Chapter X: Part II: Grammar (5)

(_a_). Prepositions are also always omitted between two substantives, when the word nomata = _named_ could be understood (par. 106 (_d_)), as:--

_La urbo_ (_nomata_) _Parizo_ = The city of (named) Paris. _La monato Septembro_ = The month of September. _Li uzadas la lingvon internacian_ (_nomatan_) _Esperanto_ = He uses the international language Esperanto.

(_b_). The preposition el = _of_, _out of_, is sometimes omitted in such an expression as:--

_Tri miaj parencoj_ = Three of my relatives (_or_, three relations of mine).

254. Prepositions as prefixes.--Prepositions are frequently used as prefixes, and when the compound word is a verb, the preposition is often repeated before the indirect complement of the verb.

Examples.--_Mi eliris el la korto_ = I went out of the courtyard. _Li eniris en la ĉambron_ = He entered (into) the room. _La birdo deflugis de la arbo_ = The bird flew from the tree. _Li eliris el la domo_ = He went out of the house. Or we could say, _Li iris el la domo_, omitting the joined preposition.

255. Prepositions and case.--In contrast to prepositions in English, which govern the accusative case, all prepositions in Esperanto govern the nominative case. If the complement of a preposition is in the accusative case, this is owing not to the preposition, but to the rule that the accusative is used to show the direction or place towards which movement (physical or otherwise) is made (par. 67).

256. Preposition and the accusative of direction.--As already stated in par. 67, the accusative is used when direction (physical or otherwise) is implied towards something. But if the word towards which such movement is implied is the complement of a preposition, then such word is in the nominative or accusative, in accordance with the following rules:--

(_a_). If the preposition denotes of itself movement, its complement will be in the nominative, in accordance with Rule 8 that prepositions govern that case.

(b). If the preposition does not of itself denote movement, then movement is shown by placing its complement in the accusative (par. 67).

257. Prepositions denoting movement.--The following two prepositions denote movement, and consequently their complement is never in the accusative:--Al = _To_, _towards_. Ĝis = _Up to_, _as far as_.

As regards the others, the following are those in general use, whose complement takes the accusative of direction when motion towards something is implied:--Antaŭ = _Before_. Ĉirkaŭ = _Around_, _about_. En = _In_. Kontraŭ = _Against_. Sub = _Under_. Super = _Over_. Sur = _On_, _upon_. Tra = _Through_. Trans = _Across_.

Examples.--_Li staris momente antaŭ la spegulo, kaj tuj poste venis antaŭ la reĝon_ = He stood for a moment before the looking-glass, and then came before (into the presence of) the king. _La infano dancis en la korto, kaj poste kuris en la ĝardenon_ = The child danced _in_ (not _into_) the courtyard, and then ran _into_ (not _in_) the garden. _Ĵetu tion sub la tablon_ = Throw that under the table. _Ĵetu la ŝtonon super la muron_ = Throw the stone over the wall. _Mi prenas sur min tiun ĉi aferon_ = I take upon myself this business (moral movement, therefore accusative, since _sur_ does not of itself show movement). _La knabo vadis trans la riveron kaj trans ĝi trovis aliajn knabojn_ = The boy waded across the river, and, on the other side of it, found other boys.

258. Prepositional expressions.--Adverbs are not unfrequently followed by prepositions, thus forming prepositional expressions which take the nominative case, like simple prepositions.

Examples.--_Meze de la kampo_ = In the middle of the field. _Funde de kesto_ = At the bottom of a box. _Flanke de la malliberulo_ = At the side of the prisoner. _Proksime de la preĝejo_ = Near the church. _Dekstre de la vojo_ = On the right of the road. _Supre de la muro_ = At the top of the wall. _Dank' al lia konsilo_ = Thanks to his advice. _Li venis kune kun sia frato_ = He came together (along) with his brother. _Li estas for de tie ĉi_ = He is away from here. _Oni plantis arbon proksime de la puto_ = They planted a tree near the well. _Metu vian manon for de mia kolo!_ = Take your hand off (away from) my neck.

(_a_). A few adverbs, used as prepositional expressions, are sometimes followed by a suitable preposition and sometimes not; in the latter case the complement is in the accusative, to show the omission (par. 253).

Examples.--_Koncerne tiun aferon_ (or, _Koncerne je tiu afero_) = Concerning that matter. _Konforme tion_ (or, _Konforme al_, _kun_ or, _je tio_) = In conformity with that. _Rilate lian karakteron_ (or, _Rilate al lia karaktero_) = With regard to (relative to, as regards, referring to) his character (par. 247)

N.B.--These phrases are alternatives for simple prepositions. We might, in some cases, use _pri_ for _koncerne je_ or _rilate al_, and _laŭ_ for _konforme al_.

(_b_). Two prepositions sometimes are used.

Examples.--_"Eniru!" ekkriegis voĉo de en la pordo_ = "Come in!" shouted a voice from within (inside) the door. _Li rampis de sub la sofo_ = He crept from under the sofa. _La ŝtono havis la alton_ (or, _altecon_) _de ĉirkaŭ ok centimetroj kaj la larĝon_ (or, _larĝecon_) _de ĉirkaŭ kvin centimetroj_ = The stone had the height of about eight centimetres and the width of about five centimetres. _El sub la tirkestaro la muso kuris sub la liton_ = Out from under the chest of drawers the mouse ran under the bed. _Ne rapidu foriri de antaŭ li_ = Do not hasten to leave his presence (go away from before him).

259. The relation of prepositions to their complement.--English grammarians divide prepositions into various classes, but in Esperanto, with the exception of those mentioned in par. 257, denoting motion and rest, there are but two classes to which we need pay special attention, viz., those which relate to both place and time; and of these, two only, viz., antaŭ = _before_, and post = _after_, require care in making their meaning clear.

In the following remarks on prepositions the examples given of their use are placed under the various classes that their English rendering would assign to them; but we must bear in mind that, in accordance with Rule 14, every Esperanto preposition, except je, has a defined and constant meaning (par. 250). This _defined_ meaning is given at the _head_ of each preposition. The meanings given in the _classes_ are only the _various English renderings_ that can be given to the preposition (see English prepositions, pars. 260, 261).

REMARKS ON THE PREPOSITIONS.

259 (1). Al = _To, towards._

Denotes approximation or addition.

Approximation = _To, towards._

Examples.--_Li venis al ni_ = He came to (_or_ towards) us. _Mi iras al Parizo_, or, _Mi iras Parizon_ = I am going to Paris. If _al_ be omitted, _Parizon_ must be in the accusative of direction. _Ni ne vidas, ĉar la lumo estas kaŝata al ni per la kurtenoj_ = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains.

N.B.--_Kaŝata al_, not _de_, which, after a passive participle, means "by"; but independently of this, _al_ is logically used after _kaŝi_, in the sense of "to hide from"; as:--_Sed pro kio kaŝi al li vian amon?_ = But why conceal from him your love?

Addition = _To._

Examples.--_Mi donis akvon al la birdoj_ = I gave water to the birds. _La rozo apartenas al Teodoro_ = The rose belongs to Theodore. _Donu vestaĵon al la malriĉuloj_ = Give clothing to the poor.

N.B.--With some verbs _al_ is often used with the complement in the nominative, when in English we omit the preposition, as:--_Li konsilis al mi fari tion_ = He advised me to do that. _Ordonu al li_ (or, _Ordonu lin_), _ke li ne faru tion_ = Order him not to do that.

_Al_ is also sometimes used with personal pronouns in a possessive sense, as:--_Li lavis al si la manojn_, or, _Li lavis siajn manojn_ = He washed his hands (see par. 134).

As a prefix, _al_ signifies "to," "towards," as:--_Alveni_ = To come to, arrive. _Alpreni_ = To take to, adopt. _Alpaŝi_ = To step towards, approach.

259 (2). Anstataŭ = _Instead of._

One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (see remarks on Infinitive, pars. 177, 179).

Substitution = _Instead of_, _for_, _in place of_, _as a substitute for_, _in room of_.

Examples.--_Anstataŭ li, oni sendis lian fraton_ = Instead of him, they sent his brother. _Anstataŭ kafo li donis al mi teon_ = Instead of coffee he gave me tea. _Anstataŭ eliri, li restis en la domo_ = Instead of going out, he remained in the house. _Anstataŭ unu el la oficistoj_ = In place of one of the officials.

Although, in the first two examples given in the preceding paragraph, anstataŭ, being a preposition, is followed by the nominative, nevertheless, the accusative is often used in such cases when its use helps to remove ambiguity; the accusative being due to the omission of a verb understood. Compare: Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ Vilhelmo = _Peter beat Paul instead of William doing so_, with Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ (bati) Vilhelmon, _Peter beat Paul instead of_ (_beating_) _William_.

As a root-word, _Anstataŭi_ = To replace (intrans.). _Anstataŭigi_ = To replace (trans.), to substitute. _Anstataŭulo_ = A proxy (person instead of).

259 (3). Antaŭ = _Before_, _in front of_.

Denotes place or time. May take accusative of direction.

Place = _Before_, _in front of_.

Examples.--_Oni metis antaŭ mi manĝilaron_ = They put before me a table service. _Morgaŭ mi petos permeson veni antaŭ viajn reĝajn okulojn_ = To-morrow I shall beg permission to come before your royal presence (kingly eyes). _Antaŭ nia militistaro staris pafilegoj_ = In front of our army were (stood) cannon.

Time = _Before_, _ago_.

Examples.--_Antaŭ ne longe_ = Not long ago. _Antaŭ kelkaj semajnoj_ = Some (a few) weeks ago.

N.B.--Since _antaŭ_ and also _post_ are frequently used both in the sense of "time" and "place," care must be taken to word a phrase so that no ambiguity may arise. In sentences like the following, _antaŭ ol_ or _antaŭ kiam_ should be used when time is implied. _Examples._--_La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ la gepatroj_ = The betrothed met before the parents (= place, viz., in the presence of the parents). _La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ ol_ (or, _antaŭ kiam_) _la gepatroj alvenis_ = The betrothed met before the parents arrived (= time, viz., before the parents _arrived_). _Johano venis antaŭ la juĝiston, sed Jozefo estis elirinta el la juĝejo antaŭ ol Johano alvenis_ = John came before the judge, but Joseph had left the court before John's arrival.

As a prefix, _Antaŭdiri_ = To foretell. _Antaŭiri_ = to precede.

259 (4). Apud = _Beside_, _close by_.

Place = _By_, _near_, _near to_, _close by_.

Examples.--_La batalo apud Farsalo ŝanĝis multajn aferojn en Romo_ = The battle near Pharsalia changed many things in Rome. _Li estas apud la pordo_ = He is near the door. _Li staris apud Johano_ = He stood by John. _Mi vespermanĝos ĉe tiu tablo apud la fenestro_ = I shall dine at that table close by the window.

As a root-word or prefix, we have:--_Apudeco_ = Contiguity. _Apudesti_ = To be present, or near.

259 (5). Ĉe = _At_, _with_.

Marks the situation of a thing or action. Denotes coincidence, either of place, time, or connection.

Place = _At_, _with_, _to_, _on_.

Examples.--_Li estas ĉe ni_ = He is with us (at our _house_). _Ni estis ĉe via patro_ = We were at your father's. _Ŝi estas ĉe la pordo_ = She is at the door. _Ĉe la alia flanko de la strato_ = On the other side of the street. _Mi gastas ĉe miaj amikoj, Gesinjoroj Smith_ = I am staying with (am a guest at) my friends, Mr. and Mrs. Smith).

Time = _At, on._

Example.--_Ĉe nia alveno la hundo bojis_ = At (on) our arrival the dog barked.

Connection = _In, to, with, on._

Examples.--_Brakon ĉe_ (or, _en_) _brako_ = Arm in arm. _Koron ĉe koro_ = Heart to heart. _Mi kredas, ke ĉe ĉiu vorto, kiun vi diras...._ = I believe that with every word you say.... _Ĉe la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion "ol"_ = With the comparative the conjunction "ol" is used. _Por elpagi mian konton ĉe vi, mi sendas...._ = To settle my account with you, I send.... _Ĉe tia vetero, vi estos baldaŭ resanigita_ = With such weather, you will soon be restored to health. _Ĉe tio_ = On that.

As a prefix, _Ĉeesti_ = To be present. _Inter la ĉeestantoj ni rimarkis...._ = Amongst those present we observed....

259 (6). Ĉirkaŭ = About, around.[19]

Denotes place, time, manner, quantity.

Place = _About, around, round._

Examples.--_Je ĉirkaŭ tri paŝoj_ = At about three paces. _La hundoj ludis kaj saltis ĉirkaŭ ŝi_ = The dogs played and jumped around her.

Time = _About._

Example.--_La koncerto daŭris ĉirkaŭ tri horojn_ (or, _dum ĉirkaŭ tri horoj_) = The concert lasted about three hours.

Manner = _Round_.

Example.--_Li premis sian edzinon ĉirkaŭ la talio_ = He squeezed his wife round the waist.

Quantity = _About_.

Example.--_Mi volas aĉeti ĉirkaŭ kvar funtojn_ = I wish to buy about four pounds.

As a prefix or root-word, _ĉirkaŭ_ has the signification of "encircling," as:--_Ĉirkaŭfrazo_ = Periphrase, circumlocution. _Ĉirkaŭpreni_ = To embrace. _Ĉirkaŭi_, _ĉirkaŭigi_ = To surround.

Footnote:

[19] It will be seen from the examples that the preposition _ĉirkaŭ_ may be followed by the accusative of direction: _Jakobo metis sakon ĉirkaŭ siajn lumbojn_ (Rabistoj, 52, 2); _La virino ĵetis ambaŭ brakojn ĉirkaŭ la kolon de la knabino_ (Marta, p. 8); _Ĵetante siajn brakojn ĉirkaŭ lian kolon_ (Faraono, II, 57).

259 (7). Da = _Of_.

Used only after words denoting quantity, measure, weight, number, etc. Between two words, da shows that the first word measures the second.

Quantity = _Of_.

Examples.--_Granda nombro da ideoj_ = A great number of ideas. _Dudeko da homoj_ = A score of people. _Funto da teo_ = A pound of tea. _Sur la arbo sin trovis multo_ (or, _multe_) _da birdoj_ = On the tree were (found themselves) many (of) birds.

Often de and da may be equally correct. Funto da teo emphasizes the _quantity_ required (funto); funto de teo emphasizes the _thing_ required (teo).

Do not use da before definite words like la, tiu, numbers, or pronouns. Funto de la teo, de tiu teo, de mia teo, de ĝi. Note the difference between "He ate a piece of bread" and "He ate a piece of the (particular) bread." The former is Li manĝis pecon da pano, and the latter Li manĝis pecon de la pano, de tiu pano.

N.B.--_Glaso da vino_ = A glass of wine. _Glaso de_ (or, _por_) _vino_, or, _vinglaso_ = A wineglass. _Alportu al mi tetason, kaj elverŝu por mi tason da teo_ = Bring me a teacup, and pour me out a cup of tea.

Note.--Particular attention should be paid to the prepositions da, de, and el, all of which are often translated by the English preposition "of." Note the following examples:--

Da.--_Cento da pomoj_ = A hundred (of) apples. _Dekduo da kuleroj_ = A dozen (of) spoons. _Miliono da loĝantoj_ = A million (of) inhabitants. _Kvar metroj da ŝtofo_ = Four metres of material. _Ducent kilometroj da longo_ = Two hundred kilometres in (of) length.

De.--_Tri estas duono de ses_ = Three is half of six. _Ok estas kvar kvinonoj de dek_ = Eight is four-fifths of ten. _La domo de mia frato_ = The house of my brother, _or_, My brother's house. _Doktoro de juro_ = A doctor of laws.

El.--_Ĉiu el la infanoj_ = Each of the children. _Unu el ni_ = One of us. _Ni faru uzon el tio_ = Let us make use of that. _Domo konstruita el ŝtono_ = A house built of stone. _La plej bela floro el la ĝardeno_ = The most beautiful flower of the garden.

259 (8). De = _Of_, _from_, _by_.

De denotes origin, possession, place, time, cause, agency, and disconnection or abstraction. It serves to form the genitive or possessive case. These are all variations of the one primary idea: _origin_.

De is not used in speaking of places, etc., when English uses the preposition "of," where nomata = _named_ might be inserted between two substantives.

Examples.--_La urbo Londono_ = The City of London. _La monato Julio_ = The month of July (par. 106 (_d_)).

Care must be taken not to confuse de with da.

Possession = _Of_.

Examples.--_La libro de Petro_ = The book of Peter, _or_, Peter's book. _La domo de mia kara patro_ = My dear father's house.

Origin or Dependence = _Of_, _on_, _from_.

Examples.--_Ĝi dependas de la nombro de vortoj_ = It depends on the number of words. _Tio venis de_ (or, _el_) _lia unua eraro_ = That came from his first error. _Li estas doktoro de medicino_ = He is a doctor of medicine. _Li venis de_ (or, _el_) _Parizo kaj nun iras al Berlino_ = He came from Paris and is now going to Berlin. _Kaj Dio diris: "Kolektiĝu la akvo de sub la ĉielo en unu lokon"_ = And God said: "Let the waters (water) (from) under the heaven be gathered together (collect itself) into one place."

Place = _From_, _of_, _to_.

Examples.--_For de tie ĉi, fripono!_ = Away from here, rascal! _Li forestas de tie ĉi_ = He is away from here. _Li staris meze de la malamikoj_ = He stood in the midst of the enemy. _Proksime de la domo staris arbo_ = Near (to) the house stood a tree. _Ne malproksime de la dometo staris preĝejo_ = Not far from the cottage was (stood) a church.

Time = _From_, _since_, _for_.

Examples.--_De tiu tempo_ = From (since) that time. _De la kreo de la mondo_ = Since the creation of the world. _De tri semajnoj mi estas malsana_ = For three weeks I have been (am) ill.

Cause = _From_, _of_, _with_.

Examples.--_Li eksaltis de surprizo_ = He started (jumped) with surprise. _Li mortis de febro_ = He died of (from) fever. _Kaŭze de tio_ = Because of (due to) (owing to) that.

Agency = _By_ (after a passive verb, to show the _agent_). To show the _means_ per is used.

Examples.--_Mi estas amata de mia patro_ = I am loved by my father. _La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj_ = The house built by my father is covered with slates.

Disconnection or Abstraction = _From_.

Example.--_Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno_ = Separate the straw from the hay.

As a prefix, _de_ signifies "off," "from," as:--_Li deprenis la libron de la breto_ (or, _li prenis la libron for de sur la breto_) = He took the book off the shelf. _Li demetis la ĉapelon_ = He took off his (the) hat.

259 (9). Dum = _During_.

Dum, whether used as a preposition or conjunction, always relates to duration of time (see note below).

Time = _During_.

Examples.--_Dum la tuta tago_ (or, _La tutan tagon_) _li restis sola_ = During the whole day he remained alone, _or_, He remained alone the whole day. _Dum_ (or, _En la daŭro de_) _kelkaj monatoj, ŝi ne eliradis el sia ĉambro_ = During (for the space of, for) some months she did not leave (go out of) her room. _Li dormis dum la tuta koncerto_, or, _Li dormis la tutan koncerton_ = He was sleeping during the whole (all through the) concert. _Dum ilia konsiliĝo_ (or, _Dum ili konsiliĝis_) _mi restis en la apuda ĉambro_ = During their consultation (_or_, whilst they were consulting) I remained in the adjoining room.

Note.--Dum, although frequently used as a conjunction by Dr. Zamenhof, is rarely, if ever, used by him as a preposition. For our preposition "during" he generally uses the accusative of duration, or the prepositional expression en la daŭro de, or simply en, or turns the phrase by employing an adverbial present participle.

259 (10). Ekster = _Outside_.

Place = _Outside_. Ekster is the opposite of en = _in_.

Examples.--_Li iris en la domon, sed mi restis ekster ĝi_ = He went into the house, but I remained outside it. _Li loĝas ekster la urbo_ = He lives outside the town.

Connection or Disconnection. Ekster is sometimes used as a synonym of krom (par. 259 (17)).

Examples.--_Ekster tiuj ĉi leĝoj, ekzistas aliaj_ = Outside (besides, _or_, in addition to) these laws others exist. _Ekster tiuj ĉi leĝoj ne ekzistas aliaj_ = Outside (beside, _or_, apart from) these laws others do not exist.

As a root-word or prefix, we have:--_Eksteraĵo_ = The exterior, outside. _Eksterlande_ = Abroad.

259 (11). El = _Out of_.

El is the opposite of en = _in_, but only when movement in and out is implied.

Care must be taken not to confuse el with da or de, both of which also signify "of," that English preposition with so many meanings. El means essentially "out of," denoting that the noun specified is a _portion of_ something, or is _made of_ some particular material, or _issues from_ something (see par. 259 (7)).

Origin or Dependence = _Of_, _with_, _from_.

Examples.--_Mi estas la plej riĉa el ĉiuj_ = I am the richest of all. _Unu el ni estos elektata_ = One of us will be chosen. _Li faris uzon el ĉio_ = He made use of everything. _Mi faros uzon el la okazo_ = I shall take (make use of) the opportunity. _Kion ni faros el hundo?_ = What shall we do with (make out of) a dog? _El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke_ ... = From the said rule, it follows that ... _Mi ricevis leteron el Parizo_ = I received a letter from Paris.

Disconnection = _Out of_, _from_.

Examples.--_Tri musoj elsaltis el la tirkesto_ = Three mice jumped out of the drawer. _Mi eliris el la domo ĝuste kiam li eniris en la veturilon_ = I went out of the house just as (when) he entered the carriage. _La violono falis el la violonujo_ = The violin fell out of the violin case. _El sub la lito_ = Out of (out from under) the bed.

As a prefix, _el_ signifies "out," and also denotes something done thoroughly well or completely, as:--_Elpensi_ = To think out, to invent. _Elfosi_ = To dig out. _Elirejo_ = An exit, way out. _Ellabori_ = To work out thoroughly, to achieve, elaborate. _Eltrinki_ = To drink up. _Ellerni_ = To master, to learn thoroughly (to study).

259 (12). En = _In_, _into_.

May take after it the accusative of movement, and has then the meaning of "into."

Place = _In, into, within, at_.

Examples.--_Li estas en la ĝardeno_ = He is in the garden. _Li iris en la ĝardenon_ = He went into the garden. _Mi loĝas en Parizo_ = I live in Paris. _La birdo flugas en la ĉambro (ĝi estas en la ĉambro, kaj flugas en ĝi)_ = The bird is flying within the room (it is in the room, and is flying in it). _La birdo flugas en la ĉambron (ĝi estis ekster la ĉambro, kaj nun flugas en ĝin)_ = The bird is flying into the room (it was outside the room, and now is flying into it). _Helpu min porti tiujn ĉi kestojn en mian fiakron_ = Help me to carry these trunks to (into) my cab. _Li iris en la domon, sed mi mem restis ester ĝi_ = He went into the house, but I myself remained outside of it. _La ĉefa vorto staras en la fino_ = The chief word stands at the end.

Time = _In, on, at, during_.

Examples.--_En printempo floroj aperas_ = In (during) spring flowers appear. _En la tago_ = On the day. _En la unua tempo_ = At the outset (first time), at first. _Mi finos la tasketon en dek tagoj, se mi laboros en ĉiu tago po ok horoj_ = I shall finish the job (little task) in 10 days if I work 8 hours a day (lit., if I shall work in each day at the rate of 8 hours).

Origin or Dependence = _Of, into_.

Examples.--_Apartamento konsistanta en_ (or, _el)[20] unu manĝoĉambro, unu salono, kaj tri dormoĉambroj_ = A flat (apartment), consisting of one dining-room, one drawing-room, and three bedrooms. _Aleksandro ŝanĝiĝis en polvon_ = Alexander was turned into dust.

Footnote:

[20] _El_ is preferable. _En_ cannot be correctly used here.

Connection = _In_.

Example.--_Manon en mano_ = Hand in hand.

259 (13). Ĝis = _Till, as far as_.

Place = _To, down to, up to, as far as_.

Examples.--_Ni akompanis ilin ĝis ilia domo_ = We accompanied them as far as (to) their house. _Iru ĝis la rivero_ = Go to (down to, as far as) the river.

Time = _Till, until, to_.

Examples.--_De sabato ĝis mardo_ = From Saturday till (to) Tuesday. _Ni devas atendi ĝis Junio_ = We must wait till June. _Ĉu ne estus pli bone atendi ĝis ni havos la hundon?_ = Would it not be better to wait till we have the dog? _Ĝi povas kuŝi ok ĝis naŭ jarojn_ = It can lie eight to nine years.

N.B.--_Jarojn_ is the accusative of duration (par. 68 (_b_)), for _ĝis_ has here no influence over it, being simply an item in the phrase; but if a preposition be placed before _ok_, then the preposition will influence its complement "_jaroj_," which will be in the nominative; as:--_Ĝi povas kuŝi dum_ (or, _je_) _ok ĝis naŭ jaroj_ = It can lie during eight (up) to nine years.

259 (14). Inter = _Between, among_.

Inter differs from en, in that en implies that something is actually in, or within, something else, while inter implies that something is between, or among, some other things.

Place = _Between, among_.

Example.--_Inter Rusujo kaj Francujo estas Germanujo_ = Between Russia and France is Germany.

Time = _Between_.

Example.--_Inter la deka kaj dek-unua matene, mi renkontis mian amikon_ = Between 10 and 11 o'clock in the morning I met my friend.

Manner = _Among, amongst_.

Example.--_Ili dividis inter si dek du pomojn_ = They divided amongst themselves twelve apples.

As a prefix, _inter_ has much the same meaning as in English, as:--_Intermeti_ = To interpose. _Intermiksi_ = To intermingle. _Interkonsenti_ = To agree mutually.

259 (15). Je.

The preposition je has no fixed meaning. It is used only when we have to employ a preposition and we do not know which one the sense requires. We can, however, use the accusative case in place of it (Rule 14, pars. 251, 253).

The following are a few of the examples in which it has been used:--

Cause = _At, over, of._

Example.--_Mi enuas je la hejmo_, or, _Mi enuas la hejmon_ = I am weary (tired) of home.

Manner = _By, on._

Examples.--_Li tenis lin je la maniko per unu mano, kaj per la alia li batis lin sur la vizaĝon_ (or, _li frapis al li la vizaĝon_) = He held him by (at) the sleeve with one hand, and with the other he struck him on the face (struck to him the face). _Mi gratulas vian princan moŝton je_ (or, _pri_) _la reveno Danujon_ = I congratulate your Royal (Princely) Highness on (regarding) your (the) return to Denmark.

Time = _At, on._

Examples.--_Je la kvara horo_ = At 4 o'clock. _Je la lasta fojo_ (or, _La lastan fojon_) _mi vidis lin ĉe vi_ = On the last occasion (last time) I saw him with you.

Measure = _Of, by._

Example.--_Longa je dek futoj_, or, _Longa dek futojn_ = Ten feet long.

259 (16). Kontraŭ = _Against, opposite._

Never used in the sense of "by the side of." May take the accusative of direction.

Place = _Towards, overlooking, against, facing, opposite._

Example.--_La fenestro kontraŭ la strato_ = The window overlooking (towards) the street.

Opposition = _To, against, from._

Examples.--_Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo_ = Face to face. _Kontraŭ min mem, sin turnis mia ruzo_ = Against myself my cunning turned (itself) (Hamlet, V, 2). _Kien ili iras? Kontraŭ Polujon_ = Whither are they going? Against Poland (Hamlet, IV, 4). _Mi sidis sur ŝtono, kie mi estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la orienta vento_ = I was sitting on a stone where I was sheltered from (against) the east wind. _Li batalis kontraŭ la grekoj_ = He fought with (= against) the Greeks.

As a prefix, _kontraŭ_ denotes opposition, as:--_Kontraŭdiri_ = To contradict. _Kontraŭmeti_ = To oppose.

259 (17). Krom = _Not including_, _putting aside_, _apart from_. One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (par. 177).

Separation, Exclusion = _Besides_, _except_, _save_, _but_.

Examples.--_Li estas bona, kaj, krom tio, riĉa_ = He is good, and, besides that, rich. _Krom Esperanto, mi scias la lingvon germanan_ = Besides Esperanto, I know the German language. _Mi estas anglo, kaj mi scias nenian lingvon krom mia propra_ = I am an Englishman, and I know no language except (but, besides, save) my own (see remarks on _ekster_ (par. 259 (11)).

259 (18). Kun = _With_.

Never used as "with" in the sense of the instrument or means by which something is done (see per, par. 259 (22)).

Connection = _With_, _to_.

Examples.--_Li paroladis kun sia amiko_ = He was conversing with his friend. _Li fianĉiĝis kun Fraŭlino Berta_ = He became engaged to Miss Bertha. _Resti kun leono estas danĝere_ = To stay with a lion is dangerous. _Li promenadis kun sia amiko, kiam mi lin renkontis_ = He was walking with his friend when I met him.

Manner = _With_, _of_.

Examples.--_Li parolas kun granda saĝeco_ = He speaks with great wisdom. _Li estas homo kun gusto_ = He is a man of (with) taste. _Li estis atendata kun granda senpacienco_ = He was expected with great impatience.

As a root-word or prefix, _Kunigi_ = To connect. _Kunulo_ = A companion. _Kunveni_ = To come together, to assemble.

259 (19). Laŭ = _According to_.

Manner = _According to_, _from_, _in_, _in accordance with_.

Examples.--_Li agis laŭ sia opinio_ = He acted according to his own opinion. _Tiu vazo estas farita laŭ modelo el_ (or, _en_) _nia muzeo_ = That vase has been made according to (from) a model out of (in) our museum. _Li parolas laŭ saĝa maniero_ = He speaks in a wise manner. _Ili ĝin faris laŭvice_ = They did it in turn. _La pli juna filino estis la plena portreto de sia patro laŭ sia boneco_ = The younger daughter was the complete portrait of her father in (according to) her goodness.

Place and Direction = _In_, _along_.

Examples.--_Ni foriris laŭ malsamaj direktoj_ (or, _en diversajn flankojn_) = We went away in a different direction (_or_, in different ways). _Aleksandro iris laŭ tiu ĉi rivero ĝis li venis al la palaco_ = Alexander went along this river till he came to the palace.

N.B.--_Laŭ_ is used in such expressions as:--_Laŭlonge_ = Lengthways. _Laŭlarĝe_ = Across, athwart.

259 (20). Malgraŭ = _Notwithstanding_.

Opposition = _In spite of_, _notwithstanding_, _for_, _despite_.

Examples.--_Li sukcesis malgraŭ la malhelpoj_ = He succeeded in spite of the hindrances. _Li faris sian eblon, sed malgraŭ ĉio, li ne sukcesis_ = He did his best (his utmost), but for all that (notwithstanding) he did not succeed (see remarks on _spite_, par. 259 (30)).

259 (21). Per = _By_, _by means of_.

Cause = _By_, _by means of_, _with_, _through_.

Examples.--_Ni flaras per la nazo, vidas per la okuloj, kaj aŭdas per la oreloj_ = We smell with the nose, see with the eyes, and hear with the ears. _Li mortigis lin per glavo_ = He killed him with a sword. _Tion mi eksciis per mia frato_ = I learnt that through my brother.

Manner = _With_, _by_, _in_.

Per, used after a passive verb, denotes the means or instrument; de denotes the agent.

Examples.--_La domo, kiu estas aĉetita de mia patro, estas kovrita per pajla tegmento_ = The house, which was bought by my father, is covered with thatch (a straw roof). _Li tenis lin ĉe la kolo per ambaŭ manoj_ = He was holding him by the neck with both hands. _Li iris el la urbo per_ (or, _laŭ_) _flanka vojeto_ = He went out of the town by a by-path. _Mia onklo ne mortis per natura morto_ = My uncle did not die (by) a natural death. _Per unu vorto_ (or, _unuvorte_), _la ĉambro estis tute bela_ = In a word, the room was quite beautiful.

As a prefix or root-word, _per_ is not much used. _Perlabori_ = To acquire by one's labour, to earn. _Peri_ = To mediate, to interpose.

259 (22). Po = _At the rate of._

Po has a distributive sense, and is used generally before numerals (see par. 123). Do not confuse po with por.

Distribution = _At the rate of_, _in the proportion of_, _at_.

Examples.--_Mi aĉetis kvar pomojn po du pencoj_ = I bought four apples at the rate of twopence (each). "_Por du pencoj_" would mean "for twopence" (all four for twopence). _Tiu ĉi libro havas sesdek paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek kvin paĝoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj_ = This book has 60 pages; therefore, if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days. _Silko po 5 ŝilingoj por ulno_ = Silk at 5 shillings a (for a) yard (ell).

As a prefix, _Poduone_ = By half, or, by halves. _Pogrande_ = Wholesale.

259 (23). Por = _For_, _for the sake_ (_benefit_) _of_, _in order to_.

One of the prepositions that may be used before the infinitive (see remarks on infinitive, par. 177).

Purpose = _In order to_, _to_, _for_, _at_, _for the purpose of_, _of_, _on_.

Examples.--_Mi manĝas por vivi_ = I eat in order to live. _Por mi ĝi havas bonan guston_ = To me it has a pleasant (good) taste. _Li sin kuracis por resaniĝi_ = He treated himself (took remedies) in order to recover (be restored to health). _La plej bona metodo_ (_por_) _akiri ĝin_ = The best way of getting it (in order to get it). _Mi havas multon por fari_ = I have much to do. _Por miaj kvar infanoj mi aĉetis dek du pomojn_ = For my four children I bought twelve apples. _Litoj por du personoj_ = Beds for two people. _Tiu ĉi ringo estas por vi_ = This ring is for you. _Por ĉio_ (or, _pro ĉio_) _ni lin dankas_ = We thank him for everything. _Por tiu ĉi prezo_ = At this price. _Ni devas konfesi por ŝia laŭdo, ke_ ... = We must confess to her praise that ... _Mi ne havas tempon por fari tion_ = I have not time to do that. _Kiam la momento por foriri alvenis_, or, _Kiam la momento de foriro alvenis_ ... = When the moment for departure arrived ... _Tiu libro estas facile komprenebla por ĉiuj_ = That book is easily comprehensible by (for) all. _Li aĉetis por unu penco da teo_ = He bought a pennyworth (for a penny) of tea.

259 (24). Post = _After_, _behind_.

Is a preposition of place and time. Like its English equivalent "after," care must be taken not to confuse its meaning. For instance, "He came after me" might mean (_a_) next in succession or behind me, (_b_) after my arrival, (_c_) in pursuit of me. In Esperanto we should say:--(_a_). Li venis post mi. (_b_) Li venis post mia alveno. (_c_). Li postsekvis min (see also remarks on antaŭ, which is the opposite of post (259 (3)).

Place = _After_, _behind_.

Examples.--_Post la reĝo venis lia sekvantaro_ = After (behind) the king came his suite. _"Da" post ia vorto montras, ke tiu ĉi vorto havas signifon de mezuro_ = "_Da_" after any (some) word shows that this word has the signification of measure.

Time = _After_, _in_, _by_, _hence_.

Examples.--_Resendu al mi la libron (post) kiam vi estos traleginta ĝin_ = Send back to me the book after you have read it through. _Post tri monatoj estos la edziĝo_ = The wedding will be three months hence (in three months). _Post kvarono da horo_ = In a quarter of an hour. _Tagon post tago_ = Day by day.

Manner = _After_, _by_.

Examples.--_Ili sekvis unu post la alia_ = They followed one after another. _Iom post iom ŝi pli trankviliĝis_ = Little by little she became more tranquil.

As a prefix, _Postveni_ = To come after, to succeed. _Posttagmezo_ = Afternoon. _Postvivi_ = To survive.

259 (25). Preter = _Beyond_, _past_, _by_.

Differs from trans = _across_ (_beyond_), in that preter shows the movement of something passing by, or alongside, something else. Trans signifies that something is on the other side of a boundary, or is crossing, or has crossed that boundary (see also tra, par. 259 (33)).

Place = _Beside_, _by_, _past_.

Examples.--_Mi iris preter la fenestroj de la domo_ = I went by (past, beside) the windows of the house. _Du sinjorinoj iris preter ni, kaj transiris la straton_ = Two ladies passed (went) by us, and crossed the street.

Preter, as a prefix, has a similar meaning.

Examples.--_Mi preteriris la fenestrojn de la domo_ = I passed by the windows of the house. _Du sinjorinoj preteriris nin_ = Two ladies went by (passed) us. _Mi preterlasis lin_ = I let him pass by (I let him beyond). _Li preterlasis la okazon_ = He let the occasion (opportunity) pass, _or_, he missed the opportunity.

259 (26). Pri = _Concerning._

Pri can be translated in various ways.

Reference = _Concerning_, _respecting_, _regarding_, _as regards_, _with regard to_, _as to_, _as for_, _about_, _of_, _on_.

Examples.--_Pri mia lerteco, mi povas diri_ ... = Concerning my skill, I can say ... (In this sentence it will be observed that any of the above meanings of _pri_ instead of "concerning" will give the exact sense.) _Pri tio ne diru vorton_ = As to that, don't say a word. _Ne pensu pri ĝi_ = Do not think of (about) it. _Li parolis pri la pentrarto_ = He spoke about (the art of) painting. _Ili miregis pri_ (or, _je_) _lia kolero_ = They were astounded at (about) his anger. _Sed pri ŝia fratino, ni povas diri, ke_ ... = But of her sister, we can say that ... _Tio estas verko pri la politiko_ = That is a work on politics. _Vi estas prova pri tio_ = You are right in that.

As a prefix, _Pripensi_ = To think about, to reflect.

See par. 258 (_a_) as regards the use of the prepositional expressions _rilate_, _koncerne_.

259 (27). Pro = _Because of._

Pro always relates to the cause or reason for something happening or being done. Do not confuse it with por.

Cause = _Because of_, _by reason of_, _on account of_, _for the sake of_ (_cause_), _through_, _owing to_, _from_, _for_, _of_.

Examples.--_Li demandis ŝin, pro kio ŝi ploras_ = He asked her for what reason (because of what) she wept (weeps). _Li min mokis pro mia kredemo_ = He ridiculed me owing to (for) my credulity. _Li estas mortanta_ (or, _ekmortas_) _pro_ (or, _de_) _malsato_ = He is dying of (from) hunger. _Ŝi agas pro ĵaluzemo_ = She acts from jealousy. _Li ne povis piediri pro sia malforteco_ = He could not walk owing to (on account of, through) his weakness. _Pro tio, mi ne povas akompani vin_ = On that account, I cannot accompany you. _Li ĝin faris pro sia edzino_ = He did it because of his wife.

Pro is not used much as a prefix. _Propeti_ = To intercede. _Propekulo_ = A scapegoat.

259 (28). Sen = _Without_.

Sen always denotes disconnection.

Disconnection = _Without_, _less_, _minus_.

Examples.--_Li alvenis sen sia amiko_ = He arrived without his friend. _Sen vi, ni estus kiel sen kapo_ = Without you we should be as without a head. _Dek sen tri estas sep_ = Ten less (minus) three is seven.

Sen is frequently used as a prefix, having the same meaning as our English suffix "less," as:--_Sendube_ = Doubtless, without doubt. _Sensenta_ = Senseless, without feeling. _Sensenca_ = Senseless, without meaning. _Senhonta_ = Shameless, without shame.

259 (29). Spite = _In defiance of_.[21]

Spite, like malgraŭ, marks opposition, but in a stronger sense. Spite means "in defiance of opposition," whilst malgraŭ has more the sense of "notwithstanding." Spite is not a preposition, but an adverb, and to translate the prepositional form "_in spite of_" it is usually better to use malgraŭ.

Opposition = _In defiance of_, _defiantly_.

Examples.--_Spite ĉion, kion mi povis diri, li vangfrapis la infanon_ = In defiance of all I could say, he slapped the child's face. _Spite mian malamikon_ = In defiance of my enemy.

Footnote:

[21] The root spit is often used as a verb: spiti, _to brave_, _flout_, _act in defiance of_. Amason ne spitu (Prov. 1191). Se vi malgraŭ tio spitos min (Lev. 26, 21). From this root we get the adjective spitema (Ps. 37, 35) and the adverb spite. Hence there are often found in the literature such forms as spite al vi, spite de tio; and, consequently (with the accusative instead of the preposition), spite vin, spite tion, spite mian malamikon (par. 247).

259 (30). Sub = _Under_.

Sub may be followed by the accusative of direction. It is the opposite of sur = _on_.

Place = _Under_, _beneath_.

Examples.--_La hundo kuris sub la tablon por ekkapti la katon, kiu kuŝis sub la tablo_ = The dog ran under the table to seize the cat that was lying under the table. _Muso estas sub la kanapo_ = A mouse is under the sofa.

Manner = _In_, _on_.

Examples.--_Io, sub la formo de kato, transkuris la straton_ = Something, in the shape of a cat, ran across the street. _Li iris sub la kondiĉo, ke neniu lin akompanu_ = He went on (under) the condition that no one should accompany him.

As a prefix, _Subetaĝo_ = A basement (floor below). _Submeti_ = To put under, to subdue. _Subtegmento_ = A garret (under roof).

259 (31). Super = _Over_, _above_.

May be followed by the accusative of direction. It differs from sur, since sur generally means that something is upon or touching something else, whilst super signifies that the object is over or above something, but not in actual contact.

Place = _Over_, _above_, _beyond_.

Examples.--_La balono estis vidata super la urbo_ = The balloon was seen over the town. _Super mia kapo preterflugis birdo_ = A bird flew by, over my head. _Li ĵetis ŝtonon super la muron, sed li ne havis sufiĉe da forto, kaj la ŝtono falis sur la muron_ = He threw a stone over the wall, but he had not sufficient (of) strength, and the stone fell upon (on to) the wall. _La spirito de Dio ŝvebis super la akvo_ = The Spirit of God moved upon the face of (above) the waters (water). _Mi konas nenion super tio_ = I know nothing beyond that.

Super is the root of _Superi_ = To surpass. As a prefix, _Superflui_ = To overflow. _Superhoma_ = Super-human. _Supervesto_ (or, _palto_) = An overcoat.

259 (32). Sur = _On_, _upon_, _on to_.

May be followed by the accusative of direction. See remarks on sub and super. Do not confound sur with super.

Place = _On_, _upon_ (_resting on_, _touching_).

Examples.--_Sur lia vizaĝo mi vidis ĝojan rideton_ = On his face I saw a joyful smile. _Vi trovos la paperojn sur la skribtablo_ = You will find the papers on the writing-table. _La birdo_ (_sur_)_flugis sur la tegmenton_ = The bird flew on to the roof. _Li metis la ĉapelon sur sian kapon_ = He put his (the) hat on his head. _Li staris supre sur la monto, kaj rigardis malsupren sur la kampon_ = He stood above on the mountain, and looked down (below) upon the field (note the accusatives of direction, _malsupren_ and _kampon_). _Laŭ la komando "tri" vi ekpafos sur la arbon_ = At the command "three" you will shoot at (on to) the tree.

Dependence = _On_, _to_.

Examples.--_Tio ĉi povas tre influi sur la sukceson de nia afero_ = This can have much influence on the success of our business. _Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn_ = I have rights on (to) the Danish throne.

As a prefix, _Surmeti_ = To put on.

259 (33). Tra = _Through_.

Tra, trans, and preter. The following compound verbs will best show the meaning of the three prepositions:--

Preterpasi = _To pass by_, _go beyond_.

Trapasi = _To pass through_, _to traverse_.

Transpasi = _To pass over_, _to cross over_.

Example.--_Trapasinte la arbaron, li preterpasis la preĝejon, kaj poste transpasis la riveron per la ponto_ = Having passed through (traversed) the wood, he passed by the church, and then crossed the river by the bridge.

Place = _Through_, _across_.

Examples.--_Li iris tra la amaso, kaj eniris en la domon_ = He went through the crowd and entered the house. _Tra la mondo iras forta voko_ = Through the world goes a powerful call. _Li estas tiel dika, ke li ne povas trairi tra nia mallarĝa pordo_ = He is so stout (thick) that he cannot go through our narrow door.

Adverb: _trae_ = right through.

Occasionally the accusative of direction is used after tra, when this seems useful for emphasis, or to remove ambiguity.

As a prefix, _Tralegi_ = To read through. _Trapasi_ = To pass through, to traverse. _Traguti_ = To percolate.

259 (34). Trans = _Across_; _on the other side of_, _beyond_.

May be followed by the accusative of direction.

Place = _Across_, _beyond_, _on the other side of_.

Examples.--_La hirundo flugis trans la riveron, ĉar trans la rivero sin trovis aliaj hirundoj_ = The swallow flew across the river, because on the other side of (beyond) the river were (found themselves) other swallows.

As a prefix, _Transiri_ = To go over, to cross. _Transmigri_ = To migrate. _Transvivi_ = To outlive, survive (a period of time).

ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS.

260. English prepositions are used with many various meanings. In fact, to express the sense of some of those in common use correctly, five or six or more Esperanto prepositions have to be used to give the different meanings of one English preposition. For instance, "_by_" has five different meanings in the following expressions:--"_He went by the house._" "_He was hit by a stone._" "_By his advice._" "_Little by little._" "_He stood by the door._"

261. The following common English prepositions are given with their Esperanto equivalents and examples of their use, viz., "_At_, _by_, _for_, _from_, _in_, _of_, _on_, _to_, _with_."

At.

261. (_a_). Represented by:--

Apud, as:--_La gefianĉoj staris apud la altaro_ = The betrothed stood at the altar.

Ĉe, as:--_Ĉe ĉiu paŝo kiun ŝi faris_ = At every step that she took. _Ŝi estas ĉe la pordo_ = She is at the door.

De, as:--_Li estas mirigita de la lukso de la kortego_ = He was astonished at the lŭury of the court.

En, as:--_En la unua tempo_ = At (in) the outset. _En Parizo_ = At Paris. _En la fino_ = At the end. _En la kunveno_ = At the meeting. _En la interspaco de_ ... = At the distance of ...

Je, as:--_Je la kvara horo_ = At four o'clock.

Po, as:--_Piroj po du pencoj por funto_ = Pears at (at the rate of) twopence a (for a) pound.

Por, as:--_Por tiu ĉi prezo_ = At (for) this price.

Pri, as:--_Ŝi ridetis pri_ (_je_) _lia kolero_ = She smiled at (about) his anger.

Sur, as:--_Ili pafis unu sur la alian_ = They fired at one another.

Accusative, as:--_Ŝi mokadas lian kredemon_ = She jeers at his credulity.

Adverb, as:--_Tuj_ = At once. _Almenaŭ_ = At least. _Iafoje_ = At times. _Nune_ = At present, etc.

By.

261 (_b_). Represented by:--

Apud, as:--_Mi volus stari apud la patrino_ = I would like to stand by mother.

Ĉe, as:--_Mi tenis lin ĉe la kruro per ŝnurego_ = I held him by the leg with a rope.

De, as:--_Li estas amata de ĉiuj siaj amikoj_ = He is loved by all his friends.

Laŭ, as:--_Mi restadas tie ĉi laŭ la konsilo de mia kuracisto_ = I am remaining (staying) here by (according to) the advice of my doctor.

Per, as:--_Li eliris el la urbo per flanka vojeto_ = He left the town by a by-path.

Post, as:--_Iom post iom, ŝi pli trankviliĝis_ = Little by (after) little she became more tranquil.

Preter, as:--_En tiu momento iris preter ni du sinjorinoj_ = At that moment two ladies passed by (beside) us.

Adverb, as:--_Legante, ni lernas_ = By reading, we learn. _Tage_ = by day. _Laŭtage_ = By the day. _Mi staris apude dum li paroladis_ = I stood by (near to, close by) whilst he was talking.

For.

261 (_c_). Represented by:--

Al, as:--_Ili ekiris al Berlino_ (or, _Berlinon_) = They started for Berlin.

Anstataŭ, as:--_Li skribis trion anstataŭ kvaro_ = He wrote a three for (instead of) a four.

De, as:--_Tro baldaŭ alvenis la horo de foriro_ = Too soon came the hour for (of) departure. _De tri semajnoj mi estas malsana_ = For three weeks I have been (am) ill.

Dum, as:--_Dum la tuta tago li restis sola_ = For (during) the whole day he remained alone.

Laŭ, as:--_Ŝi estas granda laŭ sia aĝo_ = She is big for (according to) her age.

Malgraŭ, as:--_Malgraŭ ĉio li ne estis feliĉa_ = For (notwithstanding) all that, he was not happy.

Por, as:--_Tiu ĉi monujo estas por vi_ = This purse is for you.

Pri, as:--_Li petis lin pri helpo_, or, _Li petis helpon de li_ = He asked him for help. _Vi ne devas peti pri tio, kio estas nia ŝuldo_ = You have not to beg for that which is our obligation.

Pro, as:--_Oni laŭdis lin pro lia boneco_ = They praised him for (because of) his goodness. _La domo estis vendita pro ŝuldoj_ = The house was (had been) sold for debt. _Mi volas esti amata pro mi mem, ne pro mia riĉeco_ = I want to he loved for myself, not for my wealth.

Pro tio, ke, as:--_Li riproĉis min pro tio, ke mi foriris_ = He reproached me for having gone away (lit., because of that that I went away).

Tra, as:--_Li ne povas ĝin porti tra tia interspaco_ = He cannot carry it for (through) such a distance.

Accusative, as:--_Li restis sola la tutan tagon_ = He remained alone all day long (for the whole day) (see the example under _dum_).

From.

261 (_d_). Represented by:--

Al, as:--_Ni ne vidas, ĉar la lumo estas kaŝata al ni per la kurtenoj_ = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains.

De, as:--_Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno_ = Separate the straw from the hay. _De tiu tempo_ = From that time. _De lundo ĝis vendredo_ = From Monday to Friday.

El, as:--_Mi konkludis el lia mieno, ke li estas oficiro_ = I concluded from (out of) his appearance that he was (is) an officer.

Kontraŭ, as:--_Tie mi estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la vento_ = There I was sheltered from (against) the wind.

Laŭ, as:--_Tiu ĉi figuro estas skulptita laŭ mia modelo_ = This figure is sculptured (carved) from (in accordance with) my model.

Per, as:--_Tion mi eksciis per mia frato_ = I learnt that from (by means of) my brother.

Pro, as:--_Li tremis pro_ (or, _de_) _timo_ = He trembled from (because of) fear.

Sen, as:--_Ok sen du estas ses_ = Two from eight (lit., eight without two) is six.

In.

261 (_e_). Represented by:--

Ĉe, as:--_Tio donas helpon ĉe la lernado de la vortoj_ = That gives help in the learning of the words.

Da, as:--_Tri metroj da longo_ = Three metres in length.

En, as:--_Li estas en la domo_ = He is in the house.

Je, as:--_La suna disko ŝajne duobliĝis je grandeco_ = The sun's disc apparently became doubled in size.

Laŭ, as:--_Laŭ mia opinio_ (or, _miaopinie_) _ili estas tute pravaj_ = In (according to) my opinion they are quite right. _Li edukiĝis laŭ la timo al Dio_ = He was brought up in (according to) the fear of God.

Per, as:--_La ambaŭ estis similaj per la vizaĝo kaj la karaktero_ = The two were alike in (by means of) features (the face) and (the) character.

Post, as:--_Ni foriros post du aŭ tri tagoj_ = We are (shall be) going away in (after) two or three days.

Pri, as:--_La instruisto povas pri nenio lin instrui_ = The teacher can instruct him in nothing.

Sub, as:--_Io, sub la formo de homo, aperas_ = Something, in (under) the shape of a man, appears.

Sur, as:--_Promenante sur la strato, mi falis_ = While walking in (on) the street, I fell.

Accusative, as:--_Li estis naskita la vintron de_ 1902a = He was born _in_ the winter of 1902.

Adverb, as:--_Forme_ = In shape. _Troe_ = In excess. _Vespere_ = In the evening. _Alivorte_ = In other words, etc.

Of.

261 (_f_). Represented by:--

Al, as:--_La amo al Dio_ = The love of (towards) God. _Ilia timo al la morto estas granda_ = Their fear of (to) death is great. _Pro malamo al mi li foriris_ = Through hatred of me he went away.

Da, as:--_Granda nombro da ideoj_ = A great number of ideas.

De, as:--_La unua vorto de la linio_ = The first word of the line. _La amo de Dio_ = The love of (from) God, God's love.

Dum, as:--_Vojaĝo dum dek kvin tagoj_, or, _Dekkvintaga vojaĝo_ = A journey of (during) fifteen days.

El, as:--_Unu el ni estos elektata_ = One of (out of) us will be chosen. _El ĉiuj miaj amikoj, li estas la plej forta_ = Of (out of) all my friends, he is the strongest.

En, as:--_La plej granda ĉambro en la domo_ = The largest room of (in) the house.