Chapter XLIV: Section I: Architecture

THE aim of this chapter is similar to several of the preceding ones: it is not a detailed history of architecture, but an effort to indicate briefly the changes which have taken place in the structure, and the external aspect of the chief cities of Scotland within a comparatively recent period. It will, in the first place, touch on the various kinds of stones used in building; in the second, a few brief notices of Scottish architects will be presented; and third, touch on the reconstruction of the chief cities and their present aspect.

At the outset it may be observed that, in the strata of rocks which exist in Britain, a pretty wide range of different kinds of stone are found. The quarries, both of England and Scotland, afford in abundance the well-known generic varieties of――(1) sandstone or freestone; (2) limestone; (3) granite. Marble of various colours is also found in Britain, although less common than the other classes of stones. In Scotland, marble is found in Tiree, Iona, Skye, Blairgowrie, and several other places. The early buildings and houses in this country were built of freestone, limestone, and other kinds of stones; granite was little used for building purposes till a recent period.¹

¹ The granite districts of England are in Cornwall and
Devonshire, the Channel Islands, Mount Sorel, and in some
other places. The Devon and Cornwall granite is of several
varieties; at Dartmoor it has a greyish hue.

“But harder granite must be sought for than Devonshire or
Cornwall produces, where the construction is of importance;
for the masses in these counties are mostly in a condition
of rapid disintegration and decay, which seems chiefly
attributable to their containing a large portion of ♦potash.
The Naval Hospital of Plymouth is built of granite whose
parts appear to have been well selected. It was erected
seventy years ago, and, except in the columns of the
colonnades, does not exhibit symptoms of decay. In these, on
their more exposed sides, the disintegration of the felspar
has commenced, and lichens have already attached their roots
to some parts of the surfaces.”――Gwilt’s _Encyclopædia of
Architecture_, page 479.

The chief varieties of Scotch granite are those of Craignair
and Creetown, in Kirkcudbrightshire, those of Aberdeenshire,
the Isle of Mull, and other kinds.

♦ “potass” replaced with “potash”

There is little information of the architects or builders of any branch of Scotch architecture before the eighteenth century; although in the national records the names of certain persons occasionally occur with the title of master of works, and master mason. Colin Campbell attained distinction as an architect. He designed Mereworth House, in Kent; Wanstead House, in Essex, built in 1715, which was much admired; and many other mansions. In 1725 he was appointed architect to the Prince of Wales; and in the following year he was appointed Surveyor of Works at Greenwich Hospital. He edited the first three volumes of _Vitruvius Britannica_, which appeared in 1713‒25, and contained a considerable number of his own designs. He died in 1734.

William Adam, of Marybury, was born at Kinross in 1689. He succeeded Sir William Bruce as Surveyor of the King’s works in Scotland. He carried out many important works, consisting of public buildings, bridges, and mansions. He collected and published his designs, with those of other contemporaries, under the title of _Vitruvius Scoticus_. He died in 1748. His son, Robert Adam, was born in 1728, and educated at the University of Edinburgh. He became a distinguished architect. His younger brother, James, was also an architect, and the two became associated in business. They designed and carried out a considerable number of great works――including the “Adelphi” in London, and many other buildings and mansions in England and Scotland. They published _The Works in Architecture of R. & J. Adams_, which contained among the plates, views of Sion House, Caen Wood, Luton Park House, and the Register House in Edinburgh. Robert died in 1792; and James died on the 17th of October 1794.

James Craig was born in Edinburgh, and attained some distinction as an architect. In 1767 he sent in a plan of the new streets and squares intended for the city of Edinburgh, which the Town Council with acclamation selected from other competitive plans. He died in 1795.

James Gibbs, born in Aberdeen, in 1674, attained distinction in this branch of art. He was educated at the Grammar School, and Marischal College, where he took the degree of M.A. He had a fair knowledge of mathematics, and resolved to carry it into the study of architecture.

In 1694, he went to Holland. His progress in the art seems to have been rapid, as his talents attracted the attention of the Earl of Mar when he visited that country in 1700. This was the Earl who raised the standard of rebellion in 1715; and I am glad to state that he favoured Gibbs with his countenance, assisted him with money, gave him recommendatory letters, and advised him to travel into Italy――to improve his taste and expand his views, by a study of the grand edifices of this ancient country. When, through the effects of the rebellion, the fortunes of the Erskines fell very low, Gibbs remembered the man who had aided him in his early struggles, and bequeathed a thousand pounds, all his plate, and an estate of £280 a-year to the only son of his first benefactor.

In 1700 Gibbs proceeded to Rome, and studied several years under Garralia, a sculptor and architect of some note. He carefully examined the chief buildings in Italy, ancient and modern, took notes of them for his future guidance, and made sketches of such edifices as he thought excelled in form, or such parts of them as struck his imagination, and laid them down to scale. Thus, after studying and working for ten years in Rome, he deemed himself prepared for commencing business as an architect, and appeared in London in 1710. Mar was then in the ministry, and favoured by the Queen, and as much disposed as ever to befriend Gibbs. Shortly after this an act was passed in parliament which directed that fifty new churches should be erected in London. Mar introduced Gibbs to the Commissioners under the act, and he soon obtained employment. The first building which he completed was at King’s College, Cambridge; but it has been severely criticised for its small portico, and for the many little parts in its construction.

The first building which he erected in London was of such a character as could not fail to produce a strong impression in his favour. “The portico of St. Martin’s Church, for utility, compact beauty, and perfect unity of construction, is yet unsurpassed in the metropolis; and though in other respects the exterior is not so excellent, being deficient in light and shade, and the steeple inclines to be heavy――yet on the whole it forms a noble work.... The interior of the church is a perfect picture of architectural beauty and neatness of accommodation. All the parts are nicely distributed, and nothing can be added, and nothing can be taken away. It is complete in itself, and refuses the admission of any other ornament.... The chief charm of the structure, nevertheless, lies in the portico.... The columns are of the Corinthian order. It was finished in 1726.”¹

¹ _Lives of British Architects_, by Allan Cunningham, page 290.

His next work, the Church of St. Mary’s, in the Strand, was not so successful an effort; it fails to produce an impression of simplicity or real beauty. He also built the ♦Radcliffe Library of Oxford. “The interior of the library is admired by men of science for the skill with which the arrangements are made, and for the art displayed in the construction of the cupola.”

♦ “Ratcliffe” replaced with “Radcliffe”

He erected the great quadrangle of King’s College, the Royal Library, and the Senate House at Cambridge, and presented the plan of the Church of St. Nicholas to his native city. After a long painful illness from stone, he died in London in 1754.

In 1728 he published his designs in one volume, from which he realised nearly two thousand pounds from the sale of the book, and of the plates after the impression was disposed of. He bequeathed to the ♦Radcliffe Library five hundred valuable volumes, chiefly on subjects connected with the arts; over one hundred of them were upon architecture, and included the best works on the subject then extant. His finished works and his unemployed designs show that he had an accurate and complete knowledge of all the principles of his art; and that he was a man who felt what was good, perceived what was majestic, and skillfully used his ♠mathematical knowledge in giving strength and beauty to architecture.

♦ “Ratcliffe” replaced with “Radcliffe”

♠ “mathemetical” replaced with “mathematical”

Robert Mylne was born in Edinburgh on the 4th of January, 1734. He was descended from an old Scottish family represented by a long succession of master masons and architects. He began his career under his father, who carried on a building business. Subsequently he travelled abroad, and resided four years in Rome, studying classic architecture; and he gained two medals in the Academy of St. Luke. After returning home he was engaged on many large mansions and public works in England, including the Blackfriars Bridge in London, and ♦Inveraray Castle, the chief seat of the Argyle family in Scotland. He died in 1811.

♦ “Inverary” replaced with “Inveraray”

The preceding brief notices are simply to be understood as a preliminary indication of the important functions of the architect in the evolution of civilisation. For in reality the health and the comfort of the community in a large measure depends upon the knowledge and skill of the architects; they also have it in their power to do much to improve the taste of the community; and they have contributed, in conjunction with other agencies, to improve the sanitary condition of the centres of population in a considerable degree during the past hundred years. Let us place ourselves in imagination in Edinburgh, Glasgow, or the other seats of population in the middle of the last century, and we shall then more easily realise the vast changes and improvements which have been effected in the dwellings and surroundings of all classes of the community.

Edinburgh was from an early period a walled town. One result of this was that so long as the necessity for maintaining the walls intact continued, when the population increased, instead of the town being extended outwards it was extended upwards. This was carried to an extreme in Edinburgh, as some of the houses were raised to the height of twelve storeys. In the middle of the eighteenth century the crowded state of the city was excessive; the streets were narrow, many of them mere footpaths and closes. The space from the Castle Hill to the Netherbow Port was occupied with one dense mass of houses, and most of them six and eight stories. The area within the original wall was extended immediately after the battle of Flodden, when a new wall was erected which enclosed the houses that had been built outside of the old wall. In 1624 it was again partly extended to include Heriot’s Hospital and the Charity Workhouse. But the valley and marshy ground which ran along the northern side of the city was long an obstacle to extension in that direction. Necessity, however, prevailed, and at last the famous “North Loch,” the scene of so many touching historic incidents, was conquered.

The idea of erecting a bridge across the North Loch had occurred to several persons long before it was actually executed.¹ But in 1769 the bridge across the Loch was completed, the marshy hollow filled, and Princes Street and the rest of the New Town were subsequently erected. The New Town is formed on a simple and uniform plan, which consists of two distinct and parallel sections: the first one lies between Princes Street and Queen Street, in which the chief central line is George Street; and these parallel lines of streets are intersected at regular intervals by good broad streets. The second section lies between Heriot Row and Fettes Row, in which the chief central line is Great King Street. Between the two sections there lies a large space of ornamental garden ground, and the varied surroundings of the New Town are admirable.

¹ It is said that Sir William Bruce of Kinross drew a plan of
a bridge across the North Loch. The Earl of Mar, the patron
of Gibbs, after his exile, prepared a plan for the extension
of Edinburgh, both to the south and the north, and it also
embraced a bridge of three arches over the North Loch; and
claims to having suggested this bridge have been advanced by
others.

The city has extended in other directions; but the Old Town has only been gradually opened up, and the last great scheme of improvement for opening up the narrow streets and removing the wretched dwellings in the alleys and closes was inaugurated by the late Dr. Chambers during his provostship of the city, which began in 1865. Under this scheme a considerable number of old and dilapidated houses were demolished, and a vast improvement effected. At the present time little of the real Old Town remains; of course the Canongate still exists, but it was originally a separate burgh and corporation by itself, and continued so till a recent period.¹ Since the middle of this century, the sanitary condition of Edinburgh has been greatly improved. A better system of sewerage, and a more adequate supply of water has been introduced into the city.

¹ Mackintosh’s _History of Civilisation_, Volume III., page
289.

In truth, it may be said that Edinburgh as it now stands has been almost entirely reconstructed and built since 1770. Taken as a whole, the capital of Scotland is a beautiful city. The far greater part of it is built of freestone, but of several kinds. The Old Town was built of reddish sandstone, obtained in the neighbourhood; but the newer parts of the city have been mainly built of stones taken from the quarries of Craigleith, Redhall, Ravelston, Binnie, Humbie, and Hailes, which lies on the west side of the city, and yields several varieties of pretty hard freestone.

Touching the architecture of the city in general, there are many fine streets, both in what is called the New Town and in other parts of the city. George Street, looking at its width and length, is one of the best streets in Edinburgh; Princes Street and Queen Street, though very fine, are only terraces. There are a number of fine squares and crescents. But the street architecture in general has not much embellishment: there is a lack of window dressings, of cornices, and other mouldings. There are, however, many architectural objects in Edinburgh of great beauty and interest; the highly elaborated and beautiful spire of Scott’s Monument; the classic and national monuments on the Calton Hill; the public buildings; and the memorable remains of the Old Castle upon the rock.

The chief city of the west, Glasgow, owing to its rapid progress and development in commerce, manufactures, and shipbuilding, was long seriously troubled with the evils associated with a crowded population. Efforts were from time to time made to remedy this, but it proved a difficult matter to overcome. Certain parts of the city always became more and more crowded. In 1793, the corporation of Glasgow obtained an Act of Parliament to rebuild the Tron Church, and to remove the Tron steeple and the adjoining building, which projected into the Trongate. By this act they were also empowered to purchase the bowling green in Candleriggs, to erect the Tron Church there; to open a street through the Ravenshaw grounds to Buchanan Street; to purchase the grounds of Meadowflat; to make and extend several other streets; and to erect a bridge across the Clyde at the foot of Saltmarket. In 1806, an Act of Parliament was obtained for carrying Clyde Street eastward across the Stockwell to the Green; to form a new street running southward from the bottom of Queen Street to the river; and a street running northward from George Street to Duke Street, and terminating at Weaver Street. In 1813, an Act of Parliament was passed for the “regulation of chimneys, steam engines, and other works within the city and suburbs of Glasgow.” In 1818, the city first began to be lighted by gas.

In 1820, the corporation were empowered by an Act of Parliament to make a street of thirty-five feet in breadth, running eastward from Stockwell to King Street, thence eastward across the Saltmarket to the Molendinar Burn, and to causeway and pave it; a street seventy feet wide from Great Hamilton Street running eastward on the north side of St. Andrew Square onwards to the Cross; and another sixty feet wide, beginning at the west end of the Barrack wall, and running westward on the north side of the Gallowgate onward to the Cross. After 1825, several streets were extended and widened; still the old parts of the city remained in a crowded state, and vast numbers of people were huddled together in courts. In 1846, the Glasgow Municipal and Police Extension Act was passed in Parliament, which superseded the former Police Board, and the extension clause included the towns of Gorbals, Calton, Bridgeton, and Anderston.

Yet at the middle of this century the old localities of Glasgow were in a deplorable state of crowding; and in the beginning of the year 1852, the following statement was made by a high authority. “The overcrowding of the inhabitants of this city within excessively limited bounds, the overpeopling of numerous localities, the defective sewerage, and the still more defective supply of water, are too well known. We need no evidence as to the existence of these things――they are before us, and may be seen by everyone. Who can think of these miserable places, the abodes and nurseries of filth and diseases and of crime, the plague spots to which strangers point to our shame.... But these alone will never suffice to meet this tremendous evil. We have now work before us, to cure and prevent; for it must not be forgotten that the evils so justly complained of are not confined to the older portions of the town. The overcrowding of houses, and comprising large numbers of human beings together, almost without light or air, are going on all around us; and the remedies required are therefore for prevention as well as for cure.

“Under the strongest conviction that if these evils be fearlessly met, if wise and wholesome provisions be made, if ample powers be given to enforce them, the sanitary condition of the city will be vastly improved, and the moral standing of the classes elevated, we proceed to treat of these remedial measures; and that we may present them in a regular form, we have divided the subject into the three following sections:――(1) The width of streets, height of buildings, and opening up of thoroughfares; (2) Drainage; (3) Supply of water.” The report goes on to show that in these primary and important points Glasgow was then very defective; and it contains many wise, useful suggestions and proposals. They insist on wide streets, and that the height of the buildings should be regulated by the width of the street. After showing that the drainage, especially of the narrow wynds, lanes, and closes, were alarmingly defective, they proceed to state the leading principles which ought to govern an efficient system of drainage for the city of Glasgow. They next dealt with the water supply of the city, which was then mainly taken from the Clyde, and had become defective both in quality and quantity.¹

¹ Report by Architects of Glasgow, printed in the _Transactions
of the Architectural Institute of Scotland_, Volume II.,
pages 42‒63.

A scheme for new waterworks was projected, and, in 1855, it was resolved to bring the water from Loch Katrine, to supply fifty million gallons a-day. The works were completed in 1859, and on the 14th of October the water was turned on by Her Majesty the Queen; Glasgow was jubilant, and cannons rent the air from the Castles of Edinburgh and Stirling in honour of the event.

The municipal authorities of Glasgow, and many of the leading citizens, had long been considering as to the best means of remedying the insanitary condition of the city, arising from over-crowded houses, narrow streets, wynds, and closes; and an Improvement Act was applied for, which was ultimately passed by Parliament in 1866. The municipal authorities under the provisions of the Act were appointed trustees, and they were empowered to construct thirty-nine new streets, and to widen or alter other twelve, in all fifty-one streets. They were also empowered to borrow any sum not exceeding £1,250,000, and to levy a special tax during the continuance of the Act, which was limited to fifteen years. The trustees, with the Lord Provost at their head, at once proceeded to carry out the purposes of the Act: and before many years elapsed, the older portions of the city began to assume a brighter aspect; many of the narrow alleys and closes with their dens were demolished, while comfortable houses and open spaces have taken their place, and the death-rate has been reduced. Thus by the new supply of water, and the operations under the Improvement Act, a great change has been effected in the sanitary condition of Glasgow.

It appears that the greater part of Glasgow has been reconstructed and built within a period of little more than a hundred years. Touching the appearance and the architectural features of this great city, only a few general remarks can be made. The greater part of Glasgow, and the suburbs or burghs which have arisen in its vicinity, are built of freestone. As a whole, the streets of Glasgow are regular and well planned to meet the ends of business and traffic, which are the prime objects of the leading streets in all commercial cities. Many of the streets are broad and long, often running in parallel lines, and at regular intervals intersected by other streets running right and left. The architectural characteristics of the streets in the business parts of the city are pretty varied, although in general not remarkably striking; yet the long lines of buildings on the right and left of every street distinctly fulfil the requirement of the principle of utility.

In the suburbs, on every side, and especially in the Hillhead and Kelvinside districts, the dwelling-houses exhibit distinct and beautiful styles of architecture. Indeed, in the Kelvinside district there are terraces and crescents of exquisite beauty. For instance, to name one out of many, Grosvenor Terrace, for chasteness of design and execution is unrivalled in Scotland; its beauty is perfect and complete of its kind.

What has been said touching the reconstruction of Edinburgh and Glasgow, is applicable in a large measure to the other chief towns of Scotland. In short, there are a number of considerable towns with from ten to twenty thousand of a population which were mere villages at the end of the last century. There are, however, certain towns in Fife, such as St. Andrews, and a few others, which still retain many of the features that characterised them a century or two ago.

The greater part of Dundee has been formed and built in the present century. Indeed, the population of Dundee has increased so rapidly that this was not a matter of choice but of necessity. This enterprising city was supplied with water on the system of gravitation about the middle of the century.

The reconstruction of Aberdeen was begun about the end of the last century; and since almost the whole city has been rebuilt. Union Street and most of the principal streets have been formed in the present century; and very little of the Aberdeen of even the eighteenth century now remains. Like other towns, it has extended rapidly, and occupies six times as much space as it did at the opening of this century. The leading streets of the city are broad, and the colour of the stones lends a certain degree of attraction to the lines of houses, which conveys an impression of strength and utility. In general, the street architecture is not loaded with embellishment or much variety of style; but the principles of simplicity and symmetry are well exhibited.

In this section I have touched briefly on a variety of subjects directly or indirectly connected with architecture: all of which have a most important bearing upon great centres of population, with reference to houses of every description, and the sanitary conditions of health. Even up to the middle of this century the defective ventilation and sewerage of nearly every town in the kingdom was notorious. The overcrowding arose from various causes, but chiefly from the rapid increase of the manufacturing population, and the migration of people from the country ♦districts into the towns. It has been shown in the preceding pages that the greater part of the chief cities of Scotland have been reconstructed and built in the later part of the last and the present centuries; and sanitary arrangements in the construction of buildings and dwelling houses has been more carefully studied, and a marked improvement in sanitation has been effected; yet, much remains to be done in this department.

♦ “disticts” replaced with “districts”

Beauty in architecture is a leading aim of the art, but it is not the prime end of it. The first consideration concerning every building intended for human habitation is light, ventilation, and sanitary arrangements; these constitute the primary end of the art. Although, of course, in public buildings, churches, schools, and mansions, the aim to attain beauty often is the chief object of the architect; and rightly so, if the other ends are not neglected.