Chapter XCIV: Section 5: The Congress shall have power to enforce, by (4)

[1000] Caldwell _v._ Texas, 137 U.S. 691, 692, 698 (1891); Bergemann _v._ Backer, 157 U.S. 655, 656 (1895).

[1001] Rogers _v._ Peck, 199 U.S. 425, 435 (1905).

[1002] West _v._ Louisiana, 194 U.S. 258 (1904).

[1003] Chicago L. Ins. Co. _v._ Cherry, 244 U.S. 25, 30 (1917).

[1004] Standard Oil Co. _v._ Missouri ex rel. Hadley, 224 U.S. 270, 287 (1912); Patterson _v._ Colorado ex rel. Attorney General, 205 U.S. 454, 461 (1907); Stockholders _v._ Sterling, 300 U.S. 175, 182 (1937)

[1005] Virginia _v._ Rives, 100 U.S. 313, 318 (1880).

[1006] Minneapolis & St. L.R. Co. _v._ Beckwith, 129 U.S. 26, 28, 29 (1889).

[1007] Yick Wo _v._ Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356, 373, 374 (1886).

[1008] Snowden _v._ Hughes, 321 U.S. 1, 8 (1944).

[1009] Truax _v._ Corrigan, 257 U.S. 312 (1921).

[1010] Neal _v._ Delaware, 103 U.S. 370 (1881).

[1011] Shelley _v._ Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948).

[1012] Ibid. 19.

[1013] Missouri ex rel. Gaines _v._ Canada, 305 U.S. 337, 343 (1938).

[1014] Smith _v._ Allwright, 321 U.S. 649 (1944). _Cf._ Nixon _v._ Herndon, 273 U.S. 536 (1927); Nixon _v._ Condon, 286 U.S. 73 (1932); Grovey _v._ Townsend, 295 U.S. 45 (1938).

[1015] Slaughter-House Cases, 16 Wall. 36, 81 (1873).

[1016] Chicago, B. & Q.R. Co. _v._ Iowa, 94 U.S. 155 (1877); Peik _v._ Chicago & Northwestern R. Co., 94 U.S. 164 (1877); Chicago, M. & St. P.R. Co. _v._ Ackley, 94 U.S. 179 (1877); Winona & St. P.R. Co. _v._ Blake, 94 U.S. 180 (1877).

[1017] Santa Clara County _v._ Southern P.R. Co., 118 U.S. 394 (1886).

The ruling stood unchallenged until 1938 when Justice Black asserted in a dissenting opinion that "I do not believe the word 'person' in the Fourteenth Amendment includes corporations." Connecticut General Life Insurance Co. _v._ Johnson, 303 U.S. 77, 85 (1938). More recently Justice Douglas expressed the same view in a dissenting opinion in which Justice Black concurred. Wheeling Steel Corporation _v._ Glander, 337 U.S. 562, 576 (1949).

[1018] Yick Wo _v._ Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356, 369 (1886).

[1019] Newark _v._ New Jersey, 262 U.S. 192 (1923); Williams _v._ Baltimore, 289 U.S. 36 (1933).

[1020] _Cf._ Hillsborough _v._ Cromwell, 326 U.S. 620 (1846).

[1021] Blake _v._ McClung, 172 U.S. 239, 261 (1898); Sully _v._ American Nat. Bank, 178 U.S. 289 (1900).

[1022] Kentucky Finance Corp. _v._ Paramount Auto Exchange Corp., 262 U.S. 544 (1923).

[1023] Hillsborough _v._ Cromwell, 326 U.S. 620 (1946).

[1024] Wheeling Steel Corp. _v._ Glander, 337 U.S. 562 (1949); Hanover Insurance Co. _v._ Harding, 272 U.S. 494 (1926).

[1025] Fire Asso. of Philadelphia _v._ New York, 119 U.S. 110 (1886).

[1026] Yick Wo _v._ Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356, 369 (1886).

[1027] Barbier _v._ Connolly, 113 U.S. 27, 31 (1885).

[1028] Ibid. 31-32.

[1029] Truax _v._ Corrigan, 257 U.S. 312, 332-333 (1921).

[1030] Barrett _v._ Indiana, 229 U.S. 26 (1913).

[1031] Watson _v._ Maryland, 218 U.S. 173 (1910).

[1032] Orient Ins. Co. _v._ Daggs, 172 U.S. 557, 562 (1899).

[1033] Bachtel _v._ Wilson, 204 U.S. 36, 41 (1907). _See also_ Frost _v._ Corporation Commission, 278 U.S. 515, 522 (1929); Smith _v._ Cahoon, 283 U.S. 553, 566-567 (1931).

[1034] Lindsley _v._ Natural Carbonic Gas Co., 220 U.S. 61 (1911).

[1035] Middleton _v._ Texas Power & Light Co., 249 U.S. 152, 157 (1919); Madden _v._ Kentucky, 309 U.S. 83 (1940).

[1036] Crescent Cotton Oil Co. _v._ Mississippi, 257 U.S. 129, 137 (1921).

[1037] West Coast Hotel Co. _v._ Parrish, 300 U.S. 379, 400 (1937).

[1038] Lindsley _v._ Natural Carbonic Gas Co., 220 U.S. 61, 81 (1911). _Cf._ United States _v._ Petrillo, 332 U.S. 1, 8 (1947).

[1039] Dominion Hotel _v._ Arizona, 249 U.S. 265, 268 (1919).

[1040] West Coast Hotel _v._ Parrish, 300 U.S. 379, 400 (1937).

[1041] Dominion Hotel _v._ Arizona, 249 U.S. 265, 268 (1919).

[1042] Watson _v._ Maryland, 218 U.S. 173, 179 (1910).

[1043] Phelps _v._ Board of Education, 300 U.S. 319, 324 (1937).

[1044] Chicago Dock & Canal Co. _v._ Fraley, 228 U.S. 680, 687 (1913).

[1045] Davidson _v._ New Orleans, 96 U.S. 97, 106 (1878).

[1046] Fire Asso. of Philadelphia _v._ New York, 119 U.S. 110 (1886); Santa Clara County _v._ Southern P.R. Co., 118 U.S. 394 (1886).

[1047] Bell's Gap R. Co. _v._ Pennsylvania, 134 U.S. 232, 237 (1890). (Emphasis supplied.)

[1048] Louisville Gas & E. Co. _v._ Coleman, 277 U.S. 32, 37 (1928).

Classification for purposes of taxation has been held valid in the following situations:

_Banks:_ a heavier tax on banks which make loans mainly from money of depositors than on other financial institutions which make loans mainly from money supplied otherwise than by deposits. First Nat. Bank _v._ Louisiana Tax Commission, 289 U.S. 60 (1933).

_Bank deposits:_ a tax of 50c per $100 on deposits in banks outside a State in contrast with a rate of 10c per $100 on deposits in the State. Madden _v._ Kentucky, 309 U.S. 83 (1940).

_Coal:_ a tax of 2-1/2 percent on anthracite but not on bituminous coal. Heisler _v._ Thomas Colliery Co., 260 U.S. 245 (1922).

_Gasoline:_ a graduated severance tax on oils sold primarily for their gasoline content, measured by resort to Baume gravity. Ohio Oil Co. _v._ Conway, 281 U.S. 146 (1930).

_Chain stores:_ a privilege tax graduated according to the number of stores maintained, State Tax Comr's. _v._ Jackson, 283 U.S. 527 (1931); Fox _v._ Standard Oil Co., 294 U.S. 87 (1935); a license tax based on the number of stores both within and without the State, Great A. & P. Tea Co. _v._ Grosjean, 301 U.S. 412 (1937).

_Electricity:_ municipal systems may be exempted, Puget Sound Power & Light Co. _v._ Seattle, 291 U.S. 619 (1934); that portion of electricity produced which is used for pumping water for irrigating lands may be exempted, Utah Power & Light Co. _v._ Pfost, 286 U.S. 165 (1932).

_Insurance companies:_ license tax measured by gross receipts upon domestic life insurance companies from which fraternal societies having lodge organizations and insuring lives of members only are exempt, and similar foreign corporations are subject to a fixed and comparatively slight fee for the privilege of doing local business of the same kind. Northwestern Mutual L. Ins. Co. _v._ Wisconsin, 247 U.S. 132 (1918).

_Oleomargarine:_ classified separately from butter. Magnano Co. _v._ Hamilton, 292 U.S. 40 (1934).

_Peddlers:_ classified separately from other vendors. Caskey Baking Co. _v._ Virginia, 313 U.S. 117 (1941).

_Public utilities:_ a gross receipts tax at a higher rate for railroads than for other public utilities, Ohio Tax Cases, 232 U.S. 576 (1914); a gasoline storage tax which places a heavier burden upon railroads than upon common carriers by bus, Nashville C. & St. L. Co. _v._ Wallace, 288 U.S. 249 (1933); a tax on railroads measured by gross earnings from local operations, as applied to a railroad which received a larger net income than others from the local activity of renting, and borrowing cars, Illinois Central R. Co. _v._ Minnesota, 309 U.S. 157 (1940); a gross receipts tax applicable only to public utilities, including carriers, the proceeds of which are used for relieving the unemployed, New York Rapid Transit Corp. _v._ New York, 303 U.S. 573 (1938).

_Wine:_ exemption of wine from grapes grown in the State while in the hands of the producer. Cox _v._ Texas, 202 U.S. 446 (1906).

Laws imposing miscellaneous license fees have been upheld as follows:

_Cigarette dealers:_ taxing retailers and not wholesalers. Cook _v._ Marshall County, 196 U.S. 261 (1905).

_Commission merchants:_ requirements that dealers in farm products on commission procure a license, Payne _v._ Kansas, 248 U.S. 112 (1918).

_Elevators and warehouses:_ license limited to certain elevators and warehouses on right-of-way of railroad, Cargill Co. _v._ Minnesota, 180 U.S. 452 (1901); a license tax applicable only to commercial warehouses where no other commercial warehousing facilities in township subject to tax, Independent Warehouse Inc. _v._ Scheele, 331 U.S. 70 (1947).

_Laundries:_ exemption from license tax of steam laundries and women engaged in the laundry business where not more than two women are employed. Quong Wing _v._ Kirkendall, 223 U.S. 59 (1912).

_Merchants:_ exemption from license tax measured by amount of purchases, of manufacturers within the State selling their own product. Armour & Co. _v._ Virginia, 246 U.S. 1 (1918).

_Sugar refineries:_ exemption from license applicable to refiners of sugar and molasses of planters and farmers grinding and refining their own sugar and molasses. American Sugar Refining Co. _v._ Louisiana, 179 U.S. 89 (1900).

_Theaters:_ license graded according to price of admission. Metropolis Theatre Co. _v._ Chicago, 228 U.S. 61 (1913).

_Wholesalers of oil:_ occupation tax on wholesalers in oil not applicable to wholesalers in other products. Southwestern Oil Co. _v._ Texas, 217 U.S. 114 (1910).

[1049] Bell's Gap R. Co. _v._ Pennsylvania, 134 U.S. 232, 237 (1890).

[1050] Quong Wing _v._ Kirkendall, 223 U.S. 59, 62 (1912). _See also_ Hammond Packing Co. _v._ Montana, 233 U.S. 331 (1914).

[1051] Puget Sound Power & Light Co. _v._ Seattle, 291 U.S. 619, 625 (1934).

[1052] Colgate _v._ Harvey, 296 U.S. 404, 422 (1935).

[1053] Southern R. Co. _v._ Greene, 216 U.S. 400, 417 (1910); Quaker City Cab Co. _v._ Pennsylvania, 277 U.S. 389, 400 (1928).

[1054] Keeney _v._ New York, 222 U.S. 525, 536 (1912); State Tax Comrs. _v._ Jackson, 283 U.S. 527, 538 (1931).

[1055] Giozza _v._ Tiernan, 148 U.S. 657, 662 (1893).

[1056] Louisville Gas & E. Co. _v._ Coleman, 277 U.S. 32, 37 (1928). _See also_ Bell's Gap R. Co. _v._ Pennsylvania, 134 U.S. 232, 237 (1890).

[1057] Stewart Dry Goods Co. _v._ Lewis, 294 U.S. 550 (1935). _See also_ Valentine _v._ Great A. & P. Tea Co., 299 U.S. 32 (1936).

[1058] Liggett Co. _v._ Lee, 288 U.S. 517 (1933).

[1059] Quaker City Cab Co. _v._ Pennsylvania, 277 U.S. 389 (1928).

[1060] State Tax Comrs. _v._ Jackson, 283 U.S. 527, 537 (1931).

[1061] Colgate _v._ Harvey, 296 U.S. 404, 422 (1935).

[1062] Darnell _v._ Indiana, 226 U.S. 390, 398 (1912); Farmers & M. Sav. Bank _v._ Minnesota, 232 U.S. 516, 531 (1914).

[1063] Morf _v._ Bingaman, 298 U.S. 407, 413 (1936).

[1064] Baltic Min. Co. _v._ Massachusetts, 231 U.S. 68, 88 (1913). _See also_ Cheney Bros. Co. _v._ Massachusetts, 246 U.S. 147, 157 (1918).

[1065] Fire Asso. of Philadelphia _v._ New York, 119 U.S. 110, 119 (1886).

[1066] Hanover F. Ins. Co. _v._ Harding, 272 U.S. 494, 511 (1926).

[1067] Southern R. Co. _v._ Greene, 216 U.S. 400, 418 (1910).

[1068] Concordia F. Ins. Co. _v._ Illinois, 292 U.S. 535 (1934).

[1069] Lincoln Nat. Life Ins. Co. _v._ Read, 325 U.S. 673 (1945).

[1070] Wheeling Steel Corp. _v._ Glander, 337 U.S. 562, 571, 572 (1949).

[1071] Royster Guano Co. _v._ Virginia, 253 U.S. 412 (1920).

[1072] Shaffer _v._ Carter, 252 U.S. 37, 56, 57 (1920); Travis _v._ Yale & T. Mfg. Co., 252 U.S. 60, 75, 76 (1920).

[1073] Welch _v._ Henry, 305 U.S. 134 (1938).

[1074] Magoun _v._ Illinois Trust & Sav. Bank, 170 U.S. 283, 288, 300 (1898).

[1075] Billings _v._ Illinois, 188 U.S. 97 (1903).

[1076] Campbell _v._ California, 200 U.S. 87 (1906).

[1077] Salomon _v._ State Tax Commission, 278 U.S. 484 (1929).

[1078] Board of Education _v._ Illinois, 203 U.S. 553 (1906).

[1079] Maxwell _v._ Bugbee, 250 U.S. 525 (1919).

[1080] Continental Baking Co. _v._ Woodring, 286 U.S. 352 (1932).

[1081] Dixie Ohio Express Co. _v._ State Revenue Commission, 306 U.S. 72, 78 (1939).

[1082] Alward _v._ Johnson, 282 U.S. 509 (1931).

[1083] Bekins Van Lines _v._ Riley, 280 U.S. 80 (1929).

[1084] Morf _v._ Bingaman, 298 U.S. 407 (1936).

[1085] Clark _v._ Paul Gray, Inc., 306 U.S. 583 (1939).

[1086] Carley & Hamilton _v._ Snook, 281 U.S. 66 (1930).

[1087] Aero Mayflower Transit Co. _v._ Georgia Pub. Serv. Commission, 295 U.S. 285 (1935).

[1088] Breedlove _v._ Suttles, 302 U.S. 277 (1937).

[1089] Royster Guano Co. _v._ Virginia, 253 U.S. 412, 415 (1920).

[1090] Missouri _v._ Dockery, 191 U.S. 165 (1903).

[1091] Kentucky Union Co. _v._ Kentucky, 219 U.S. 140, 161 (1911).

[1092] Sunday Lake Iron Co. _v._ Wakefield Twp., 247 U.S. 350 (1918); Raymond _v._ Chicago Union Traction Co., 207 U.S. 20, 35, 37 (1907).

[1093] Coulter _v._ Louisville & N.R. Co., 196 U.S. 599 (1905). _See also_ Chicago, B. & Q.R. Co. _v._ Babcock, 204 U.S. 585 (1907).

[1094] Charleston Assn. _v._ Alderson, 324 U.S. 182 (1945). Nashville, C. & St. L. Ry. _v._ Browning, 310 U.S. 362 (1940).

[1095] Sioux City Bridge Co. _v._ Dakota County, 260 U.S. 441, 446 (1923).

[1096] Hillsborough _v._ Cromwell, 326 U.S. 620, 623 (1946).

[1097] St. Louis-San Francisco R. Co. _v._ Middlekamp, 256 U.S. 226, 230 (1921).

[1098] Memphis & C.R. Co. _v._ Pace, 282 U.S. 241 (1931).

[1099] Kansas City Southern R. Co. _v._ Road Improv. Dist., 256 U.S. 658 (1921); Thomas _v._ Kansas City Southern R. Co., 261 U.S. 481 (1923).

[1100] Road Improv. Dist. _v._ Missouri P.R. Co., 274 U.S. 188 (1927).

[1101] Branson _v._ Bush, 251 U.S. 182 (1919).

[1102] Columbus & G.R. Co. _v._ Miller, 283 U.S. 96 (1931).

[1103] Buck _v._ Bell, 274 U.S. 200, 208 (1927).

[1104] Classifications under police regulations have been held valid in the following situations:

_Advertising:_ discrimination between billboard and newspaper advertising of cigarettes, Packer Corp. _v._ Utah, 285 U.S. 105 (1932); prohibition of advertising signs on motor vehicles, except when used in the usual business of the owner, and not used mainly for advertising, Fifth Ave. Coach Co. _v._ New York, 221 U.S. 467 (1911); prohibition of advertising on motor vehicles except notices or advertising of products of the owner, Railway Express Inc. _v._ New York, 336 U.S. 106 (1949); prohibition against sale of articles on which there is a representation of the flag for advertising purposes, except newspapers, periodicals and books; Halter _v._ Nebraska, 205 U.S. 34 (1907).

_Amusement:_ prohibition against keeping billiard halls for hire, except in case of hotels having twenty-five or more rooms for use of regular guests. Murphy _v._ California, 225 U.S. 623 (1912).

_Barber shops:_ a law forbidding Sunday labor except works of necessity or charity, and specifically forbidding the keeping open of barber shops. Petit _v._ Minnesota, 177 U.S. 164 (1900).

_Cattle:_ a classification of sheep, as distinguished from cattle, in a regulation restricting the use of public lands for grazing. Bacon _v._ Walker, 204 U.S. 311 (1907). _See also_ Omaechevarria _v._ Idaho, 246 U.S. 343 (1918).

_Cotton gins:_ in a State where cotton gins are held to be public utilities and their rates regulated, the granting of a license to a cooperative association distributing profits ratably to members and nonmembers does not deny other persons operating gins equal protection when there is nothing in the laws to forbid them to distribute their net earnings among their patrons. Corporations Commission _v._ Lowe, 281 U.S. 431 (1930).

_Fish processing:_ stricter regulation of reduction of fish to flour or meal than of canning. Bayside Fish Flour Co. _v._ Gentry, 297 U.S. 422 (1936).

_Food:_ bread sold in loaves must be of prescribed standard sizes, Schmidinger _v._ Chicago, 226 U.S. 578 (1913); food preservatives containing boric acid may not be sold, Price _v._ Illinois, 238 U.S. 446 (1915); lard not sold in bulk must be put up in containers holding one, three or five pounds or some whole multiple thereof, Armour & Co. _v._ North Dakota, 240 U.S. 510 (1916); milk industry may be placed in a special class for regulation, New York ex rel. Lieberman _v._ Van De Carr, 199 U.S. 552 (1905); vendors producing milk outside city may be classified separately, Adams _v._ Milwaukee, 228 U.S. 572 (1913); producing and nonproducing vendors may be distinguished in milk regulations, St. John _v._ New York, 201 U.S. 633 (1906); different minimum and maximum milk prices may be fixed for distributors and storekeepers; Nebbia _v._ New York, 291 U.S. 502 (1934); price differential may be granted for sellers of milk not having a well advertised trade name, Borden's Farm Products Co. _v._ Ten Eyck, 297 U.S. 251 (1936); oleomargarine colored to resemble butter may be prohibited, Capital City Dairy Co. _v._ Ohio ex rel. Attorney General, 183 U.S. 238 (1902); table syrups may be required to be so labelled and disclose identity and proportion of ingredients, Corn Products Ref. Co. _v._ Eddy, 249 U.S. 427 (1919).

_Geographical discriminations:_ legislation limited in application to a particular geographical or political subdivision of a State, Ft. Smith Light & Traction Co. _v._ Board of Improvement, 274 U.S. 387, 391 (1927); ordinance prohibiting a particular business in certain sections of a municipality, Hadacheck _v._ Sebastian, 239 U.S. 394 (1915); statute authorizing a municipal commission to limit the height of buildings in commercial districts to 125 feet and in other districts to 80 to 100 feet, Welch _v._ Swasey, 214 U.S. 91 (1909); ordinance prescribing limits in city outside of which no woman of lewd character shall dwell, L'Hote _v._ New Orleans, 177 U.S. 587, 595 (1900).

_Hotels:_ requirement that keepers of hotels having over fifty guests employ night watchmen. Miller _v._ Strahl, 239 U.S. 426 (1915).

_Insurance companies:_ regulation of fire insurance rates with exemption for farmers mutuals, German Alliance Ins. Co. _v._ Lewis, 233 U.S. 389 (1914); different requirements imposed upon reciprocal insurance associations than upon mutual companies, Hoopeston Canning Co. _v._ Cullen, 318 U.S. 313 (1943); prohibition against life insurance companies or agents engaging in undertaking business, Daniel _v._ Family Ins. Co., 336 U.S. 220 (1949).

_Intoxicating liquors:_ exception of druggists or manufacturers from regulation. Ohio ex rel. Lloyd _v._ Dollison, 194 U.S. 445 (1904); Eberle _v._ Michigan, 232 U.S. 700 (1914).

_Lodging houses:_ requirement that sprinkler systems be installed in buildings of nonfireproof construction is valid as applied to such a building which is safeguarded by a fire alarm system, constant watchman service and other safety arrangements. Queenside Hills Realty Co. _v._ Saxl, 328 U.S. 80 (1946).

_Markets:_ prohibition against operation of private market within six squares of public market. Natal _v._ Louisiana, 139 U.S. 621 (1891).

_Medicine:_ a uniform standard of professional attainment and conduct for all physicians, Missouri ex rel. Hurwitz _v._ North, 271 U.S. 40 (1926); reasonable exemptions from medical registration law, Watson _v._ Maryland, 218 U.S. 173 (1910); exemption of persons who heal by prayer from regulations applicable to drugless physicians, Crane _v._ Johnson, 242 U.S. 339 (1917); exclusion of osteopathic physicians from public hospitals, Hayman _v._ Galveston, 273 U.S. 414 (1927); requirement that persons who treat eyes without use of drugs be licensed as optometrists with exception for persons treating eyes by the use of drugs, who are regulated under a different statute, McNaughton _v._ Johnson, 242 U.S. 344 (1917); a prohibition against advertising by dentists, not applicable to other professions, Semler _v._ Oregon State Dental Examiners, 294 U.S. 608 (1935).

_Motor vehicles:_ guest passenger regulation applicable to automobiles but not to other classes of vehicles, Silver _v._ Silver, 280 U.S. 117 (1929); exemption of vehicles from other States from registration requirement, Storaasli _v._ Minnesota, 283 U.S. 57 (1931); classification of driverless automobiles for hire as public vehicles, which are required to procure a license and to carry liability insurance, Hodge Drive-It-Yourself Co. _v._ Cincinnati, 284 U.S. 335 (1932); exemption from limitations on hours of labor for drivers of motor vehicles of carriers of property for hire, of those not principally engaged in transport of property for hire, and carriers operating wholly in metropolitan areas, Welch Co. _v._ New Hampshire, 306 U.S. 79 (1939); exemption of busses and temporary movements of farm implements and machinery and trucks making short hauls from common carriers from limitations in net load and length of trucks, Sproles _v._ Binford, 286 U.S. 374 (1932); prohibition against operation of uncertified carriers, Bradley _v._ Public Utilities Commission, 289 U.S. 92 (1933); exemption from regulations affecting carriers for hire, of persons whose chief business is farming and dairying, but who occasionally haul farm and dairy products for compensation, Hicklin _v._ Coney, 290 U.S. 169 (1933); exemption of private vehicles, street cars and omnibuses from insurance requirements applicable to taxicabs, Packard _v._ Banton, 264 U.S. 140 (1924).

_Peddlers and solicitors:_ a State may classify and regulate itinerant vendors and peddlers, Emert _v._ Missouri, 156 U.S. 296 (1895); may forbid the sale by them of drugs and medicines, Baccus _v._ Louisiana, 232 U.S. 334 (1914); prohibit drumming or soliciting on trains for business for hotels, medical practitioners, etc., Williams _v._ Arkansas, 217 U.S. 79 (1910); or solicitation of employment to prosecute or collect claims, McCloskey _v._ Tobin, 252 U.S. 107 (1920). And a municipality may prohibit canvassers or peddlers from calling at private residences unless requested or invited by the occupant to do so. Breard _v._ Alexandria, 341 U.S. 622 (1951).

_Property destruction:_ destruction of cedar trees to protect apple orchards from cedar rust. Miller _v._ Schoene, 276 U.S. 272 (1928).

_Railroads:_ forbid operation on a certain street, Richmond, F. & P.R. Co. _v._ Richmond, 96 U.S. 521 (1878); require fences and cattle guards and allowed recovery of multiple damages for failure to comply, Missouri P.R. Co. _v._ Humes, 115 U.S. 512 (1885); Minneapolis & St. L.R. Co. _v._ Beckwith, 129 U.S. 26 (1889); Minneapolis & St. L.R. Co. _v._ Emmons, 149 U.S. 364 (1893); charge them with entire expense of altering a grade crossing, New York & N.E.R. Co. _v._ Bristol, 151 U.S. 556 (1894); makes them responsible for fire communicated by their engines, St. Louis & S.F.R. Co. _v._ Mathews, 165 U.S. 1 (1897); requires cutting of certain weeds, Missouri, K. & T.R. Co. _v._ May, 194 U.S. 267 (1904); create a presumption against a railroad failing to give prescribed warning signals, Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. _v._ Ford, 287 U.S. 502 (1933); require use of locomotive headlights of a specified form and power, Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. _v._ Georgia, 234 U.S. 280 (1914); make railroads liable for damage caused by operation of their locomotives, unless they make it appear that their agents exercised all ordinary and reasonable care and diligence, Seaboard Air Line R. Co. _v._ Watson, 287 U.S. 86 (1932); require sprinkling of streets between tracks to lay the dust, Pacific Gas & Electric Co. _v._ Police Court, 251 U.S. 22 (1919).

_Sales in bulk:_ requirement of notice of bulk sale applicable only to retail dealers. Lemieux _v._ Young, 211 U.S. 489 (1909).

_Secret societies:_ regulations applied only to one class of oath-bound associations, having a membership of 20 or more persons, where the class regulated has a tendency to make the secrecy of its purpose and membership a cloak for conduct inimical to the personal rights of others and to the public welfare. New York ex rel. Bryant _v._ Zimmerman, 278 U.S. 63 (1928).

_Securities:_ a prohibition on the sale of capital stock on margin or for future delivery which is not applicable to other objects of speculation, e.g., cotton, grain. Otis _v._ Parker, 187 U.S. 606 (1903).

_Syndicalism:_ a criminal syndicalism statute does not deny equal protection in penalizing those who advocate a resort to violent and unlawful methods as a means of changing industrial and political conditions while not penalizing those who advocate resort to such methods for maintaining such conditions. Whitney _v._ California, 274 U.S. 357 (1927).

_Telegraph companies:_ a statute prohibiting stipulation against liability for negligence in the delivery of interstate message, which did not forbid express companies and other common carriers to limit their liability by contract. Western Union Teleg. Co. _v._ Commercial Milling Co., 218 U.S. 406 (1910).

[1105] Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection & Ins. Co. _v._ Harrison, 301 U.S. 459 (1937).

[1106] Smith _v._ Cahoon, 283 U.S. 553 (1931).

[1107] Mayflower Farms _v._ Ten Eyck, 297 U.S. 266 (1936).

[1108] Buck _v._ Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927).

[1109] Skinner _v._ Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535 (1942).

[1110] Yick Wo _v._ Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886).

[1111] Fisher _v._ St. Louis, 194 U.S. 361 (1904).

[1112] Gorieb _v._ Fox, 274 U.S. 603 (1927).

[1113] Wilson _v._ Eureka City, 173 U.S. 32 (1899).

[1114] Gundling _v._ Chicago, 177 U.S. 183 (1900).

[1115] Kotch _v._ Pilot Comm'rs., 330 U.S. 552 (1947).

[1116] Yick Wo _v._ Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886). _Cf._ Hirabayashi _v._ United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943), where the Court sustained the relocation of American citizens of Japanese ancestry on the ground that in this case the fact of origin might reasonably be deemed to have some substantial relation to national security. It was careful to point out however, that normally distinctions based on race or national origin are invidious and hence void.

[1117] Ohio ex rel. Clarke _v._ Deckebach, 274 U.S. 392 (1927).

[1118] Patsone _v._ Pennsylvania, 232 U.S. 138 (1914).

[1119] Heim _v._ McCall, 239 U.S. 175 (1915); Crane _v._ New York, 239 U.S. 195 (1915).

[1120] Truax _v._ Raich, 239 U.S. 33 (1915).

[1121] Takahashi _v._ Fish & Game Comm'n., 334 U.S. 410 (1948).

[1122] Terrace _v._ Thompson, 263 U.S. 197 (1923).

[1123] 332 U.S. 633 (1948).

[1124] Ibid. 647, 650.

[1125] Holden _v._ Hardy, 169 U.S. 366 (1898).

[1126] Bunting _v._ Oregon, 243 U.S. 426 (1917).

[1127] Atkin _v._ Kansas, 191 U.S. 207 (1903).

[1128] Keokee Consol. Coke Co. _v._ Taylor, 234 U.S. 224 (1914); _see also_ Knoxville Iron Co. _v._ Harbison, 183 U.S. 13 (1901).

[1129] McLean _v._ Arkansas, 211 U.S. 539 (1909).

[1130] Prudential Insurance Co. _v._ Cheek, 259 U.S. 530 (1922).

[1131] Chicago, R.I. & P.R. Co. _v._ Perry, 259 U.S. 548 (1922).

[1132] Mountain Timber Co. _v._ Washington, 243 U.S. 219 (1917).

[1133] New York C.R. Co. _v._ White, 243 U.S. 188 (1917); Middleton _v._ Texas Power & Light Co., 249 U.S. 152 (1919); Ward & Gow _v._ Krinsky, 259 U.S. 503 (1922).

[1134] Lincoln Federal Labor Union _v._ Northwestern Co., 335 U.S. 525 (1949).

[1135] Miller _v._ Wilson, 236 U.S. 373 (1915); Bosley _v._ McLaughlin, 236 U.S. 385 (1915).

[1136] Muller _v._ Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908).

[1137] Dominion Hotel _v._ Arizona, 249 U.S. 265 (1919).

[1138] Radice _v._ New York, 264 U.S. 292 (1924).

[1139] West Coast Hotel Co. _v._ Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937); overruling Adkins _v._ Children's Hospital, 261 U.S. 525 (1923); and Morehead _v._ Tipaldo, 298 U.S. 587 (1936).

[1140] Goesaert _v._ Cleary, 335 U.S. 464 (1948).

[1141] Ibid. 466.

[1142] Mallinckrodt Chemical Works _v._ Missouri ex rel. Jones, 238 U.S. 41 (1915).

[1143] International Harvester Co. _v._ Missouri ex rel. Atty. Gen., 234 U.S. 199 (1914).

[1144] Tigner _v._ Texas, 310 U.S. 141 (1940), overruling Connolly _v._ Union Sewer Pipe Co., 184 U.S. 540 (1902).

[1145] Standard Oil Co. _v._ Tennessee ex rel. Cates, 217 U.S. 413 (1910).

[1146] Carroll _v._ Greenwich Ins. Co., 199 U.S. 401 (1905).

[1147] Pacific States Box & Basket Co. _v._ White, 296 U.S. 176 (1935). _See also_ Slaughter-House Cases, 16 Wall. 36 (1873); Nebbia _v._ New York, 291 U.S. 502, 529 (1934).

[1148] Pace _v._ Alabama, 106 U.S. 583 (1883).

[1149] Collins _v._ Johnston, 237 U.S. 502, 510 (1915); Pennsylvania ex rel. Sullivan _v._ Ashe, 302 U.S. 51 (1937).

[1150] McDonald _v._ Massachusetts, 180 U.S. 311 (1901). _See also_ Moore _v._ Missouri, 159 U.S. 673 (1895); Graham _v._ West Virginia, 224 U.S. 616 (1912).

[1151] Carlesi _v._ New York, 233 U.S. 51 (1914).

[1152] Ughbanks _v._ Armstrong, 208 U.S. 481 (1908).

[1153] Pennsylvania ex rel. Sullivan _v._ Ashe, 302 U.S. 51 (1937).

[1154] Finley _v._ California, 222 U.S. 28 (1911).

[1155] Minnesota _v._ Probate Court, 309 U.S. 270 (1940).

[1156] Pace _v._ Alabama, 106 U.S. 583 (1883).

[1157] Francis _v._ Resweber, 329 U.S. 459 (1947).

[1158] Skinner _v._ Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535 (1942). _Cf._ Buck _v._ Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927). (Sterilization of defectives.)

[1159] Buchanan _v._ Warley, 245 U.S. 60 (1917).

[1160] Corrigan _v._ Buckley, 271 U.S. 323 (1926).

[1161] Shelley _v._ Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948). _Cf._ Hurd _v._ Hodge, 334 U.S. 24 (1948), where the Court held that a restrictive covenant was unenforceable in the Federal Court of the District of Columbia for reasons of public policy.

[1162] Plessy _v._ Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). _Cf._ Morgan _v._ Virginia, 328 U.S. 373 (1946), where a State statute requiring segregation of passengers on interstate journeys was held to be an unlawful restriction on interstate commerce. _See also_ Hall _v._ De Cuir, 95 U.S. 485 (1878), where a State law forbidding steamboats on the Mississippi to segregate passengers according to race was held unconstitutional under the commerce clause, and Bob-Lo Excursion Co. _v._ Michigan, 333 U.S. 28 (1948), where a Michigan statute forbidding discrimination was held valid as applied to an excursion boat operating on the Detroit River; and Henderson _v._ United States, 339 U.S. 816 (1950), where segregation in a dining car operated by an interstate railroad was held to violate a federal statute.

[1163] McCabe _v._ Atchison, T. & S.F.R. Co., 235 U.S. 151 (1914).

[1164] Cumming _v._ County Board of Education, 175 U.S. 528 (1899).

[1165] Gong Lum _v._ Rice, 275 U.S. 78 (1927).

[1166] 305 U.S. 337 (1938).

[1167] Sipuel _v._ Oklahoma, 332 U.S. 631 (1948).

[1168] Fisher _v._ Hurst, 333 U.S. 147 (1948).

[1169] 339 U.S. 629 (1950).

[1170] 339 U.S. 637 (1950).

The "Separate but Equal" Doctrine took its rise in Chief Justice Shaw's opinion in Roberts _v._ City of Boston, 59 Mass. 198, 200 (1849), for an excellent account of which _see_ the article by Leonard W. Levy and Harlan B. Phillips in 56 American Historical Review, 510-518 (April, 1951). _See also_ Judge Danforth's opinion in Gallagher _v._ King, 93 N.Y. 438 (1883).

In a case in which Negro children brought a suit in the Federal District Court for the Eastern District of South Carolina, to enjoin certain school officials from making any distinctions based upon race or color in providing educational facilities, the court found that statutes of South Carolina which required separate schools for the two races did not of themselves violate the Fourteenth Amendment, but ordered the school officials to proceed at once to furnish equal educational facilities and to report to the court within six months as to the action taken. On appeal to the Supreme Court the case was remanded for further proceedings in order that the Supreme Court may "have the benefit of the views of the District Court upon the additional facts brought to the attention of that court in the report which it ordered." Briggs _v._ Elliott, 342 U.S. 350, 351 (1952).

Recently, the Fourth United States Circuit Court of Appeals, sitting at Richmond, ruled that Negroes must be admitted to the white University of North Carolina Law School in terms which flatly rejected the thesis of separate but equal facilities. "It is a definite handicap to the colored student to confine his association in the Law School with people of his own class," said the opinion of Judge Morris A. Soper.--McKissick _v._ Carmichael, 187 F. 2d 949, 952 (1951).

[1171] Guinn _v._ United States, 238 U.S. 347 (1915).

[1172] Williams _v._ Mississippi, 170 U.S. 213 (1898).

[1173] Giles _v._ Harris, 189 U.S. 475, 486 (1903).

[1174] Lane _v._ Wilson, 307 U.S. 268, 275 (1939).

[1175] _See_ p. 1141, _ante_.

[1176] Nixon _v._ Herndon, 273 U.S. 536 (1927).

[1177] Nixon _v._ Condon, 286 U.S. 73, 89 (1932).

[1178] Grovey _v._ Townsend, 295 U.S. 45 (1935).

[1179] United States _v._ Classic, 313 U.S. 299 (1941).

[1180] 321 U.S. 649 (1944).

[1181] Pope _v._ Williams, 193 U.S. 621 (1904).

[1182] 321 U.S. 1 (1944).

[1183] 328 U.S. 549, 566 (1946). Justice Black dissented on the ground that the equal protection clause was violated.

[1184] 335 U.S. 281, 287, 288 (1948). Justice Douglas, with whom Justices Black and Murphy concurred, dissented saying that the statute lacked "the equality to which the exercise of political rights is entitled under the Fourteenth Amendment."

[1185] South _v._ Peters, 339 U.S. 276 (1950).

[1186] Dohany _v._ Rogers, 281 U.S. 362, 369 (1930).

[1187] Hayes _v._ Missouri, 120 U.S. 68 (1887).

[1188] Hardware Dealers Mut. F. Ins. Co. _v._ Glidden Co., 284 U.S. 151 (1931).

[1189] Lindsley _v._ Natural Carbonic Gas Co., 220 U.S. 61, 81, 82 (1911); _see also_ Mobile, J. & K.C.R. Co. _v._ Turnipseed, 219 U.S. 35 (1910); Adams _v._ New York, 192 U.S. 585 (1904).

[1190] Cohen _v._ Beneficial Loan Corp., 337 U.S. 541, 552 (1949).

[1191] Bowman _v._ Lewis, 101 U.S. 22, 30 (1880). _See also_ Duncan _v._ Missouri, 152 U.S. 377 (1894); Ohio ex rel. Bryant _v._ Akron Metropolitan Park Dist, 281 U.S. 74 (1930).

[1192] Mallett _v._ North Carolina, 181 U.S. 589 (1901); _see also_ Bowman _v._ Lewis, 101 U.S. 22, 30 (1880).

[1193] Truax _v._ Corrigan, 257 U.S. 312 (1921).

[1194] Cochran _v._ Kansas, 316 U.S. 255 (1942).

[1195] Bain Peanut Co. _v._ Pinson, 282 U.S. 499 (1931).

[1196] Consolidated Rendering Co. _v._ Vermont, 207 U.S. 541 (1908). _See also_ Hammond Packing Co. _v._ Arkansas, 212 U.S. 322 (1909).

[1197] Power Mfg. Co. _v._ Saunders, 274 U.S. 490 (1927).

[1198] Kentucky Finance Corp. _v._ Paramount Auto Exch. Corp., 262 U.S. 544 (1923).

[1199] Fidelity Mut. Life Asso. _v._ Mettler, 185 U.S. 308, 325 (1902). _See also_ Manhattan L. Ins. Co. _v._ Cohen, 234 U.S. 123 (1914).

[1200] Lowe _v._ Kansas, 163 U.S. 81 (1896).

[1201] Missouri, K. & T.R. Co. _v._ Cade, 233 U.S. 642 (1914); _see also_ Missouri, K. & T.R. Co. _v._ Harris, 234 U.S. 412 (1914).

[1202] Missouri P.R. Co. _v._ Larabee, 234 U.S. 459 (1914).

[1203] Atchison, T. & S.F.R. Co. _v._ Matthews, 174 U.S. 96 (1899).

[1204] Gulf, C. & S.F.R. Co. _v._ Ellis, 165 U.S. 150 (1897). _See also_ Atchison, T. & S.F.R. Co. _v._ Vosburg, 238 U.S. 56 (1915).

[1205] 18 Stat. 336 (1875); 8 U.S.C. Sec. 44 (1946).

[1206] Cassell _v._ Texas, 339 U.S. 282 (1950); Hill _v._ Texas, 316 U.S. 400, 404 (1942); Smith _v._ Texas, 311 U.S. 128 (1940); Pierre _v._ Louisiana, 306 U.S. 354 (1939); Virginia _v._ Rives, 100 U.S. 313 (1880).

[1207] Virginia _v._ Rives, 100 U.S. 313, 322, 323 (1880).

[1208] Akins _v._ Texas, 325 U.S. 398, 403 (1945).

[1209] Patton _v._ Mississippi, 332 U.S. 463 (1947). _See also_ Shepherd _v._ Florida, 341 U.S. 50 (1951).

[1210] Gibson _v._ Mississippi, 162 U.S. 565 (1896).

[1211] Rawlins _v._ Georgia, 201 U.S. 638 (1906).

[1212] 332 U.S. 261 (1947).

In an interesting footnote to his opinion, Justice Jackson asserted that "it is unnecessary to decide whether the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment might of its own force prohibit discrimination on account of race in the selection of jurors, so that such discrimination would violate the due process clause of the same Amendment." Ibid. 284. Earlier cases dealing with racial discrimination have indicated that the discrimination was forbidden by the equal protection clause as well as by the Civil Rights Act of 1875. _See_ cases cited to the preceding paragraph. [Transcriber's Note: Reference is to Section "Selection of Jury", above.]

[1213] Ibid. 285.

[1214] Ibid. 270, 271.

[1215] Ibid. 291.

[1216] Ibid. 288, 289, 299, 300. Four Justices, speaking by Justice Murphy dissented, saying: "The proof here is adequate enough to demonstrate that this panel, like every discriminatorily selected 'blue ribbon' panel, suffers from a constitutional infirmity. That infirmity is the denial of equal protection to those who are tried by a jury drawn from a 'blue ribbon' panel. Such a panel is narrower and different from that used in forming juries to try the vast majority of other accused persons. To the extent of that difference, therefore, the persons tried by 'blue ribbon' juries receive unequal protection." "In addition, as illustrated in this case, the distinction that is drawn in fact between 'blue ribbon' jurors and general jurors is often of such a character as to destroy the representative nature of the 'blue ribbon' panel. There is no constitutional right to a jury drawn from a group of uneducated and unintelligent persons. Nor is there any right to a jury chosen solely from those at the lower end of the economic and social scale. But there is a constitutional right to a jury drawn from a group which represents a cross-section of the community. And a cross-section of the community includes persons with varying degrees of training and intelligence and with varying economic and social positions. Under our Constitution, the jury is not to be made the representative of the most intelligent, the most wealthy or the most successful, nor of the least intelligent, the least wealthy or the least successful. It is a democratic institution, representative of all qualified classes of people. * * * To the extent that a 'blue ribbon' panel fails to reflect this democratic principle, it is constitutionally defective."

[1217] 112 U.S. 94, 102 (1884).

[1218] W.G. Rice, Esq., Jr., University of Wisconsin Law School, The Position of the American Indian in the Law of the United States, 16 Journal of Comp. Leg. 78, 80 (1934).

[1219] 39 Op. Atty. Gen. 518, 519.

[1220] 46 Stat. 26; 55 Stat. 761; 2 U.S.C.A. Sec. 2a (a).

[1221] Cong. Rec., 77th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 87, p. 70, January 8, 1941.

[1222] McPherson _v._ Blacker, 146 U.S. 1 (1892); Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 U.S. 651, 663 (1884).

[1223] Saunders _v._ Wilkins, 152 F. (2d) 235 (1945); certiorari denied, 328 U.S. 870 (1946); rehearing denied, 329 U.S. 825 (1946).

[1224] Saunders _v._ Wilkins, 152 F. (2d) 235, 237-238, citing Willoughby, Constitution, 2d ed., pp. 626, 627.

[1225] Legislation by Congress providing for removal was necessary to give effect to the prohibition of section 3; and until removed in pursuance of such legislation, the exercise of functions by persons in office before promulgation of the Fourteenth Amendment was not unlawful. (Griffin's Case, 11 Fed. Cas. No. 5815 (1869)). Nor were persons who had taken part in the Civil War and had been pardoned therefor by the President before the adoption of this Amendment precluded by this section from again holding office under the United States. (18 Op. Atty. Gen. 149 (1885)).

The phrase, "engaged in Rebellion" has been construed as implying a voluntary effort to assist an insurrection and to bring it to a successful termination; and accordingly as not embracing acts done under compulsion of force or of a well grounded fear of bodily harm. Thus, while the mere holding of a commission of justice of the peace under the Confederate government was not viewed as involving, of itself, "adherence or countenance to the Rebellion," action by such officer in furnishing a substitute for himself to the Confederate Army amounted to such participation in a Rebellion unless said action could be shown to have resulted from fear of conscription and to have sprung, not from repugnance to military service, but from want of sympathy with the insurrectionary movement. (United States _v._ Powell, 27 Fed. Cas. No. 16,079 (1871)).

[1226] Perry _v._ United States, 294 U.S. 330, 354 (1935) in which the Court concluded "that the Joint Resolution of June 5, 1933, insofar as it attempted to override" the gold-clause obligation in a Fourth Liberty Loan Gold Bond, "went beyond the congressional power."

_See also_ Branch _v._ Haas, 16 F. 53 (1883), citing Hanauer _v._ Woodruff, 15 Wall. 439 (1873) and Thorington _v._ Smith, 8 Wall. 1 (1869) in which it was held that inasmuch as bonds issued by the Confederate States were rendered illegal by section four, a contract for the sale and delivery before October 29, 1881 of 200 Confederate coupon bonds at the rate of $1000 was void, and a suit for damages for failure to deliver could not be maintained.

_See also_ The Pietro Campanella, 73 F. Supp. 18 (1947) which arose out of a suit for the forfeiture, prior to our entry into World War II, of Italian vessels in an American port and their subsequent requisition by the Maritime Commission. The Attorney General, as successor to the Alien Property Custodian, was declared to be entitled to the fund thereafter determined to be due as compensation for the use and subsequent loss of the vessels; and the order of the Alien Property Custodian vesting in himself, for the United States, under authority of the Trading with the Enemy Act and Executive Order, all rights of claimants in the vessels and to the fund substituted therefor was held not to be a violation of section four. An attorney for certain of the claimants, who had asserted a personal right to a lien upon the fund for his services, had argued that when the Government requisitioned ships under the applicable statute providing for compensation, and at a time before this country was at war with Italy, the United States entered into a binding agreement with the owners for compensation and that this promise constituted a valid obligation of the United States which could not be repudiated without violating section four.

[1227] Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3, 13 (1883). _See also_ United States _v._ Wheeler, 254 U.S. 281 (1920) on which it was held that the United States is without power to punish infractions by individuals of the right of citizen to reside peacefully in the several States, and to have free ingress into and egress from such States. Authority to deal with the forcible eviction by a mob of individuals across State boundaries is exclusively within the power reserved by the Constitution to the States.

[1228] Virginia _v._ Rives, 100 U.S. 313, 318 (1880); Strauder _v._ West Virginia, 100 U.S. 303 (1880).

[1229] Ex parte Virginia, 100 U.S. 339, 344 (1880).

[1230] United States _v._ Harris, 106 U.S. 629 (1883). _See also_ Baldwin _v._ Franks, 120 U.S. 678, 685 (1887).

[1231] 325 U.S. 91 (1945).

[1232] 18 U.S.C.A. Sec. 242.

[1233] No "opinion of the Court" was given. In announcing the judgment of the Court, Justice Douglas, who was joined by Chief Justice Stone and Justices Black and Reed, declared that the trial judge had erred in not charging the jury that the defendants must be found to have had the specific intention of depriving their victim of his right to a fair trial in accordance with due process of law, that this was the force of the word, "willfully," in section 20, and that any other construction of section 20 would be void for want of laying down an "ascertainable standard of guilt." To avoid a stalemate on the Court, Justice Rutledge concurred in the result; but, on the merits of the case, he would have affirmed the conviction. Justice Murphy announced that he favored affirming the conviction and therefore dissented. Justice Roberts, with whom Justices Frankfurter and Jackson were associated, dissented for reasons stated in the text.

[1234] 100 U.S. 339, 346 (1880).

[1235] 313 U.S. 299, 326 (1941).

[1236] 325 U.S. 91, 114-116 (1945). _But see_ Barney _v._ City of New York, 193 U.S. 430, 438, 441 (1904).

[1237] Ibid. 106-107. The majority supporting this proposition was not the same majority as the one which held that "State" action was involved.

[1238] 341 U.S. 97 (1951).

[1239] Ibid. 103-104.

[1240] 342 U.S. 852.

[1241] Ibid. 853-854.

AMENDMENT 15

RIGHT OF CITIZENS TO VOTE

Page Affirmative interpretation 1183 Negative application; the "Grandfather Clause" 1184 Application to party primaries 1185 Enforcement 1186

AMENDMENT 15.--RIGHT OF CITIZENS TO VOTE

Amendment 15

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.