Chapter V: Part I: ALPHABET (Alfabeto) (2)

Examples.--_Ĉu vi ne vidis lin?_ = Did you not see him? _Mi devas ne iri_ = I must not go.f[11] _Mi ne devas iri_ = I am not obliged to go.[11] _Ne mi, sed li, havas katon_ = It is not I, but he, who has a cat. _Mi ne havas katon_ = I have not (got) a cat.

Footnote:

[11] This distinction, however, is not observed by all writers.

(_b_). The nine correlative words, nenia, nenial, neniam, nenie, neniel, nenies, nenio, neniom, neniu, also imply negation.

Examples.--_Li havas nenian sperton_ = He has no kind of experience. _Li ne havas ian sperton_ = He has not any kind of experience. _Nenial li subite foriris de Londono_ = For no reason he suddenly left London. _Mi nenion trovis_ = I found nothing. _Mi ne trovis ion_ (_ion_, not _nenion_, here) = I did not find anything. (See correlative words, pars. 147-157).

(_c_). Nek = _nor_ and nek ... nek = _neither ... nor_ have also a negative meaning.

Examples.--_Nek mi nek li estis tie_ = Neither I nor he was there. _Mi vidis nek Johanon nek Georgon_ = I saw neither John nor George.

Nek is generally used in the second clause of a sentence, although the first is negative.

Examples.--_Mi ne scias la francan lingvon, nek la anglan, nek la turkan_ = I do not know the French language, or (nor) English, or (nor) Turkish. _Nenio estas al mi pli kara, nek dolĉa, ol vi_ = Nothing is dearer to me or (nor) sweeter than you. _Mi ne renkontis lin, nek lian fraton_ = I did not meet him or (nor) his brother.

(_d_). Compound words with ne, sen, mal, have also a negative signification, and such words are often employed with a negative to express an affirmative assertion. (See par. 289.)

Examples.--_La okazo ne estis neatendita_ = The event was not unexpected. _Lia riĉeco ne estis senlima_ = His fortune was not unlimited. _Li ne estis malhonesta_ = He was not dishonest.

60. Double Negative.--Occasionally a double negative is used to give strong force to a negation. Dr. Zamenhof, in his translation of Hamlet, Act I., Scene 5, renders "Lay your hands again upon my sword: swear by my sword, never to speak of this that you have heard" by Metu viajn manojn denove sur la glavon, kaj ripetu, ke vi neniam al neniu diros pri la apero de la nokto, lit. = _Lay your hands again upon the sword, and repeat, that you never, to no one, will speak of the apparition of the night_.

Some Esperantists do not consider this a double negative, but it undoubtedly is, according to the literal English translation. Another explanation of the passage is to supply mentally an omitted kaj after the word neniam.

61. Of course, when two negatives refer to different verbs, expressed or unexpressed, this is not a double negative.

Examples.--_Mi ne volis, ne skribi al vi_ = I did not wish, not to write to you. _Ne nur ne malamiko, sed kunbatalanto li estis_ = (He was) not only not an enemy, but he was a comrade in arms (fellow combatant).

62. Two negatives may be used in such an expression as "could not help," etc.

Example.--_Li ne povis ne kisi la malgrandulon_ = He could not help kissing the little one. Lit.:--He could not not kiss the little one.

QUESTIONS AND REPLIES (Demandoj kaj Respondoj).

63. Jes = _yes_ is the word used to answer a question affirmatively.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi vidis mian patron? Jes!_ = Did you see my father? Yes. _Jes_, with the conjunction _ke_, is also used for "it is so," as, _mi vin certigas, ke jes_ = I assure you that it is so.

Ne = _no_, _not_, is used in a similar way to answer a question negatively.

Example.--_Mi vin certigas, ke ne_ = I assure you that it is not so.

64. To give force to affirmative or negative replies one can add to ne or jes any suitable adverb, as certe = _certainly_, ja = _indeed_, kompreneble = _of course_, etc., etc., or repeat the verb of the interrogation without its complement, in the same way as in English we often repeat the auxiliary of the verb.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi faris tion?_ = Did you do that? _Jes! Jes! Mi faris_, or _Ne! Ne! Mi ne faris_ = Yes, yes, I did, _or_ No, no! I did not. _Ĉu vi finis vian laboron?_ = Have you finished your work? _Jes! mi finis_, or _Ne, mi ne (finis)_ = Yes, I have, _or_, No, I have not. _Ĉu vi mortigis tiun birdon?_ = Did you kill that bird? _Jes! Certe mi mortigis_, or, _Certe jes!_ or, _Ne, kompreneble, mi ne mortigis_, or, _Kompreneble ne!_ = Yes! Certainly I did, _or_, No! Of course, I didn't! _Ĉu vi deziras kafon?_ = Do you want coffee? _Jes, mi deziras_, or _Ne, mi ne deziras; mi jam havas_ = Yes, I do, _or_, No, I do not; I have (some) already.

64 (_a_). When the verb is omitted in the reply, the case must be used which would have been used had the verb been expressed.

Examples.--_Kiom kostis la ĉapelo? Naŭ ŝilingojn (aŭ, ĝi kostis naŭ ŝilingojn)_ = What did the hat cost? Nine shillings (_or_, it cost nine shillings). _Kien vi iras? En la ĝardenon (aŭ, mi iras en la ĝardenon)_ = Where (whither) are you going? Into the garden (_or_, I am going into the garden). _Kiom pezas la kesto? Dek naŭ funtojn_ = What does the chest weigh? Nineteen pounds; but, _Kiom estas la pezo de la kesto? Dek naŭ funtoj_ = what is the weight of the chest? Nineteen pounds.

THE ACCUSATIVE (La Akuzativo).

65. Accusative: when used.--The accusative is used in Esperanto:--

(1). To show the direct object of a verb.

(2). To show motion towards something (Rule 13, par. 94).

(3). To show a preposition has been omitted (Rules 8 and 14, par. 94).

The following are examples of these three uses:--

66 (1). To show the direct object of a verb.

(_a_). After transitive verbs the accusative is used to show the direct object.

Examples.--_Johano vidas la knabon_ = John sees the boy. _Georgo aĉetis bonan ĉevalon_ = George bought a good horse. Now in either of these sentences the order of the words can be changed without altering the meaning. _La knabon vidas Johano_ would still mean "John sees the boy," because _Johano_, being in the nominative, is clearly the subject, and _knabon_, being in the accusative, is clearly the object. But if we inverted the words in English, the sense would be entirely changed (see order of words, pars. 73-93).

(_b_). After participles.--The accusative is also used after active participles (adjectival or adverbial) to denote the object.

Examples.--_Johano estis rigardanta la knabon, kiam mi lin vidis_ = John was looking at the boy, when I saw him. _Johano, vidante la knabon, donas al li pomon_ = John, seeing the boy, gives him an apple. _Georgo estis aĉetinta ĉevalon_ = George had bought a horse. _Georgo, aĉetinte ĉevalon, donis ĝin al sia frato_ = George, having bought (_or_, after buying) a horse, gave it to his brother (par. 212 (_d_)).

(_c_). When a verb is omitted.--The accusative is also used in exclamations and in expressions in which some verb expressing "wish" or "desire" is understood (see par. 64 (_a_)).

Examples.--_Peston al la tranĉilo: Mi tranĉis al mi la fingron!_ = Plague on the knife! I have cut my finger! _Bonan tagon, Sinjoro_ = Good day, sir. _Saluton al vi, sinjorino_ = (lit.) Salutation to you, madam. In reply to a question the accusative is used whenever the verb in the reply, which is omitted, governs the accusative, as:--_Kiom kostas tiu ĉi krajono? (Ĝi kostas) du pencojn_ = How much does this pencil cost? (It costs) twopence. _Kiom estas la kosto de tiu ĉi krajono? (Ĝi estas) du pencoj_ = What is the price of this pencil? (It is) twopence.

67 (2). To show motion towards something.

(_a_). Accusative of direction.--To show direction towards which movement (physical or otherwise) is made the accusative is used, and this is generally called "the accusative of direction." It will be observed, however, that we can also use a preposition to show the motion, and, if such preposition in itself shows movement, its complement must be in the nominative, since all prepositions govern that case; but if the preposition does not in itself denote movement, then its complement must be in the accusative.

Examples.--_Mi iras Romon (aŭ, al Romo)_ = I am going to Rome. _Li kuris en la ĝardenon_ = He ran _into_ the garden. The preposition _en_ does not show movement, therefore _ĝardenon_ is in the accusative, but _Li kuris en la ĝardeno_ = He ran _in_ the garden. This means he was already in the garden, and was running in it. _Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn_ = On the Danish throne I have rights.

(_b_). Adverbs also take the accusative of direction.

Examples.--_Kien vi iras? Mi iras nenien hodiaŭ_ = Where (whither) are you going? I am going nowhere to-day. _Ĝi falis teren_ (or, _sur la teron_) = It fell to the ground (_or_, on to the ground; lit., earthwards). _Li iris hejmen kaj restis hejme_ = He went home and remained at home.

68. (3). To show that a preposition has been omitted.

As stated in Rule 8, par. 94, every preposition in Esperanto governs the nominative case.

By Rule 14 we are told that every preposition has a defined and constant meaning, but that if we _must use some preposition_, and the direct sense does not show what special preposition we are to take, we can then either use the indefinite preposition _je_, or the accusative without a preposition. The following are examples under this head in which the accusative may be used:--

(_a_). After doubtful verbs.--From the foregoing remarks it follows that if we do not know whether a verb governs the accusative or not, we can always use the accusative, if no ambiguity is occasioned thereby. Otherwise some preposition should be employed instead.

For instance, we can say:--_Obeu vian patron_, or, _Obeu je via patro_, or, _Obeu al via patro_ = Obey your father. _Ŝi helpis al sia frato_, or, _Ŝi helpis sian fraton_ = She helped her brother. _Li pardonis sian filon_, or, _Li pardonis al sia filo_ = He forgave his son. But in phrases where doubt as to meaning may arise we must always use a preposition, as:--_Li pardonis al sia filo lian kulpon_ = He forgave his son his fault. Not _Li pardonis sian filon lian kulpon_, for the _two_ accusatives here would create confusion. _Li legis tion en la dua de Marto_, or, _Li legis pri tio la duan de Marto_ = He read that on the 2nd of March.

(_b_). Duration or any point of time.

Examples.--_Mi restis tie kvar semajnojn_ (or, _dum_ or _tra_, _kvar semajnoj_) = I remained there (during) four weeks. _La proksiman lundon_ (or, _en la proksima lundo_) _mi veturos Londonon_ (or, _al Londono_) = Next Monday I shall go to London. _Printempon_ (or, _en printempo_) _floroj aperas_ = In spring flowers appear. _Li venos dimanĉon_ (or, _en dimanĉo_) = He will come on a Sunday. Similarly the accusative may be used for dates, as:--_Washington_ (pronounced _Ŭaŝington_) _estis naskita la dudek-duan_ (or, _en la dudek-dua_) _de Februaro_ = Washington was born on the 22nd of February. _La 23an Marton, 1906a_, or _Je la 23a de Marto, 1906_ = 23rd of March, 1906.

(_c_). Price, weight, measure.

Examples.--_La libroj kostis dek ŝilingojn_ (or, _po dek ŝilingoj_) _por dekduo_ = The books cost ten shillings (_or_, at the rate of ten shillings) a dozen. _La ĉambro estas alta dek du futojn_ (or, _je dek du futoj_) = The room is twelve feet high. _La kesto pezas tridek funtojn_ (or, _je tridek funtoj_) = The chest weighs thirty pounds.

69. General Remarks on the Accusative.

From the foregoing examples we see the important part the accusative _N_ plays in the construction of Esperanto, the clearness it gives to the meaning of a sentence, and the advantage it affords in permitting words to be placed in almost any order, The following examples will further illustrate this.

(_a_). Qualifying and Predicative Adjectives.--An adjective is termed "qualifying" when its noun or pronoun actually possesses the quality which the adjective denotes; and the adjective then agrees with the noun or pronoun both in case and number. But a "predicative" adjective, although it agrees in number, is always in the nominative (pars. 36, 108).

Examples.--_Mi trovis la belajn rozojn_ (_or, rozojn belajn_) = I found the beautiful roses. _Mi trovis la rozojn belaj_ = I found the roses beautiful. In the first example the assertion is that beautiful roses were found; but in the second you assert only that you found, or discovered, that they were beautiful; they might, in someone else's opinion, have been the contrary.

(_b_). Qualifying Adverbs are invariable.

Examples.--_Li skribis al mi tute malveran raporton pri la afero_ = He wrote me an entirely false statement of the matter. _Mi pensis, ke ŝi estas treege bela_ = I thought (that) she was (is) extremely beautiful.

(_c_). Nouns and Pronouns in apposition have like cases and numbers.

Examples.--_Vi serĉas la princon, Hamleton_ = You seek the Prince, Hamlet. _La diablo lin prenu, la sentaŭgulon_ = The devil take him, the wretch!

N.B.--Note the difference in case of two nouns in the following sentences:--_Kuracisto havis du infanojn, filon kaj filinon; li nomis sian filon Johano, kaj sian filinon Mario. Kiam li parolis pri ili kun mi, li ĉiam nomis sian filon Johanon kun voĉo de amo, sed sian filinon Marion antipatie_ = A doctor had two children, a son and a daughter; he named his son, John, and his daughter, Mary. When he spoke to me about them, he always named his son, John, in voice of affection, but his daughter, Mary, with antipathy.

N.B.--In this example, when the nouns (_Johano_ and _Mario_) are in the nominative, they express what is _predicated_ or said about the objects (_filon_ and _filinon_). But when they agree in case with the objects (_filon_ and _filinon_), this shows they are nouns in apposition (see pars. 108, 109).

(_d_). Proper names.--In the case of non-Esperanto names it is possible to indicate the accusative, where desired, by the addition of _N_ after a vowel, or _ON_ after a consonant. This is the plan adopted by Zamenhof in _La Malnova Testamento_. Or the name may be regarded as a foreign word and left unchanged for the accusative.

Examples.--_David_, _Davidon_. _Noa_, _Noan_. _Sara_, _Saran_. _Robinson_, _Robinsonon_. _Smith_, _Smithon_ (or simply _Smith_). Of course, proper names which have been converted by use into Esperanto are treated like other nouns in O, as, _Londono_, _Londonon_; _Berlino_, _Berlinon_. _Jones iris Berlinon, kaj renkontis Arturon Brown_ = Jones went to Berlin and met Arthur Brown.

CAPITAL LETTERS (Majuskloj).

70. Capital Letters (Majuskloj) may be used as they are in English, but as their use varies in different languages, it is as well to follow the majority of Esperanto writers. We, therefore, advise the student to--

Use capital letters, as in English, except:--

(_a_). For words derived from the names of places, as:--La angla nacio = _The English nation_. Li estas franco kaj loĝas en Francujo = _He is a Frenchman and lives in France_. Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn = _On the Danish throne I have rights_.

(b). For the names of the days of the week, as:--Mi alvenos lundon = _I shall arrive on a Monday_.[12]

(_c_). For the pronoun "I" = _mi_.

In the _Fundamento_, Zamenhof used capital letters to begin the names of months. In his mature style he also used capitals for nouns and adjectives of nationality, e.g. _Angla_, _Anglo_, _Dana_, _Franco_.

Footnote:

[12] Note that _lundon_ means "on _a_ (or, _some_) Monday." If we wish to say "on Monday," meaning "_next_ Monday," the full translation would be _Mi alvenos la proksiman lundon_ = I shall arrive on (the next) Monday (see par. 68 (_b_)). _Mi venas lunde_ = I come on Mondays.

PUNCTUATION (Interpunkcio).

71. Punctuation is only necessary to make clear the sense we wish to convey in writing. Happily it is not so important in Esperanto as in English, where a simple comma may make a great difference in the meaning of a sentence. Hence the verbosity of law documents in which stops are not used.

Every writer is free to use in Esperanto his own national or individual method of punctuation. Nevertheless, Zamenhof and the best writers follow a definite international usage, and the student is strongly advised to study and imitate their writings in this respect.

It is the custom, for instance, to separate every clause in a sentence by a punctuation mark. Accordingly, words like ke, por ke, ĉu, kiu, when they introduce a secondary sentence within the main sentence, are usually preceded by a comma. This aids the reader, and helps in the formation of a uniform international style.

When two verbs joined by kaj have the same subject, no comma is needed; but a comma is used if the subjects are different. Li staras kaj parolas (one subject). Li staras, kaj mi parolas al li (two subjects).

Use a comma after ho when it is part of an exclamation, but not in naming the person spoken to. Ho Dio! Ho, tute ne!

With abbreviations like S-ro, S-ino, D-ro, it is usual to insert a hyphen, but no following stop, thus: F-ino Jones.

72. The following is what Dr. Zamenhof has written on the subject in the "Esperantisto." We give it in Esperanto, so that the student can see the punctuation for himself:--

La reguloj pri la uzado de la interpunkcioj estas en nia lingvo pli-malpli tiaj samaj, kiel en ĉiuj aliaj lingvoj; sekve ĉiu povas uzadi en Esperanto la interpunkciojn tiel, kiel li uzas ilin en sia nacia lingvo. Estas vere, ke en diversaj detaloj la uzado de la interpunkcioj estas malegala en diversaj lingvoj; sed ĉar la objekto ne estas tre grava, tial ni pensas, ke ne venis ankoraŭ la tempo por difini en nia lingvo severajn regulojn por tiuj ĉi detaloj. En tiuj ĉi dubaj detaloj ĉiu povas uzi en Esperanto la interpunkciojn tiel, kiel li uzas ilin en sia nacia lingvo, kaj nur la uzo iom post iom ellaboros por tiuj ĉi negravaj detaloj difinitajn regulojn.

_Translation._--The rules regarding the use of stops are in our language more or less the same as in all other languages, therefore everyone can continue using in Esperanto stops in such a manner as he uses them in his national language. It is true that in several details the use of stops is different in various languages, but since the matter is not very important, we think the time has not yet come to lay down in our language strict rules for these details. In these doubtful details everyone can use in Esperanto the stops he uses in his national language, and only custom, little by little, will work out for these unimportant details definite rules.

ORDER OF WORDS. (Ordigo de Vortoj).

The hints in this chapter should be considered not as hard and fast rules to be learned by heart, but simply as an endeavour to state the usual practice of good writers. The best guide for the student is the study of the best authors, coupled with obedience to his own common sense and feeling for beauty of style and clarity of expression. (See par. 93.)

73. Since Esperanto has eliminated the defects of other languages, and embraced only the good points of each, its flexibility as regards the order of words in a sentence is great. This is principally owing to the fact that the accusative _N_ clearly distinguishes the object from the subject, to the agreement in case and number of the adjective with the noun it qualifies, and to the fact that prepositions and conjunctions do not interfere with the proper functions of other words. In English the accusative case is distinguished only in the pronouns _he_ (_him_), _she_ (_her_), etc. It is true that English has a possessive case, which in Esperanto is applied only to the correlative group of words ending in _-ES_, viz., ies, kies, etc. (see pars. 106 (_b_), 154); but even this doubtful advantage is lessened by the fact that the apostrophe _S_ in English is useless _in speech_ in the plural when the word ends in _S_. For instance, when one says, "_That is my brothers' house_," does one mean it belongs to one brother or more? Certainly, as _written_, with the apostrophe _after_ the _S_, the meaning is two or more, but, as _spoken_, one would naturally suppose it belonged to one brother only. So, to be clear, we should have to fall back on the Esperanto mode of expression, and say, _That is the house of my brothers_ = Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj; even then Esperanto is clearer than English, for the pronoun (miaj) is a plural form, whereas in English _my_ is the same for both numbers.

74. Owing to the above advantages, words may be arranged in almost any order in Esperanto, and yet be intelligible; but of course it is advisable that they should follow one another in the natural sequence of our thoughts. The first point is, that the meaning of a sentence should be absolutely clear, and the second, that the sounds should be as harmonious as they can be, combined with clearness of expression. The student is advised to read the "Fundamenta Krestomatio," by Dr. Zamenhof, which will familiarize him with the construction of the language, and he will then rapidly acquire a knowledge as to the best order for words.

75. Place of the subject and object.--The subject is usually placed before and the object after the verb.

Examples.--_Mia fratino aĉetis libron_ = My sister bought a book. _Rikardo manĝas kukon_ = Richard is eating a cake. _Kukon manĝas Rikardo_ means exactly the same, and would he quite intelligible, but the mind would not grasp the meaning so rapidly, and it would be absurd, without a reason, to place words in such an unnatural order.

76. Position for emphasis.--Words are often placed out of the usual order, as they are in English, to give emphasis, or for the sake of contrast.

Examples.--_Lin mi renkontis, ne ŝin_ = Him I met, not her. _Belon mi trovis ĉie, bonon nenie_ = Beauty I found everywhere, good nowhere.

77. Place of the predicate.--The predicate, or what is said about the subject, is usually placed after the verb.

Examples.--_Li estos kontenta_ (or _Li kontentiĝos_) _se vi donos al li ŝilingon_ = He will be satisfied if you (will) give him a shilling. _Ŝi fariĝus pli sana, se la vetero estus pli varma_, or _Ŝi pli saniĝus, se la vetero pli varmiĝus_ = She would get better if the weather became warmer. But after the word _kiel_ it is preferable to put the predicate before the verb, as:--_Kiel malsana li ŝajnas!_ = How ill he seems! _Kiel li ŝajnas malsana_ would be quite possible and correct, but Esperanto inclines to follow the English order of words here, as also in many other cases where in other languages the construction is quite different.

78. Place of the direct complement.--We have stated that the object is placed usually after the verb, but it may equally correctly precede it.

Examples.--_Mi lin malamas_, or, _Mi malamas lin_ = I detest him. If, however, the object be followed by an explanatory phrase, it is better to place it after the verb, as:--_Mi vidis lin kuŝantan sur la lito_ = I saw him lying on the bed. _Mi renkontis ŝin, ĝuste kiam ŝi estis eliranta_ = I met her just as she was going out (see par. 29).

79. Place of the indirect complement.--The complement is said to be indirect when it is governed by a preposition (see Syntax, par. 31). It is usually placed after the verb.

Examples.--_Zorgu pri tio_ = Take care of (about) that. _Alkonduku lin al mi_ = Bring him to me. _La domo estas konstruata de mia patro_ = The house is being built by my father. _Mi ĝin donis_ (or, _donis ĝin_) _al li por lia nepino_ = I gave it to him for his granddaughter. Of course, we can place it before the verb if we wish, just as we can in English, and as we probably should in the following phrase:--_El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke...._ = From the said rule, it follows that....

80. Place of circumstantial complements (see Syntax, par. 32).--These complements, which mark the time, place, manner, cause, etc., of an action, are usually placed first or last in a sentence.

Examples.--_En printempo floroj aperas_ = In spring flowers appear. _Nur kelke da knaboj ludadis sur la kampo_ = Only a few boys were playing in the field; or, _Sur la kampo ludadis nur kelke da knaboj_. In a sentence like the following the complement might be placed last, as:--_Mi kriegis pro la dolorego_ = I howled with the intense pain. But in one like the following, where there are two or more circumstantial complements, they naturally should come first in the sentence, as:--_Kun la haroj malordigitaj, kaj la okuloj eksaltantaj el la kapo de_ (or, _pro_) _teruro, ŝi kuregis laŭ la strato_ = With dishevelled hair, and eyes starting out of her (the) head with terror, she rushed down the street.

81. The complements of nouns, adjectives, or participial adjectives, usually follow them.

Examples.--_La amo al_ (or, _por_) _Dio_ = Love to (for) God. _Mirigita de liaj vortoj, mi eliris el la domo_ = Astonished at his words, I left (went out of) the house.

82. Place of the infinitive.--The infinitive being really a noun, takes its place, according as it is the subject, predicate, or complement. When it is the subject, it generally precedes the verb, unless one wishes to place it otherwise for the sake of emphasis.

Examples.--_Scii estas utile_ = Knowledge (to know) is useful. _Honte estas mensogi_ = It is shameful to lie. If the predicate, it usually follows the verb, as:--_Tion fari estas agi malsaĝe_ = To do that is to act foolishly. If the complement, it follows the word of which it is the complement, as:--_Mi tre deziras paroli kun vi_ = I want very much to speak with you. _Ni trinkas por sensoifiĝi, kaj ni manĝas por satigi nin_ (or, _por satiĝi_) = We drink to allay thirst (to become without thirst), and we eat to allay hunger (to be satiated). _Mi devas iri hejmen_ = I must go home. _La elekto tion fari restas ĉe vi_ = The option of doing that rests with you. _Li estos tre feliĉa vin vidi morgaŭ_ = He will be very glad to see you to-morrow. _La deziro kontraŭdiri_ = The desire of contradicting (to contradict).

83. Place of the noun.--The noun is placed according as it is the subject, predicate, complement (direct, indirect, or circumstantial), (see pars. 76-80).

84. Place of the adjective.--The position of the adjective varies in national languages. In English it is nearly always placed before the word it qualifies, and we may say that this is generally its place in Esperanto. The following remarks and examples of the four classes of adjectives, "qualifying," "predicative," "possessive," and "demonstrative," will give an idea of its position, in accordance with the sense or emphasis wished to be conveyed.

(_a_). A qualifying adjective may either precede or follow the word it qualifies.

(In either position the meaning is precisely the same grammatically. It is considered by some that it throws a shade of emphasis on the adjective to place it after the noun it qualifies, especially when the adjective is the last word in the sentence.)

Examples.--_La malfeliĉa knabo_ (or, _knabo malfeliĉa_) _perdis sian monujon_ = The unfortunate boy lost his purse. _Li renkontis maljunan virinon_ (or, _maljunulinon_), _tre grasan, kiu portis grandan korbon, plenan de maturaj pomoj_ = He met an old woman, very fat, who was carrying a large basket, full of ripe apples.

(_b_). A predicative adjective is usually placed after the verb, and noun or pronoun, to which it relates.

Examples.--_La papero estas blanka_ = The paper is white. _Ili trovis la manĝaĵojn bonaj_ = They found the eatables good. _Mi pensis, ke mi vidas ilin mortigantaj la homon_ = I thought (that) I saw (see) them killing (that they are killing) the man.

N.B.--A predicative adjective does not agree in case, when its noun or pronoun is in the accusative (pars. 69 (_a_), and 108 (_b_)).

(_c_). A possessive adjective usually precedes the word to which it relates. If we wish to speak in an affectionate strain, we can place it after the noun.

Examples.--_Mia patrino kaj miaj gefratoj donis al mi donacon en mia naskotago_ = My mother and my brothers and sisters gave me a present on my birthday. _Ne ploru, patrino mia!_ = Do not weep, mother dear! (_or_, mother mine!). _Johano mia, ne faru tion!_ = John dear, do not do that.

(_d_). A demonstrative adjective usually precedes the word to which it relates.

Examples.--_Tiu sinjorino estas mia fratino_ = That lady is my sister. _Du ŝilingoj ne sufiĉos por aĉeti tiun libron_ = Two shillings will not buy that book.

(_e_). To show emphasis, adjectives can, as in English, be placed first in phrases.

Examples.--_Bona, malavara kaj ĝentila, li estas estimata de ĉiuj_ = Kind, generous and courteous, he was esteemed by all. _Feliĉa estas la homo, kiu ne havas malamikojn_ = Happy is the man who has no enemies.

85. Place of the pronoun.--As in English, a personal pronoun may follow or precede the verb.

Examples.--_"Jes," diris li_ (or, _li diris_), "_vi estas prava_" = "Yes," said he, "you are right." _"Kial," ekkriis la homo, "vi faris tion?"_ = "Why," cried the man, "did you do that?"

86. Place of the verb.--The verb is, as a rule, placed after the subject, but this does not mean that it must follow it immediately, for it can be separated by predicates, complements, and adverbs.

Examples.--_La lingvo Esperanto, kreita de doktoro Zamenhof, estas jam uzata en la tuta mondo civilizita_ = The language Esperanto, created by Dr. Zamenhof, is already used in the whole civilized world. In sentences like the following it is, as in English, often placed before the subject. _"Kien ni iros," diris mi al li, "kiam via amiko alvenos?"_ = "Where shall we go," said I to him, "when your friend arrives (shall arrive)?" _Nun alvenas la horo de la sukceso por la lingvo internacia_ = Now comes the hour of (the) success for the international language. _Aperis sur la monteto la figuro de rajdanto_ = There appeared on the hill the figure of a horseman. (For the place of the Infinitive, see par. 82.)

87. Place of the participle varies as follows:--

(_a_). When forming the compound tenses of verbs, the participle usually follows the auxiliary verb esti, though not necessarily immediately after it (see (_d_)).

Examples.--_Mi estos fininta mian leteron, antaŭ ol li alvenos_ = I shall have finished my letter before he arrives (will arrive). _Ŝi estas tre amata de ĉiuj_ = She is very much loved by all.

(_b_). In a qualifying or predicative sense participles generally follow their noun or pronoun.

Examples.--_Mi vidis lin riproĉeganta kaj batanta la knabon_ = I saw him (that he is) rebuking and beating the boy. _Ĉu tio estas mia hundo ĉasanta ŝafon?_ = Is that my dog chasing a sheep? _La fraŭlino leganta la ĵurnalon estas tre bela_ = The young lady reading the newspaper is very beautiful. _La konstruata domo_ (or, _domo konstruata_) = The house under construction (being constructed). _Mi imagis, ke mi vidas la homon kisanta la virinon_ = I fancied (that) I saw the man kissing (that he is kissing) the woman.

(_c_). An adverbial participle generally precedes its noun or pronoun.

Examples.--_Vidante sian amikon, li haltis_ = (On) seeing his friend, he stopped. _Leginte la libron, ŝi ekdormis_ = After reading (_or_, having read) the book, she fell asleep (par. 212 (_d_)).

(_d_). For emphasis the participle may be put first in a sentence.

Examples.--_Tedita de vojaĝado, mi decidis reveni hejmen_ = Tired of travelling, I decided to return home. _Amataj kaj estimataj de ĉiuj, la fratoj havis multajn amikojn_ = Loved and esteemed by all, the brothers had many friends.

Note.--If qualifying and predicative participles are not placed in their natural position, viz., after their nouns or pronouns, the sense may be entirely changed. For instance, in the following two sentences the words are the same, but the sense varies with their positions:--Ŝi, kuranta en la ĉambron, vidis mian hundon = _She, (who is) running into the room, saw my dog_ (here kuranta is the qualifying participle of ŝi). Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuranta en la ĉambron = _She saw my dog (that he is) running into the room_ (here kuranta is the predicative participle of hundon, and, being predicative, does not take the accusative (see pars. 69 (_a_) and 108 (_b_)). The above two sentences might be altered as follows, showing different meanings, by using in the first an adverbial participle, and in the second a qualifying participle, as:--Kurante en la ĉambron, ŝi vidis mian hundon = _(While) running into the room, she saw my dog_. Ŝi vidis mian hundon kurantan = _She saw my running dog_. A phrase is often clearer if the conjunction ke be used instead of a predicative participle. For instance, instead of Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuranta en la ĉambron, we can say Ŝi vidis, ke mia hundo kuras en la ĉambron = _She saw that my dog was (is) running into the room_; or, Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuri en la ĉambron = _She saw my dog run into the room_.

88. Place of the adverb.--The adverb, as a rule, immediately precedes or follows the word to which it refers, or which it qualifies.

Examples.--_Li rapide kuras_, or, _Li kuras rapide_ = He runs rapidly. _La virino zorge legis_ (or, _legis zorge_) _la leteron_ = The woman read the letter carefully. _Li ĝentile demetis la ĉapelon_ = He politely took off his hat.

N.B.--In this last example it is more elegant to place the adverb, as in English, before the verb.

(_a_). To avoid ambiguity, care, however, must be taken not to place the adverb in a position where it might be taken to refer either to the word which precedes or the word which follows it. For instance, if an adverb be placed between two verbs, it sometimes happens that we cannot tell to which it refers, and the sense is thus materially altered.

Example.--_Li ekstreme deziris saĝiĝi_ = He desired extremely to become wise. _Li deziris saĝiĝi ekstreme_ = He desired to become extremely wise. In this example, if we place the adverb between the two verbs, and say _Li deziris ekstreme saĝiĝi_, the sentence might be translated in either of the above two ways. See also remarks on the use of _ne_ (par. 59 (_a_)). The word _nur_, also, similarly modifies the word it precedes.

(_b_). Adverbs of comparison, such as: iom, multe, kiel, plej, pli, sufiĉe, tiel, tiom, tre, tro, are usually placed before the words to which they refer.

Examples.--_Li iom laciĝis kaj multe senkuraĝiĝis_ = He became somewhat fatigued and much discouraged. _Kiel malavare li agis, donante al sia frato tiom da mono, kiom li bezonis!_ = How generously he acted in giving his brother as much money as he needed! _Li venos pli aŭ malpli frue_ = He will come sooner or later (lit., more or less early). _Vi agis plej saĝe, farante tion_ = You acted most wisely in doing that. _Kio ajn okazos, li estis sufiĉe saĝa por tion fari_ = At all events he was wise enough to do that. _Ŝi tre amis sian fraton_ = She loved her brother very much. _Li tro manĝadas_ = He eats too much.

(_c_). To give emphasis, adverbs and adverbial participles may commence a sentence.

Examples.--_Ĉarme, bele kaj kortuŝe estis vidi la birdon zorgi pri sia ido_ = Charming, beautiful and touching it was to see the bird take care of its offspring. _Starante kun la brakoj etenditaj, li paroladis al la popolamaso_ = Standing with arms outstretched, he harangued the populace (see par. 245 (_a_)).

89. Place of the preposition.--The preposition always immediately precedes its complement.

Examples.--_Skribu al mi_ = Write to me. _Li venis al mia domo kune kun la du hundoj je la tria (horo)_ = He came to my house (to me) along with the two dogs at 3 o'clock.

90. Place of the conjunction.--The conjunction always precedes the verb to which it refers, but separated from it by the words which logically intervene.

Example.--_Se iu hodiaŭ matene deziros min vidi, diru al ĝi, ke mi estas tre okupita_ = If anyone (someone), this morning, should desire to see me, tell him (or her) I am very busy.

N.B.--Note that _iu_ does not give the sex, therefore _ĝi_ is rightly used; but, as in English, the sense would be clear without the words _al ĝi_.

91. Place of the interrogative.--In direct questions the subject usually precedes the verb.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi havas mian libron?_ = Have you my book? In English, in many cases, we place the subject first; for instance, in the present tense we often commence a question with "Do"; in the past, with "Have" or "Did"; in the future, with "Shall" or "Will." If we substitute _Ĉu_ for any of these words, we have the Esperanto construction, as:--_Ĉu vi bezonas tiun plumon?_ = Do you want that pen? _Ĉu vi faris tion?_ = Did you do that? _Ĉu li venos tien ĉi?_ = Will he come here?

92. Place of the negative.--The negative ne = _not_, when it relates directly to a verb, is placed immediately before such verb, but otherwise in its natural position in the clause; i.e., it negatives the word or words it precedes. The negative correlatives nenia, nenial, etc., may be placed in almost any position, according to the emphasis we wish to give to the word.

Examples.--_Mi lin ne vidis_, or, _Mi ne vidis lin_ = I did not see him. _Ĉu vi ne vidis lin?_ or, _Ĉu vi lin ne vidis?_ = Did you not see him? _Mi neniam renkontis ŝin_, or, _Neniam mi renkontis ŝin_, or, _Mi ŝin renkontis neniam_ = I never met her. _Mi volas renkonti ne nur Johanon, sed ankaŭ Georgon_ = I want to meet not only John, but also George.

93. Order very similar to English.--The foregoing remarks show that the order of words in Esperanto is very similar to the English construction of sentences, and we can hardly do wrong if we follow it nearly word for word. A slightly different order in Esperanto sometimes makes an expression more elegant but this is generally owing to harmony of sound rather than grammatical construction.

[In writing _original_ work in Esperanto it is well to cultivate a style as international as possible, and use the normal, simple, and logical order of words. In _translation_ work, when it is desired to reproduce as far as possible the national or individual atmosphere of the original, it is legitimate intentionally to reproduce in the translation--so long as intelligibility is ensured, and as far as the structure of the language permits--the characteristic order of words in the original text. The wonderful flexibility of Esperanto is one of the reasons why Esperanto is such an admirable language for translation purposes.]