excise_ is to be sought in the British statutes, it will be found to include the duty on carriages, which is there considered as an _excise_, and then must necessarily be uniform and liable to apportionment; consequently, not a direct tax." Ibid.

[1488] 4 Annals of Congress, 730 (1794); 2 Madison's Writings, 14, (Library of Congress ed., 1865) (Letter to Thomas Jefferson, May 11, 1794).

[1489] 3 Dall. 171, 177 (1796).

[1490] Pacific Ins. Co. _v._ Soule, 7 Wall. 433 (1869).

[1491] Veazie Bank _v._ Fenno, 8 Wall. 533 (1869).

[1492] Scholey _v._ Rew, 23 Wall. 331 (1875).

[1493] Springer _v._ United States, 102 U.S. 586 (1881).

[1494] Ibid. 602.

[1495] 157 U.S. 429 (1895); 158 U.S. 601 (1895).

[1496] 28 Stat. 509 (1894).

[1497] Stanton _v._ Baltic Mining Co., 240 U.S. 103 (1916); Knowlton _v._ Moore, 178 U.S. 41, 80 (1900).

[1498] Nicol _v._ Ames, 173 U.S. 509 (1899).

[1499] Knowlton _v._ Moore, 178 U.S. 41 (1900).

[1500] Patton _v._ Brady, 184 U.S. 608 (1902).

[1501] 192 U.S. 363 (1904).

[1502] Ibid. 370.

[1503] 192 U.S. 397 (1904).

[1504] 220 U.S. 107 (1911).

[1505] 240 U.S. 103 (1916).

[1506] Ibid. 114.

[1507] 232 U.S. 261 (1914).

[1508] New York Trust Co. _v._ Eisner, 256 U.S. 345, 349 (1921).

[1509] Phillips _v._ Dime Trust & Safe Deposit Co., 284 U.S. 160 (1931).

[1510] Tyler _v._ United States, 281 U.S. 497 (1930).

[1511] Fernandez _v._ Wiener, 326 U.S. 340 (1945).

[1512] Chase National Bank _v._ United States, 278 U.S. 327 (1929).

[1513] Bromley _v._ McCaughn, 280 U.S. 124, 136 (1929). _See also_ Helvering _v._ Bullard, 303 U.S. 297 (1938).

[1514] Bromley _v._ McCaughn, 280 U.S. 124, 140 (1929).

[1515] Loughborough _v._ Blake, 5 Wheat. 317 (1820).

[1516] De Treville _v._ Smalls, 98 U.S. 517, 527 (1879).

[1517] Turpin & Bro. _v._ Burgess, 117 U.S. 504, 507 (1886). _Cf._ Almy _v._ California, 24 How. 169, 174 (1861).

[1518] Dooley _v._ United States, 183 U.S. 151, 154 (1901).

[1519] Cornell _v._ Coyne, 192 U.S. 418, 428 (1904); Turpin & Bro. _v._ Burgess, 117 U.S. 504, 507 (1886).

[1520] Spalding & Bros. _v._ Edwards, 262 U.S. 66 (1923).

[1521] Thompson _v._ United States, 142 U.S. 471 (1892).

[1522] Peck & Co. _v._ Lowe, 247 U.S. 165 (1918); National Paper & Type Co. _v._ Bowers, 266 U.S. 373 (1924).

[1523] Fairbank _v._ United States, 181 U.S. 283 (1901).

[1524] United States _v._ Hvoslef, 237 U.S. 1 (1915).

[1525] Thames & Mersey Ins. Co. _v._ United States, 237 U.S. 19 (1915).

[1526] Pace _v._ Burgess, 92 U.S. 372 (1876); Turpin & Bro. _v._ Burgess, 117 U.S. 504, 505 (1886).

[1527] Louisiana Public Service Comm'n. _v._ Texas & N.O.R. Co., 284 U.S. 125, 131 (1931); Pennsylvania _v._ Wheeling & Belmont Bridge Co., 18 How. 421, 433 (1856); South Carolina _v._ Georgia, 93 U.S. 4 (1876). In Williams _v._ United States, 255 U.S. 336 (1921) the argument that an act of Congress which prohibited interstate transportation of liquor into States whose laws prohibited manufacture or sale of liquor for beverage purposes was repugnant to this clause was rejected as plainly wanting in merit.

[1528] Louisiana Public Service Comm'n. _v._ Texas & N.O.R. Co., 284 U.S. 125, 132 (1931).

[1529] Smith _v._ Turner (Passenger Cases), 7 How. 283, 414 (1849) (opinion of Justice Wayne); _cf._ Cooley _v._ Board of Port Wardens, 12 How. 299, 314 (1851).

[1530] Morgan's L. & T.R. & S.S. Co. _v._ Louisiana Bd. of Health, 118 U.S. 455, 467 (1886). _See also_ Munn _v._ Illinois, 94 U.S. 113, 135 (1877); Johnson _v._ Chicago & P. Elevator Co., 119 U.S. 388, 400 (1886).

[1531] 1 Stat. 53, 54 (1789).

[1532] Thompson _v._ Darden, 198 U.S. 310 (1905).

[1533] Alaska _v._ Troy, 258 U.S. 101 (1922).

[1534] Cincinnati Soap Co. _v._ United States, 301 U.S. 308, 321 (1937); Knote _v._ United States, 95 U.S. 149, 154 (1877).

[1535] United States _v._ Price, 116 U.S. 43 (1885); United States _v._ Realty Co., 163 U.S. 427, 439 (1896); Allen _v._ Smith, 173 U.S. 389, 393 (1899).

[1536] Hart _v._ United States, 118 U.S. 62, 67 (1886).

[1537] 32 Stat. 388 (1902).

[1538] Cincinnati Soap Co. _v._ United States, 301 U.S. 308, 322 (1937).

[1539] Reeside _v._ Walker, 11 How. 272 (1851).

[1540] United States _v._ Klein, 13 Wall. 128 (1872).

[1541] Knote _v._ United States, 95 U.S. 149, 154 (1877); Austin _v._ United States, 155 U.S. 417, 427 (1894).

[1542] Hart _v._ United States, 118 U.S. 62, 67 (1886).

[1543] 13 Op. Atty. Gen. 538 (1871).

[1544] Williams _v._ Bruffy, 96 U.S. 176, 183 (1878).

[1545] 14 Pet. 540 (1840).

[1546] United States _v._ California, 332 U.S. 19 (1947).

[1547] 313 U.S. 69 (1941).

[1548] Ibid. 78-79.

[1549] Craig _v._ Missouri, 4 Pet. 410, 425 (1830); Byrne _v._ Missouri, 8 Pet. 40 (1834).

[1550] Poindexter _v._ Greenhow, 114 U.S. 270 (1885); Chaffin _v._ Taylor, 116 U.S. 567 (1886).

[1551] Houston & T.C.R. Co. _v._ Texas, 177 U.S. 66 (1900).

[1552] Briscoe _v._ Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 257 (1837).

[1553] Darrington _v._ Bank of Alabama, 13 How. 12, 15 (1851); Curran _v._ Arkansas, 15 How. 304, 317 (1853).

[1554] Briscoe _v._ Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 257 (1837).

[1555] Woodruff _v._ Trapnall, 10 How. 190, 205 (1851).

[1556] Legal Tender Cases, 110 U.S. 421, 446 (1884).

[1557] Gwin _v._ Breedlove, 2 How. 29, 38 (1844). _See also_ Griffin _v._ Thompson, 2 How. 244 (1844).

[1558] Farmers & Merchants Bank _v._ Federal Reserve Bank, 262 U.S. 649, 659 (1923).

[1559] Cummings _v._ Missouri, 4 Wall. 277, 323 (1867); Klinger _v._ Missouri, 13 Wall. 257 (1872); Pierce _v._ Carskadon, 16 Wall. 234, 239 (1873). _See_ p. 317, _supra_, and p. 327, _post_.

[1560] Calder _v._ Bull, 3 Dall. 386, 390 (1798); Watson _v._ Mercer, 8 Pet. 88, 110 (1834); Baltimore & S.R. Co. _v._ Nesbit, 10 How. 395, 401 (1850); Carpenter _v._ Pennsylvania, 17 How. 456, 463 (1855); Loche _v._ New Orleans, 4 Wall. 172 (1867); Orr _v._ Gilman, 183 U.S. 278, 285 (1902); Kentucky Union Co. _v._ Kentucky, 219 U.S. 140 (1911).

[1561] Frank _v._ Mangum, 237 U.S. 300, 344 (1915); Ross _v._ Oregon, 227 U.S. 150, 161 (1913).

[1562] Jaehne _v._ New York, 128 U.S. 189, 190 (1888).

[1563] Rooney _v._ North Dakota, 196 U.S. 319, 325 (1905).

[1564] Chicago & A.R. Co. _v._ Tranbarger, 238 U.S. 67 (1915).

[1565] Samuels _v._ McCurdy, 267 U.S. 188 (1925).

[1566] Hawker _v._ New York, 170 U.S. 189, 190 (1898). _See also_ Reetz _v._ Michigan, 188 U.S. 505, 509 (1903); Lehmann _v._ State Board of Public Accountancy, 263 U.S. 394 (1923).

[1567] Cummings _v._ Missouri, 4 Wall. 277, 316 (1867).

[1568] Pierce _v._ Carskadon, 16 Wall. 234 (1873).

[1569] Lindsey _v._ Washington, 301 U.S. 397 (1937).

[1570] Kring _v._ Missouri, 107 U.S. 221 (1883).

[1571] Holden _v._ Minnesota, 137 U.S. 483, 491 (1890).

[1572] Ex parte Medley, 134 U.S. 160, 171 (1890).

[1573] Gryger _v._ Burke, 334 U.S. 728 (1948); McDonald _v._ Massachusetts, 180 U.S. 311 (1901); Graham _v._ West Virginia, 224 U.S. 616 (1912).

[1574] Malloy _v._ South Carolina, 237 U.S. 180 (1915).

[1575] Rooney _v._ North Dakota, 196 U.S. 319, 324 (1905).

[1576] Gibson _v._ Mississippi, 162 U.S. 565, 590 (1896).

[1577] Duncan _v._ Missouri, 152 U.S. 377, 382 (1894).

[1578] Gut _v._ Minnesota, 9 Wall. 35, 37 (1870).

[1579] Duncan _v._ Missouri, 152 U.S. 377 (1894).

[1580] Mallett _v._ North Carolina, 181 U.S. 589, 593 (1901).

[1581] Gibson _v._ Mississippi, 162 U.S. 565, 588 (1896).

[1582] Beazell _v._ Ohio, 269 U.S. 167 (1925).

[1583] Thompson _v._ Missouri, 171 U.S. 380, 381 (1898).

[1584] Thompson _v._ Utah, 170 U.S. 343 (1898).

[1585] Dodge _v._ Woolsey, 18 How. 331 (1856); Railroad Co. _v._ McClure, 10 Wall. 511 (1871); New Orleans Gaslight Co. _v._ Louisiana Light & Heat Producing & Mfg. Co., 115 U.S. 650 (1885); Bier _v._ McGehee, 148 U.S. 137, 140 (1893).

[1586] New Orleans Waterworks Co. _v._ Rivers, 115 U.S. 674 (1885); Walla Walla _v._ Walla Walla Water Co., 172 U.S. 1 (1898); Vicksburg _v._ Vicksburg Waterworks Co., 202 U.S. 453 (1906); Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. _v._ Goldsboro, 232 U.S. 548 (1914); Cuyahoga River Power Co. _v._ Akron, 240 U.S. 462 (1916).

[1587] The above; _also_ Grand Trunk Western R. Co. _v._ Railroad Commission, 221 U.S. 400 (1911); Louisville & N.R. Co. _v._ Garrett, 231 U.S. 298 (1913); Appleby _v._ Delaney, 271 U.S. 403 (1926).

[1588] Central Land Co. _v._ Laidley, 159 U.S. 103 (1895). _See also_ New Orleans Waterworks Co. _v._ Louisiana Sugar Ref. Co., 125 U.S. 18 (1888); Hanford _v._ Davies, 163 U.S. 273 (1896); Ross _v._ Oregon, 227 U.S. 150 (1913); Detroit United R. Co. _v._ Michigan, 242 U.S. 238 (1916); Long Sault Development Co. _v._ Call, 242 U.S. 272 (1916); McCoy _v._ Union Elev. Co., 247 U.S. 354 (1918); Columbia R. Gas & E. Co. _v._ South Carolina, 261 U.S. 236 (1923); Tidal Oil Co. _v._ Flanagan, 263 U.S. 444 (1924).

[1589] Jefferson Branch Bank _v._ Skelly, 1 Bl. 436, 443 (1862); Bridge Proprietors _v._ Hoboken Co., 1 Wall. 116, 145 (1863); Wright _v._ Nagle, 101 U.S. 791, 793 (1880); and McGahey _v._ Virginia, 135 U.S. 662, 667 (1890); Scott _v._ McNeal, 154 U.S. 34, 45 (1894); Stearns _v._ Minnesota, 179 U.S. 223, 232-233 (1900); Coombes _v._ Getz, 285 U.S. 434, 441 (1932); Atlantic C.L.R. Co. _v._ Phillips, 332 U.S. 168, 170 (1947).

[1590] McCullough _v._ Virginia, 172 U.S. 102 (1898); Houston & Texas Central R.R. Co. _v._ Texas, 177 U.S. 66, 76, 77 (1900); Hubert _v._ New Orleans, 215 U.S. 170, 175 (1909); Carondelet Canal Co. _v._ Louisiana, 233 U.S. 362, 376 (1914); Louisiana Ry. & Nav. Co. _v._ New Orleans, 235 U.S. 164, 171 (1914).

[1591] State Bank of Ohio _v._ Knoop, 16 How. 369 (1854), and Ohio Life Insurance & Trust Co. _v._ Debolt, 16 How. 416 (1854) are the leading cases. _See also_ Jefferson Branch Bank _v._ Skelly, 1 Bl. 436 (1862); Louisiana _v._ Pilsbury, 105 U.S. 278 (1882); McGahey _v._ Virginia, 135 U.S. 662 (1890); Mobile & Ohio R.R. Co. _v._ Tennessee, 153 U.S. 486 (1894); Bacon _v._ Texas, 163 U.S. 207 (1896); McCullough _v._ Virginia, 172 U.S. 102 (1898).

[1592] Gelpcke _v._ Dubuque, 1 Wall. 175, 206 (1864); Havemeyer _v._ Iowa County, 3 Wall. 294 (1866); Thompson _v._ Lee County, 3 Wall. 327 (1866); Kenosha _v._ Lamson, 9 Wall. 477 (1870); Olcott _v._ Fond du Lac County, 16 Wall. 678 (1873); Taylor _v._ Ypsilanti, 105 U.S. 60 (1882); Anderson _v._ Santa Anna, 116 U.S. 356 (1886); Wilkes County _v._ Coler, 180 U.S. 506 (1901).

[1593] Great Southern Fire Proof Hotel Co. _v._ Jones, 193 U.S. 532, 548 (1904).

[1594] Sauer _v._ New York, 206 U.S. 536 (1907); Muhlker _v._ New York & H.R. Co., 197 U.S. 544, 570 (1905).

[1595] Tidal Oil Company _v._ Flanagan, 263 U.S. 444, 450, 451-452 (1924).

[1596] Walker _v._ Whitehead, 16 Wall. 314 (1873); Wood _v._ Lovett, 313 U.S. 362, 370 (1941).

[1597] 4 Wheat. 122, 197 (1819); _see also_ Curran _v._ Arkansas, 15 How. 304 (1853).

[1598] 4 Wheat. 518 (1819).

[1599] Ibid. 627.

[1600] 290 U.S. 398 (1934).

[1601] Ibid. 431.

[1602] Ibid. 435.

[1603] "The _Blaisdell_ decision represented a realistic appreciation of the fact that ours is an evolving society and that the general words of the contract clause were not intended to reduce the legislative branch of government to helpless impotency." Justice Black, in Wood _v._ Lovett, 313 U.S. 362, 383 (1941).

[1604] Wright, The Contract Clause of the Constitution, 95 (Cambridge, 1938).

[1605] Farrand, Records, III, 548.

[1606] The Federalist, No. 44.

[1607] Works of James Wilson, I, 567, (Andrews, ed., 1896).

[1608] 2 Dall. 410 (1793).

[1609] Ogden _v._ Saunders, 12 Wheat. 213, 338 (1827).

[1610] 6 Cr. 87 (1810).

[1611] In Ware _v._ Hylton, 3 Dall. 199 (1797) the Court had earlier set aside an act of Virginia as being in conflict with the Treaty of Peace, of 1783, with Great Britain.

[1612] As given by Professor Wright in his treatise, The Contract Clause of the Constitution, 22. Professor Wright dates Hamilton's pamphlet, 1796.

[1613] 6 Cr. 87, 139 (1810). Justice Johnson, in his concurring opinion, relied exclusively on general principles. "I do not hesitate to declare, that a State does not possess the power of revoking its own grants. But I do it, on a general principle, on the reason and nature of things; a principle which will impose laws even on the Deity." Ibid. 143. _See also_ his words in Satterlee _v._ Matthewson, 2 Pet. 380, 686 (1829); and those of the North Carolina Supreme Court in Barnes _v._ Barnes, 8 Jones L. 53 (N.C.) 366 (1861), quoted in Thomas Henry Calvert. The Constitution and the Courts, I, 948 (Northport, L.I., 1924). In both these opinions it is asseverated that the contracts clause has been made to do the work of "fundamental principles."

[1614] 7 Cr. 164 (1812). The exemption from taxation which was involved in this case was held in 1886 to have lapsed through the acquiescence for sixty years of the owners of the lands in the imposition of taxes upon these. Given _v._ Wright, 117 U.S. 648 (1886).

[1615] Dartmouth College _v._ Woodward, 4 Wheat. 518 (1819).

[1616] It was not until well along in the eighteenth century that the first American business corporation was created: "This was the New London Society United for Trade and Commerce, which was chartered in Connecticut in 1732. It had, however, an early demise. Following this was a second Connecticut charter, namely, for building 'Union Wharf,' on 'Long Wharf,' at New Haven. A similar company, 'The Proprietors of Boston Pier,' or 'The Long Wharf in the Town of Boston in New England,' was chartered by the Massachusetts General Court in 1772. In 1768 the Pennsylvania Assembly incorporated 'The Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insuring of Houses from Loss by Fire.' Alone of the colonial business corporations it has had a continuous existence to the present day.

"Apparently the only other business corporations of the colonies were companies for supplying water. One was incorporated in Massachusetts in 1652, and three in Rhode Island in 1772 and 1773. Alongside of these corporations, and, indeed, preceding them, were a large number of unincorporated associations, partnerships, societies, groups of 'undertakers,' 'companies,' formed for a great variety of business purposes. In the eye of the law all of them were probably mere partnerships or tenancies in common. Whaling and fishing companies, so-called, were numerous. There were a number of mining companies, chiefly for producing iron or copper. There were some manufacturing companies, but they were not numerous. Banking institutions were represented notably by the 'Bank of Credit Lumbard,' promoted in Boston by John Blackwell and authorized by the General Court in 1686, and by the 'Land Bank or Manufacturing Scheme' in the same colony in 1739-41.

"In addition to these there were a few insurance companies, a number of companies formed for the Indian trade, numerous land companies, large and small, a number of associations for erecting bridges, building or repairing roads, and improving navigation of small streams or rivers. Besides these there were a few colonial corporations not easily classed, such as libraries, chambers of commerce, etc.

"During the Revolution few corporations of any sort were chartered. After the conclusion of peace the situation was materially altered. Capital had accumulated during the war. The disbanding of the army set free a labor supply, which was rapidly increased by throngs of immigrants. The day was one of bold experimentation, enthusiastic exploitation of new methods, eager exploration of new paths, confident undertaking of new enterprises. Everything conspired to bring about a considerable extension of corporate enterprise in the field of business before the end of the eighteenth century, notably after the critical period of disunion and Constitution-making has passed. Prior to 1801 over three hundred charters were granted for business corporations; 90 per cent. of them after 1789. Judged by twentieth-century standards these seem few, indeed, but neither in the colonies nor in the mother country was there precedent for such a development." 105 The Nation 512 (New York, Nov. 8, 1917), reviewing Joseph Stancliffe Davis, Essays in the Earlier History of American Corporations (2 vols., Harvard University Press, 1917).

[1617] In 1806 Chief Justice Parsons of the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, without mentioning the contracts clause, declared that rights legally vested in a corporation cannot be "controuled or destroyed by a subsequent statute, unless a power be reserved to the legislature in the act of incorporation," Wales _v._ Stetson, 2 Mass. 143 (1806). _See also_ Stoughton _v._ Baker et al., 4 Mass. 522 (1808) to like effect; _cf._ Locke _v._ Dane, 9 Mass. 360 (1812) in which it is said that the purpose of the contracts clause was to "provide against paper money and insolvent laws." Together these holdings add up to the conclusion that the reliance of the Massachusetts court was on "fundamental principles," rather than the contracts clause.

[1618] 4 Wheat., especially at 577-595 (Webster's argument); ibid. 666 (Story's opinion). _See also_ Story's opinion for the Court in Terrett _v._ Taylor, 9 Cr. 43 (1815).

[1619] 4 Wheat. 518 (1819).

[1620] Ibid. 627.

[1621] 4 Wheat. at 637; _see also_ Home of the Friendless _v._ Rouse, 8 Wall. 430, 437 (1869).

[1622] 4 Pet. 514 (1830).

[1623] 11 Pet. 420 (1837).

[1624] Note the various cases to which municipalities are parties.

[1625] 4 Wheat. at 629.

[1626] In Munn _v._ Illinois, 94 U.S. 113 (1877) a category of "business affected with a public interest" and whose property is "impressed with a public use" was recognized. A corporation engaged in such a business becomes a "quasi-public" corporation, the power of the State to regulate which is larger than in the case of a purely private corporation. Inasmuch as most corporations receiving public franchises are of this character, the final result of Munn _v._ Illinois was to enlarge the police power of the State in the case of the most important beneficiaries of the Dartmouth College decision.

[1627] Meriwether _v._ Garrett, 102 U.S. 472 (1880); Covington _v._ Kentucky, 173 U.S. 231 (1899); Hunter _v._ Pittsburgh, 207 U.S. 161 (1907).

[1628] East Hartford _v._ Hartford Bridge Co., 10 How. 511 (1851); Hunter _v._ Pittsburgh, 207 U.S. 161 (1907).

[1629] Trenton _v._ New Jersey, 262 U.S. 182, 191 (1923).

[1630] Newton _v._ Mahoning County, 100 U.S. 548 (1880).

[1631] Attorney General ex rel. Kies _v._ Lowrey, 199 U.S. 233 (1905).

[1632] Faitoute Iron & Steel Co. _v._ Asbury Park, 316 U.S. 502 (1942). In this case the contracts involved were municipal bonds, and hence "private" contracts; but the overruling power of the State in relation to its municipalities was one of the grounds invoked by the Court in sustaining the legislation. _See_ Ibid. 509. "'A municipal corporation * * * is a representative not only of the State, but is a portion of its governmental power. * * * The State may withdraw these local powers of government at pleasure, and may, through its legislature or other appointed channels, govern the local territory as it governs the State at large. It may enlarge or contract its powers or destroy its existence.'" United States _v._ Baltimore & O.R. Co., 17 Wall. 322, 329 (1873); and _see_ Hunter _v._ Pittsburgh, 207 U.S. 161 (1907).

[1633] Butler _v._ Pennsylvania, 10 How. 402 (1850); Fisk _v._ Police Jury, 116 U.S. 131 (1885); Dodge _v._ Board of Education, 302 U.S. 74 (1937); Mississippi Use of Robertson _v._ Miller, 276 U.S. 174 (1928).

[1634] Butler _v._ Pennsylvania, 10 How. 420 (1850). _Cf._ Marbury _v._ Madison, 1 Cr. 137 (1803); Hoke _v._ Henderson, 15 N.C., (4 Dev.) 1 (1833). _See also_ United States _v._ Fisher, 109 U.S. 143 (1883); United States _v._ Mitchell, 109 U.S. 146 (1883); Crenshaw _v._ United States, 134 U.S. 99 (1890).

[1635] Fisk _v._ Police Jury, 116 U.S. 131 (1885); Mississippi Use of Robertson _v._ Miller, 276 U.S. 174 (1928).

[1636] Hall _v._ Wisconsin, 103 U.S. 5 (1880). _Cf._ Higginbotham _v._ Baton Rouge, 306 U.S. 535 (1939).

[1637] Phelps _v._ Board of Education, 300 U.S. 319 (1937).

[1638] Dodge _v._ Board of Education, 302 U.S. 74 (1937).

[1639] Indiana ex rel. Anderson _v._ Brand 303 U.S. 95 (1938).

[1640] 7 Cr. 164 (1812).

[1641] Delaware Railroad Tax, 18 Wall. 206, 225 (1874); Pacific R. Co. _v._ Maguire, 20 Wall. 36, 43 (1874); Humphrey _v._ Pegues, 16 Wall. 244, 249 (1873); Home of Friendless _v._ Rouse, 8 Wall. 430, 438 (1869).

[1642] 16 How. 369 (1854).

[1643] Ibid. 382-383.

[1644] Salt Co. _v._ East Saginaw, 13 Wall. 373, 379 (1872). _See also_ Welch _v._ Cook, 97 U.S. 541 (1879); Grand Lodge, F. & A.M. _v._ New Orleans, 166 U.S. 143 (1897); Wisconsin & M.R. Co. _v._ Powers, 191 U.S. 379 (1903). _Cf._ Ettor _v._ Tacoma, 228 U.S. 148 (1913), in which it was held that the repeal of a statute providing for consequential damages caused by changes of grades of streets could not constitutionally affect an already accrued right to compensation.

[1645] _See_ Christ Church _v._ Philadelphia County, 24 How. 300, 302 (1861); Seton Hall College _v._ South Orange, 242 U.S. 100 (1916).

[1646] Compare the above case with Home of Friendless _v._ Rouse, 8 Wall. 430, 437 (1869); _also_ Illinois Central R. Co. _v._ Decatur, 147 U.S. 190 (1893) with Wisconsin & M.R. Co. _v._ Powers, 191 U.S. 379 (1903).

[1647] Crane _v._ Hahlo, 258 U.S. 142, 145-146 (1922); Louisiana ex rel. Folsom _v._ New Orleans, 109 U.S. 285, 288 (1883); Morley _v._ Lakeshore & M.S.R. Co., 146 U.S. 162, 169 (1892). That the obligation of contracts clause did not protect vested rights merely as such was stated by the Court as early as Satterlee _v._ Matthewson, 2 Pet. 380, 413 (1829); and again in the Charles River Bridge Co. _v._ Warren Bridge Co., 11 Pet. 420, 539-540 (1837).

[1648] _See_ Story's opinion. 4 Wheat. at 712.

[1649] Home of Friendless _v._ Rouse, 8 Wall. 430, 438 (1869); Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 190, 213 (1872); Miller _v._ New York, 15 Wall. 478 (1873); Murray _v._ Charleston, 96 U.S. 432 (1878); Greenwood _v._ Union Freight R. Co., 105 U.S. 13 (1882); Chesapeake & O.R. Co. _v._ Miller, 114 U.S. 176 (1885); Louisville Water Co. _v._ Clark, 143 U.S. 1 (1892).

[1650] New Jersey _v._ Yard, 95 U.S. 104, 111 (1877).

[1651] _See_ Holyoke Water Power Co. _v._ Lyman, 15 Wall. 500, 520 (1873), following Fisheries _v._ Holyoke Water Power Co., 104 Mass. 446, 451 (1870); _also_ Shields _v._ Ohio, 95 U.S. 319 (1877); Fair Haven & W.R. Co. _v._ New Haven, 203 U.S. 379 (1906); Berea College _v._ Kentucky, 211 U.S. 45 (1908). _See also_ Lothrop _v._ Stedman, 15 Fed. Cas. No. 8,519 (1875), where the principles of natural justice are thought to set a limit to the power. Earlier is Zabriskie _v._ Hackensack & N.Y.R. Co., 18 N.J. Eq. 178 (1867) where it is said that a new charter may not be substituted; _also_ Allen _v._ McKean, 1 Fed. Cas. No. 229 (1833) in which a federal court set aside a Maine statute somewhat like the one involved in the Dartmouth College case, on the ground that it went beyond the power of mere alteration. In this case, however, only the right to alter had been reserved, in the charter itself, and not the right to repeal.

[1652] _See_ in this connection the cases cited by Justice Sutherland in his opinion for the Court in Phillips Petroleum Co. _v._ Jenkins, 297 U.S. 629 (1936).

[1653] Curran _v._ Arkansas, 15 How. 304 (1853); Shields _v._ Ohio, 95 U.S. 319 (1877); Greenwood _v._ Union Freight R. Co., 105 U.S. 13 (1882); Adirondack R. Co. _v._ New York, 176 U.S. 335 (1900); Stearns _v._ Minnesota, 179 U.S. 223 (1900); Chicago, M. & St. P.R. Co. _v._ Wisconsin, 238 U.S. 491 (1915); Coombes _v._ Getz, 285 U.S. 434 (1932).

[1654] Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 190, 218 (1872). _See also_ Calder _v._ Michigan, 218 U.S. 591 (1910).

[1655] Lakeshore & M.S.R. Co. _v._ Smith, 173 U.S. 684, 690 (1899); Coombes _v._ Getz, 285 U.S. 434 (1932). Both these decisions cite Greenwood _v._ Union Freight R. Co., 105 U.S. 13, 17 (1882), but without apparent justification.

[1656] 4 Pet. 514 (1830).

[1657] Thorpe _v._ Rutland & Burlington Railroad Co., 27 Vt. 140 (1854).

[1658] Thus a railroad may be required, at its own expense and irrespective of benefits to itself, to eliminate grade crossings in the interest of public safety, (New York & N.E.R. Co. _v._ Bristol, 151 U.S. 556 (1894)); to make highway crossings reasonably safe and convenient for public use, (Great Northern R. Co. _v._ Minnesota, 246 U.S. 434 (1918)); to repair viaducts, (Northern Pac. R. Co. _v._ Minnesota, 208 U.S. 583 (1908)); and to fence its right of way, (Minneapolis & St. L.R. Co. _v._ Emmons, 149 U.S. 364 (1893)). Though a railroad company owns the right of way along a street, the city may require it to lay tracks to conform to the established grade; to fill in tracks at street intersections; and to remove tracks from a busy street intersection, when the attendant disadvantages and expense are small and the safety of the public appreciably enhanced, (Denver & R.G.R. Co. _v._ Denver, 250 U.S. 241 (1919)).

Likewise the State, in the public interest, may require a railroad to reestablish an abandoned station, even though the railroad commission had previously authorized its abandonment on condition that another station be established elsewhere, a condition which had been complied with, (New Haven & N. Co. _v._ Hamersley, 104 U.S. 1 (1881)). It may impose upon a railroad liability for fire communicated by its locomotives, even though the State had previously authorized the company to use said type of locomotive power, (St. Louis & S.F.R. Co. _v._ Mathews, 165 U.S. 1, 5 (1897)); and it may penalize the failure to cut drains through embankments so as to prevent flooding of adjacent lands, (Chicago & A.R. Co. _v._ Tranbarger, 238 U.S. 67 (1915)).

[1659] Boston Beer Co. _v._ Massachusetts, 97 U.S. 25 (1878). _See also_ Fertilizing Co. _v._ Hyde Park, 97 U.S. 659 (1878); and Hammond Packing _v._ Arkansas, 212 U.S. 322, 345 (1909).

[1660] 11 Pet. 420 (1837).

[1661] 11 Pet. at 548-553.

[1662] 201 U.S. 400 (1906).

[1663] Ibid. 471-472, citing The Binghamton Bridge, 3 Wall. 51, 75 (1865).

[1664] Memphis & L.R.R. Co. _v._ Berry, 112 U.S. 609, 617 (1884). _See also_ Picard _v._ East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia R. Co., 130 U.S. 637, 641 (1889); Louisville & N.R. Co. _v._ Palmes, 109 U.S. 244, 251 (1883); Morgan _v._ Louisiana, 93 U.S. 217 (1876); Wilson _v._ Gaines, 103 U.S. 417 (1881); Norfolk & W.R. Co. _v._ Pendleton, 156 U.S. 667, 673 (1895).

[1665] Railroad Co. _v._ Georgia, 98 U.S. 359, 365 (1879).

[1666] Phoenix F. & M. Insurance Co. _v._ Tennessee, 161 U.S. 174 (1896).

[1667] Rochester R. Co. _v._ Rochester, 205 U.S. 236 (1907); followed in Wright _v._ Georgia R. & Bkg. Co., 216 U.S. 420 (1910); and New York Rapid Transit Co. _v._ City of New York, 303 U.S. 573 (1938). _Cf._ Tennessee _v._ Whitworth, 117 U.S. 139 (1886) the authority of which is respected in the preceding case.

[1668] Chicago, B. & K.C.R. Co. _v._ Missouri ex rel. Guffey, 120 U.S. 569 (1887).

[1669] Ford _v._ Delta & Pine Land Co., 164 U.S. 662 (1897).

[1670] Vicksburg, S. & P.R. Co. _v._ Dennis, 116 U.S. 665 (1886).

[1671] Millsaps College _v._ Jackson, 275 U.S. 129 (1927).

[1672] Hale _v._ Iowa State Board of Assessment, 302 U.S. 95 (1937).

[1673] Stone _v._ Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (Railroad Commission Cases), 116 U.S. 307, 330 (1886) extended in Southern Pacific Co. _v._ Campbell, 230 U.S. 537 (1913) to cases in which the word "reasonable" does not appear to qualify the company's right to prescribe tolls. _See also_ American Toll Bridge Co. _v._ Railroad Com. of California et al., 307 U.S. 486 (1939).

[1674] Georgia R. & Power Co. _v._ Decatur, 262 U.S. 432 (1923). _See also_ Southern Iowa Electric Co. _v._ Chariton, 255 U.S. 539 (1921).

[1675] Walla Walla _v._ Walla Walla Water Co., 172 U.S. 1, 15 (1898).

[1676] Skaneateles Water Works Co. _v._ Skaneateles, 184 U.S. 354 (1902); Knoxville Water Co. _v._ Knoxville, 200 U.S. 22 (1906); Madera Water Works _v._ Madera, 228 U.S. 454 (1913).

[1677] Rogers Park Water Co. _v._ Fergus, 180 U.S. 624 (1901).

[1678] Home Telephone Co. _v._ Los Angeles, 211 U.S. 265 (1908); Wyandotte Gas Co. _v._ Kansas, 231 U.S. 622 (1914).

[1679] _See also_ Puget Sound Traction, Light & P. Co. _v._ Reynolds, 244 U.S. 574 (1917). "Before we can find impairment of a contract we must find an obligation of the contract which has been impaired. Since the contract here relied upon is one between a political subdivision of a state and private individuals, settled principles of construction require that the obligation alleged to have been impaired be clearly and unequivocally expressed." Justice Black for the Court in Keefe _v._ Clark, 322 U.S. 393, 396-397 (1944).

[1680] Corporation of Brick Church _v._ Mayor et al., 5 Cowen (N.Y.) 538, 540 (1826).

[1681] West River Bridge Co. _v._ Dix, 6 How. 507 (1848). _See also_ Backus _v._ Lebanon, 11 N.H. 19 (1840); White River Turnpike Co. _v._ Vermont Cent. R. Co., 21 Vt. 590 (1849); and Bonaparte _v._ Camden & A.R. Co., 3 Fed. Cas. No. 1,617 (1830); cited in Calvert I, 960-961.

[1682] Pennsylvania Hospital _v._ Philadelphia, 245 U.S. 20 (1917).

[1683] Illinois Central Railroad _v._ Illinois, 146 U.S. 387, 453, 455 (1892).

[1684] _See_ pp. 335-336.

[1685] _See_ especially Home of the Friendless _v._ Rouse, 8 Wall. 430 (1869), and Washington University _v._ Rouse, 8 Wall. 439 (1869).

[1686] Georgia Railway Co. _v._ Redwine, 342 U.S. 299, 305-06 (1952). The Court distinguishes In re Ayers, 123 U.S. 443 (1887) on the ground that the action there was barred "as one in substance directed against the State to obtain specific performance of a contract with the State". 342 U.S. 305.

[1687] Stone _v._ Mississippi, 101 U.S. 814, 820 (1880).

[1688] Butcher's Union Co. _v._ Crescent City Co., 111 U.S. 746 (1884).

[1689] New Orleans Gas Co. _v._ Louisiana Light Co., 115 U.S. 630 (1885).

[1690] Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. _v._ Goldsboro, 232 U.S. 548, 558 (1914). _See also_ Chicago & A.R. Co. _v._ Tranbarger, 238 U.S. 67 (1915); _also_ Pennsylvania Hospital _v._ Philadelphia, 245 U.S. 20 (1917), where the police power and eminent domain are treated on the same basis in respect of inalienability; also Wabash R. Co. _v._ Defiance, 167 U.S. 88, 97 (1897); Home Telephone Co. _v._ Los Angeles, 211 U.S. 265 (1908); and Calvert I, 962.

[1691] Morley _v._ Lake Shore & M.S.R. Co., 146 U.S. 162 (1892); New Orleans _v._ New Orleans Waterworks Co., 142 U.S. 79 (1891); Missouri & A. Lumber & Min. Co. _v._ Greenwood Dist, 249 U.S. 170 (1919). But _cf._ Livingston _v._ Moore, 7 Pet. 469, 549 (1833); and Garrison _v._ New York, 21 Wall. 196, 203 (1875), suggesting that a different view was earlier entertained in the case of judgments in actions of debt.