Chapter VII: Part II: Grammar (2)

_Johano, legante sian libron, venkiĝis de dormo_ = John, while reading his book, was (became) overcome by sleep.

138. The following are sentences more complicated, showing the advantage of Esperanto over English, or indeed over most national languages, in respect of its great clearness of expression:--

_Petro skribis al Paŭlo, ke li konduku al li sian hundon_ = Peter wrote to Paul to bring him his dog (_sian_ refers to Paul because _li_ = he (Paul) becomes the subject, and _sia_ always, as we have said, refers to the subject of its own particular clause; if, therefore, _lian_ had been the possessive, it would have been Peter's dog.)

_Post kiam la reĝo mortis, lia filo edziĝis kun sia/lia kuzino_ = After the king died, his son married his cousin. Here _sia_ would refer to _filo_, the son's cousin, but _lia_ to _reĝo_, the king's cousin.

_Mia patrino petis sian filinon, ke ŝi donu al sia/ŝia fratino sian/ŝian libron._ This sentence in English, whichever of the possessives be used, would be "My mother requested her daughter to give (that she give) to her sister her book." Now the mother is the first subject in this sentence, therefore _sian filinon_ is the mother's daughter (_ŝian_ would mean someone else's daughter). But afterwards _ŝi_ (the daughter) becomes the subject, therefore _sia fratino_ would be the daughter's sister, and _ŝia fratino_ the mother's. For the remainder of the sentence _ŝi_ (the daughter) still remains the subject, therefore _sian libron_ would be the daughter's book, and _ŝian libron_ the sister's or the mother's book. _Ties libron_ would definitely specify it as the sister's book.

138 (_a_). From the examples given in paragraphs 128, 135, 136, and 138, we see that the reflexive pronoun si and the possessive sia always refer to the _subject_ (noun or pronoun) of _their own_ clause.

(_b_). Si and sia are likewise used when the noun or pronoun to which they refer is not expressed, but only understood.

Example.--_Tio estas nova metodo brosi sian_ (or, _la_) _ĉapelon!_ = That is a new method of brushing one's hat!

(_c_). Phrases introduced by an infinitive or a participle may be regarded as new sentences, the subject of which is mentally supplied: i.e., the infinitive or the participle may be expanded to make the full sentence implied.

Examples of Infinitive.--_Estas bone ne trompi_ (_ke oni ne trompu_) _sin_ = It is well not to deceive oneself. _La patrino lasis Marion legi_ (_ke ŝi legu_) _sian libron_ (Mary's book); _ŝian libron_ (the mother's book). _La oficiro petis Aŭguston rigardi_ (_ke li rigardu_) _lin_ (him) _sin_ (himself). _La patro petis sian filon, helpi_ (_ke la filo helpu_) _sian_ (the son's) _amikon_; _lian_ (the father's) _amikon_.

Examples of Participle.--_La reĝo ordonis, ke ĉiuj renkontante_ (_kiam ili renkontis_) _lin, eliru. La princo montris viron, starantan post li. La knabo vidis siajn fratinojn, ludantajn_ (_kiuj ludas_) _per sia_ (their own) _pupo_--_per lia_ (with his) _pupo. La reĝo forveturis, ne sciiginte_ (_kaj ne sciigis_) _sian ministron pri sia_ (the king's) _devo_--_pri lia_ (the minister's) _devo._

(_d_). Boirac names _lia_, _ŝia_, _ĝia_, etc., the direct or normal form of the pronoun, "_La rekta formo_," and _sia_ the secondary or accessory form, "_flanka kaj akcesora_." He points out that where the use of the normal form could cause no possible ambiguity, the use of the reflexive form, though always advisable if justified by rule, is nevertheless not _obligatory_. It is even possible, as shown by Millidge, that the non-use of si may in some cases be felt to be somewhat clearer than its use, e.g., "_La Ĥino legas siajn skribajn signojn en sia dialekto, kaj la aliaj popoloj de Azio legas tiujn samajn signojn en ilia_ (instead of _sia_) _lingvo_ (_F.K._, p. 258). In any case it is better, in case of doubt, to use the normal form. It is worse to use the reflexive form when it should not be used, than to omit it when it might be used.

CORRELATIVE WORDS. (Korelativaj Vortoj.)

139. The 45 correlative words (see table, par. 147) form a very important part in the construction of the Esperanto language. Their uses and meanings are very easily learnt and remembered, since they have been exceedingly cleverly devised on a simple and uniform plan. They are all to be found in the list of Primary Words given in Part V.

140. They consist of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs. Many of them can be applied to denote not only one word, but also expressions which require several English words to define clearly.

141. The words in the table (par. 147) are placed in series horizontally and vertically. All the words in each of the vertical series commence with the same letter, and all in each horizontal series have the same termination. It will be seen that the letter _I_ is the first letter in the first vertical series, and that this is a central letter in each of the other words in the table. The first letter of a word conveys an idea of its meaning, and the terminal letters following _I_ show how that idea is applied, and consequently the full meaning of the word.

(_a_). The initial letters convey the following ideas:--

I- that the word is "indefinite."
Ĉ- that the word is "distributive" or "collective."
K- that the word is "interrogative" or "relative."
NEN- that the word is "negative" (nen- = ne, _not_,
and _N_ added for euphony).
T- that the word is "demonstrative."

(_b_). The terminal letters following _I_ denote that the idea is to be applied, in accordance with the termination, as follows:--

-A in relation to "quality" or "the kind of" (adjectival).
-AL in relation to "motive" or "reason for" (adverbial).
-AM in relation to "time" (adverbial).
-E in relation to "place" (adverbial).
-EL in relation to "manner" (adverbial).
-ES in relation to "possession" (pronominal).
-O in relation to "a thing" (substantival or pronominal).
-OM in relation to "quantity" or "number of" (adverbial).
-U in relation to "person" or "thing specified". (pronominal or adjectival).

142. The correlative words are all complete in themselves, but some of them can be used as root-words, taking grammatical terminations when required by the sense to be conveyed. Those ending in the vowels _A_, _E_, _O_, _U_, must not _necessarily_ be presumed to be the parts of speech these letters indicate; the letters are not _grammatical_ terminations, they simply show, as before stated, how the idea conveyed in the preceding letters is to be applied. Those ending in a vowel all take the accusative _N_, and those ending in _A_ and _U_ also take the plural _J_.

Theoretically it is possible for the words ending in _O_ also to take the plural _J_; but in practice this is seldom useful.

143. The demonstrative pronouns, tio = _that_ (thing), tiu = _that one_, _the former_, and sometimes ĉio, are followed by the separate word ĉi = _near_, to express the demonstrative pronoun, "this." Ĉi is invariable, but tio and tiu can be inflected as before stated. Thus tio = _that_ (thing), tio ĉi = _this_ (thing) (lit., "that here"), tion ĉi (accusative) = _this_ (thing). Tiu = _that one_, _the former_, tiu ĉi = _this one_, _the latter_. Tiuj = _those_, tiuj ĉi = _these_ (lit., "those here"). Often ĉi is placed first, as:--Ĉi tiu = _this one_. In fact, other things being equal, it is preferable to place ĉi before rather than after the t- word, though both forms are equally correct. Ĉio ĉi = _all this_.

144. The adverb, tie = _there_, is also followed by ĉi to denote "here." Thus tie = _there_, tie ĉi = _here_, tien (accusative) = _thither_, tien ĉi = _hither_. Occasionally ĉi is placed first, thus: ĉi tie, ĉi tien.

145. The interrogative or relative series (viz., those commencing with _K_) may be followed by the word ajn = _ever_, as kia ajn = _whatever kind of_, kial ajn = _for whatever reason_, kiam ajn = _whenever_, kie ajn = _wherever_, kiel ajn = _however_, kies ajn = _whosesoever_, kio ajn = _whatever_, kiom ajn = _however much_, _whatever quantity_, kiu ajn = _whoever_, _whichever_.

Some writers use ajn after other correlatives, but Dr. Zamenhof himself has rarely used it except after the series _kia_, _kial_, etc. However, he does not say it is wrong to extend its use, for when asked the question whether it could be employed after the series _ia_, _ial_, etc., he replied that it could, because, in Esperanto, any word could be combined with any other. See par. 158 (_c_) (_d_).

146. Grammatical terminations and suffixes may be added to the correlatives if required, thus making them nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc., as shown in the following examples. The hyphens are given to show the construction of the words, but should not be used in writing.

_Ĉiam-a_ = Everlasting, continual. _Ĉiam-e_ = Everlastingly, forever. _Ĉie-a_ = Of everywhere. _Ĉi-tie-a_ (_ĉi tiea_) = Of here. _Tie-a_ = Of there. _Ĉi-tie-ulo_ (_ĉi tieulo_) = A man of this place. _Tie-ulo_ = A man of that place. _Kiom-a_ = Of what quantity. _Kioma horo estas?_ = What time is it? _Neni-igi_ = To reduce to nothing, to destroy completely. _Neni-iĝi_ = To become nothing, to vanish. _Tiam-a_ = Of then, of that time. _Tiam-ulo_ = A man of that time, a contemporary. _La kial-o_ = The why and wherefore, the reason (cause). _Tiel-e_ = In that way.

147. TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.

Indefinite. Distributive, Interrogative Negative. Demonstrative.
General or and Relative.
Collective.

Quality IA ĈIA KIA NENIA TIA
Kind of some (any) kind every kind of what kind of? no kind of that kind of
(adjectival) or sort of every of what kind? no, no such such a
some (any) of every kind what a! of no kind of that kind
of some kind ... as (not any
kind of)

Motive IAL ĈIAL KIAL NENIAL TIAL
Reason for for some (any) for every for what for no for that
(adverbial) reason or cause reason/cause reason/cause reason/cause reason/cause
for all why? wherefore therefore
reasons

Time IAM ĈIAM KIAM NENIAM TIAM
(adverbial) at some always at what time? at no time at that time
(any) time every time when never then
ever for all time
once ever

Place IE ĈIE KIE NENIE TIE
(adverbial) in some in every place in what place in no place in that place
(any) place everywhere where nowhere there
somewhere (not yonder
(anywhere) anywhere)

Manner IEL ĈIEL KIEL NENIEL TIEL
(adverbial) in some (in) every in what in no in that
manner/way manner/way manner/way manner/way manner/way
somehow (in) every way how? nohow thus, so,
(anyhow) all ways ... as by no means like (that)
(in any manner) like not at all as ...
in such a manner

Possession IES ĈIES KIES NENIES TIES
(pronominal) somebody's everybody's whose no one's that one's
(someone's) everyone's of which nobody's of that
(anyone's) each one's of none of those
of each, of all

Thing IO ĈIO KIO NENIO TIO
(not specified) something everything what (thing) nothing that (thing)
(substantival (anything) all things which not anything
or pronominal) all

Quantity IOM ĈIOM KIOM NENIOM TIOM
(adverbial) some quantity every quantity what quantity no quantity that quantity
somewhat all, the whole how much none so much/many
rather, some all of it how many none at all as much/many
a little,
at all
(any)

Individuality IU ĈIU KIU NENIU TIU
Person or thing some one each one, each which one no one that one
(pronominal or (anyone) everybody who, he who nobody the former
adjectival) _ĉiuj_=all, which, that
all the ...

Examples of the Use of Correlative Words.

148. In the following examples (pars. 149-157) we have taken the correlative words in the table in the nine horizontal series, since in this way we can best show how some of the words are used in pairs.

149. Series ending in A (quality, kind of), adjectival.

Ia = _some sort of_, _some_, _a_, _an_.

Ĉia = _every_ (_each_) _kind of_, _every sort of_.

Kia = _what a_! _what kind of_? _of what kind_, _... as_.

Nenia = _no_, _no such_, _no kind of_, _of no kind_, _not any kind of_.

Ia ajn, _of any kind_ (_whatever_).

Tia = _such a_, _that kind of_, _of that kind_.

Tia ... kia = _such ... as_.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi ne havas ian libron, kiu klarigos tion?_ = Have you not some book which will explain that?

_Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari_ = I have some (_or_, an) idea how to do it.

_Ekster ĉia dubo_ = Beyond any (every sort of) doubt.

_Tiaj frazoj troviĝas en ĉiaj libroj_ = Such (kind of) phrases are found in all kinds (sorts) of (_or_, in any) books.

_Ni ne scias, kiel ili fariĝis tiaj, kiaj ili estas_ = We do not know how they became what (such as) they are.

_Nenia antaŭa sperto estas necesa_ = No (kind of) previous experience is necessary.

_Tian virinon oni ĉiam estimas_ = Such a woman one always esteems.

_Mi donis al li la libron tian, kia ĝi estas_ = I gave him the book such as it was.

_Kiun aĝon li havas?_ = How old is he? (what age has he?)

_Kia estas la vetero?_ = How (what kind) is the weather?

_Komencante de (k)ia ajn momento_ = Commencing at any (whatever) moment.

_Kia bela domo!_ = What a beautiful house!

_Kiaj estas la kondiĉoj?_ = What are the stipulations (or terms)?

_Ili estas fieraj, ni ne estas tiaj_ = They are proud, we are not so.

_Ŝi eksentis ion tian, kion ŝi mem komence ne povis kompreni_ = She began to feel something such as she herself at first could not understand.

_Mi ĵus eksciis iajn aferojn, kiuj ne plaĉas al mi_ = I have just learnt some things that do not please me (that I do not like).

_Jen estas la monumento tia, kian oni priskribis_ = Here is the monument such as they described.

_Via aĝo estas tia sama, kiel tiu de via frato_ = Your age is the same as your brother's.

N.B.--Do not confuse the series ending in _A_ with that ending in _U_.

Examples.--_Kian libron vi bezonas?_ = What (sort of) book do you want? _Kiun libron vi bezonas?_ = What (_or_ which) book do you want? _Tia homo_ = Such a man, that sort of man. _Tiu homo_ = That man. _Ĉiaj libroj_ = All (kinds of) books. _Ĉiuj libroj_ = All (_or_, all the) books. _Mi ĝin prenos, kia ajn ĝi estas_ = I shall take it whatever (sort of thing) it is.

150. Series ending in AL (motive, reason for), adverbial.

Ial = _for some reason or cause_ (_for any reason_)

Ĉial = _for all reasons_, _for every reason_, _for every cause_.

Ial ajn, _for any reason_ (_whatever_).

Kial = _why?_ _wherefore_, _for what reason_.

Nenial = _for no reason, or cause_.

Tial = _therefore_, _for that reason_.

Examples.--_Ial li subite forlasis Londonon_ = For some reason he suddenly left London.

_Ĉial tio estas la plej bona_ = For every reason that is the best.

_Kial vi ne respondis?_ = Why did you not answer?

_Li nenial ĉesis skribi al mi_ = He for no reason ceased writing to me.

_Ŝi neniam volis sekvi mian konsilon, tial mi forlasis ŝin_ = She never would follow my advice, therefore I forsook her.

_Mi ne povas imagi kial ajn li ĝin faris_ = I cannot imagine why ever he did it.

151. Series ending in AM (time), adverbial.

Iam = _ever_, _at some time_ (_any time_), _once_, _one day_, _once upon a time_.

Ĉiam = _always_, _for all time_, _ever_, _at every time_.

Kiam = _when_, _at what time_, _as_ (relating to time).

Neniam = _never_, _at no time_.

Tiam = _then_, _at that time_.

Examples.--_Se iam mi venos_ = If ever I come (shall come).

_Ĉiam skribu legeble_ = Always write legibly.

_En tiaj okazoj ĉiam mankas io_ = On such occasions something is always wanting.

_Kiam vi skribis tiel?_ = When did you write like that (thus)?

_Kiam la pastro venos, diru al li la veron_ = When the priest comes (shall come), tell him the truth.

_Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa_, or, _Kiam mi estis riĉa, tiam mi ne estis feliĉa_ = At that time when (_or_, when) I was rich I was not happy, _or_, When I was rich then I was not happy, or the sentence might be simply _Kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa_ = When I was rich I was not happy.

_Mi neniam skribas longajn leterojn_ = I never write long letters.

_Mi neniam aŭdis tion_ = I never heard that.

_Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos_ = Send him to me whenever he comes.

_Kiam ajn li venos?_ = Whenever will he come?

N.B.--Kiam is used after tiam, and any word denoting "time" except antaŭ = _before_, when ol is generally used, though kiam is used occasionally after antaŭ also (see par. 259 (3)).

Examples.--_Unutage, kiam_ = One day, when. _Iun tagon, kiam_ = On a day, when. _Tuj kiam_ = As soon as, immediately when. _Samtempe, kiam_ = At the same time, when. _De l' tempo kiam_ = From the time when, since. _Post kiam_ = After. _Antaŭ ol li venis_ = Before he came.

152. Series ending in E (place), adverbial.

Ie = _somewhere_ (_anywhere_), _in some_ (_any_) _place_.

Ĉie = _everywhere_, _in every place_, _in all places_.

Ie ajn, _anywhere_ (_whatever_).

Kie = _where_, _in what place_, _in which place_.

Tie = _there_, _yonder_, _in that place_. Ĉi tie or tie ĉi = _here_, _in this place_.

Examples.--_Mi ne povis trovi mian libron ie en la ĉambro_ = I could _not_ find my book _any_where in the room.

_Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien?_ = Did you put it anywhere (somewhere)?

_Ĉie mi trovis amikojn_ = Everywhere I found friends.

_Tion oni povas aĉeti ĉie_ = That can be bought (one can buy) anywhere (everywhere).

_Kien vi iras?_ = Where are you going?

_Mi iras nenien_ = I am going nowhere.

_Kie estas la poŝtoficejo?_ = Where is the post office?

_Ĝi estas tie, kie staras tiu domo_ = It is there where that house stands.

_Kien vi iras?_ = Whither are you going?

_Mi iras tien_ = I am going thither.

_Ĉu vi estas ĉi tie?_ = Are you here?

_Li venas ĉi tien_ = He is coming here.

_Kie ajn li estas?_ = Wherever is he?

_Kie ajn li estas, li ne estas tie ĉi_ = Wherever he is, he is not here.

153. Series in EL (manner), adverbial.

Iel--_somehow_ (_anyhow_), _in some way_, _in some manner_.

Iel ajn, _in any way_ (_whatever_).

Ĉiel = _in every way_, _in every manner_, _in all ways_.

Kiel = _how_, _in what manner_, _like_, ... _as_.

Neniel = _nohow_, _in no manner_, _not at all_, _by no means_.

Tiel = _thus_, _in that manner_, _like_ (_that_), _so_, _as_ ...

Tiel ... kiel (in comparison) = _as ... as_; _so ... as_.

Examples.--_Iel li ĉiel sukcesas_ = Somehow he succeeds in every way.

_Mi havis nenian ideon, kiel ĝin fari_ = I had no idea how to do it.

_Kiel vi fartas?_ = How do you do? _or_, How are you?

_Ŝi neniel povis lin kompreni tiel longe, kiel li parolis la lingvon francan_ = She could nohow (_or_, not at all) understand him as long as he spoke in the French language.

_Same kiel la prudento estas donita al la homo, tiel la instinkto estas donita al la besto_ = Just as reason has been given to man, so instinct has been given to beasts.

_Kaj tiel plu_ (often written _k.t.p._) = And so on, and so forth.

_Kiel eble plej baldaŭ (k.e.p.b.)_ = As soon as possible.

_Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi_ = He is as strong as you.

_Kiel ajn malmulte_ = However little.

154. Series ending in ES (possession), pronominal; relate to thing or person, singular or plural.

Ies = _somebody's_, _someone's_ (_anyone's_, _anybody's_).

Ĉies = _everyone's_, _each one's_, _of each_, _of all_.

Kies = _whose_, _of whom_, _of which_.

Nenies = _no one's_, _nobody's_, _of none_.

Ties = _that one's_, _of that_, _of those_.

Examples.--_Ĉies devo estas nenies_ = Anybody's (everybody's) duty is nobody's.

_Ies perdo ne estas ĉiam ies gajno_ = Someone's loss is not always somebody's gain.

_Ĉies ideo estis diversa_ = Everyone's idea was different.

_Kies libro estas tiu ĉi?_ = Whose book is this?

_Kies plumon vi uzas?_ = Whose pen are you using?

_La domo, kies tegmenton vi vidas, apartenas al mia patro_ = The house the roof of which you see belongs to my father.

_El kies ĉiuj paŝoj, oni povas konkludi, ke ili estas lacaj_ = From all of whose steps we can conclude that they are tired.

_Tiu libro estas tre malpura, kies ajn ĝi estas_ = That book is very dirty, whosesoever it is.

_Ties opinio ne multe valoras_ = That one's opinion is not worth much.

_Mi neniam sekvas ties konsilon_ = I never take (follow) that one's (his, her, their) advice.

N.B.--Be careful not to use _kies_ for "of which," when these words do not mean possession. We cannot say _La afero kies ni parolis_ for "The affair of which we spoke"; we must say _La afero, pri kiu ni parolis_.

155. Series ending in O (thing (not specified) indefinite), substantival or pronominal.

Io = _something_.

Io ajn, _anything_ (_whatever_).

Ĉio = _everything_, _all things_, _all_.

Kio = _what_ (_thing_), _which_.

Nenio = _nothing_, _not any thing_.

Tio = _that_ (_thing_). Ĉi tio or tio ĉi = _this_ (_thing_).

Examples.--_Kio estas tio, kion vi skribas?_ = What is that (_or_, that which) you are writing?

_Io estis sub la tablo, sed mi ne povis vidi ion tie_ = Something was under the table, but I could not see anything (something) there.

_Li vidis ion, kion li tre amis_ = He saw something he liked very much.

_Estas tempo por ĉio_ = There is a time for everything.

_Ĉio_ (_tio_) _ĉi montras, ke_ ... = All this shows that ...

_Ĉio, kion mi havas, estas_ (_la_) _via_ = All I have is yours.

_Kio estas tio ĉi, kion mi vidas?_ = What is this that I see?

_Nenio estas preta_ = Nothing is ready.

_Mi nenion trovis_ = I found nothing.

_Tio havas malbonan odoron, kio ajn ĝi estas_ = It (that) has a bad smell, whatever it is.

_Li ne diris eĉ unu vorton pri ĉio tio ĉi_ (or, _ĉio ĉi_) _al iu_ = He did not say even one word about all this to anyone.

156. Series ending in OM (quantity), adverbial.

Iom = _somewhat_, _some quantity_, _rather_, _a little_, _some_.

Ĉiom = _all_, _all of it_, _the whole_, _every quantity_.

Kiom = _how much_, _how many_, _what quantity_.

Neniom = _none_, _none at all_, _no quantity_.

Tiom = _so much_, _so many_, _as much_, _as many_, _that quantity_.

Tiom ... kiom = _as much_ (_many_) ... _as_.

Examples.--_La vetero estas iom pli varma_ = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer.

_Jen estas sukero, prenu iom, sed ne ĉiom_ = Here is sugar, take some, but not all (the whole).

_Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas?_ = How many horses have you?

_Mi havas neniom_ = I have none (none at all).

_Tiom pli bone_ = So much the better.

_Tiom estas malfacile memori_ = So much is difficult to remember.

_Donu al mi tiom da akvo, kiom da vino_ = Give me as much water as wine.

_Kiom vi scias_ = As far (much) as you know.

_Kiom eble_ = As far (much) (many) as possible.

_Kiom ajn da teo tiu kesto povas enhavi, tiu ĉi povas enhavi duoble tiom_ = Whatever quantity (however much) of tea that chest will (can) hold, this one will hold twice as much.

157. Series ending in U (persons or specified things), pronominal or adjectival.

Iu = _someone_, _somebody_.

Iu ajn, _anyone (whatever)_.

Ĉiu = _everyone_, _each one_. Ĉiuj = _all_, _all (of) the_....

Kiu = _who_, _which_, _that_, _which one_.

Neniu = _nobody_, _no one_, _no_.

Tiu = _that (one)_, _the former_. Ĉi tiu, or tiu ĉi = _this one_, _the latter_. Tiuj, _those_; Ĉi tiuj, _these_.

Examples.--_Iu estas tie_ = Someone is there.

_Mi ne vidis iun_ = I did not see anyone (someone).

_Ĉiu aĝo havas siajn devojn_ = Each age has its duties.

_Ŝi legis ĉiun libron, kiun ŝi povis ricevi_ = She read every book she could get.

_Kiu estas en la ĝardeno?_ = Who is in the garden?

_Mi konis ĉiun viron, kiun mi renkontis_ = I knew every man whom I met.

_Mi legis ĉiujn librojn, kiujn vi pruntis al mi_ = I read all the books that you lent to me.

_Tiu pano estas freŝa, sed tiu ĉi estas pli freŝa_ = That bread is new, but this is newer.

_Tiu, kiu havas la harojn nigrajn_ = He who has the black hair.

_Neniu estis tie, tial mi vidis neniun_ = No one was there, therefore I saw nobody.

_Tiu homo, kiu ajn li estas, ne estas malsaĝulo_ = That man, whoever he is, is not a fool.

_Ŝi fariĝis edzino de iu bankiero, kiun ŝi konis pli bone, ol_ ĉiun _alian_ = She became wife of a certain (someone, a) banker, whom she knew better than _any_one (everyone) else.

Ĉiu _vorto povas esti kombinata kun ĉiu alia_ = Any (each) word can be combined with _any_ (each) other word.

_Li pli sincere malĝojis je li, ol_ (k)iu _ajn el liaj parencoj_ = He was more sincerely sorry for him, than _any_ of his relations.

_La pafilo povos en_ ĉiu _tempo (ĉiam) esti ŝargita_ = The gun can be (will be able to be) loaded at _any_ time.

_Li ne permesos al_ (k)iu ajn _tion fari_ = He will not allow _anyone_ (whatever) to do that (see par. 158 (_d_)).

158. General Remarks.--The foregoing remarks on the correlative words show the importance of a correct knowledge of their true meanings. Twenty or more of them will be found in nearly every page of the "Krestomatio." Note the following difference in meaning of those ending in:--

(_a_). -_AL_ and -_EL_. It will be noticed that the series _AL_ represent phrases in English commencing with "for," as:--"for some reason," "for every reason," etc.; whereas in the series _EL_ the phrases commence with "in," as:--"in some way," "in every way." Bear in mind that -_AL_ relates to _motive_, and -_EL_ to _manner_. Note the difference of meaning in tial and tiel when followed by ke. Tial, ke = _for the reason that_, _forasmuch as_, _because that_. Tiel, ke = _in such a manner that_, _so that_. Some beginners seem to think that kial and kiel have no difference in meaning, which is equivalent to using "why" and "how" indiscriminately. Kial li faras tion? = _Why_ (_for what reason_) _is he doing that?_ Kiel li faras tion? = _How_ (_in what way_) _is he doing that?_

(_b_). -_O_ and -_U_. The series _O_ is rarely used in the plural; it relates to things which are not mentioned by name or referred to by a personal pronoun. _Examples_.--Kio estas tio? = _What is that?_ Kiu estas tiu? = _Who is that?_ Tiu estas mia frato, kiu promenadas kun sia edzino = _That is my brother who is walking with his wife._ Tio estas, kion mi bezonis = _That is what I wanted._ Tio, kio kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas arbo = _That which is growing in my garden is a tree._ Tiu arbo, kiu kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas kverko = _That tree, which is growing in my garden, is an oak._

Tio is sometimes used for "it," relating to both persons and things, as:--_Tio_ (or, _ĝi_) _estis mi, kiu lin vidis_ = It was I who saw him. _Tio estas ponto_ = It (that) is a bridge.

(_c_). -_I_: "_ANY_" (= _SOME_). It will be seen from the table of Correlative Words on pages 98, 99, that the words in the column commencing with _I_ have as their main idea _indefiniteness_, corresponding to the English _some_ (_or other_). Thus: Li estas ie = _he is somewhere_ (_or other_). Mi manĝos ion = _I shall eat something_ (_or other_). Iu faris tion = _Someone_ (_or other_) _did that._

In English, especially in a sentence which is negative, interrogative, or suppositional, the word _any_ is often used in this sense instead of the word _some_. In such cases (as shown in brackets in the table) the i- words may be translated with _any_; thus: Ĉu vi manĝis ion? = _Did you eat anything_ (_something_)_?_ Mi ne manĝos ion = _I shall not eat anything._ Se li estus ie en la ĉambro = _If he were anywhere_ (_somewhere_) _in the room._ Ĉu iu faris tion? = _Did anyone_ (_someone_) _do that?_ Mi ne konas iun, kiu povus = _I do not know anyone who could._ Se iu faris tion = _If anyone did that_....

(_d_). "_ANY_" (= _ANY WHATEVER_). Sometimes, however, the word _any_ is used not with the meaning of _some_ (as in the preceding paragraph), but with the meaning _any whatever_. Take, for example, the questions: _What will you eat for breakfast? Where shall we go?_ The answers might be: _Oh, anything_ (_you like_, _it doesn't matter what_); and _Anywhere_ (_you like_). This meaning of _any_ (_any whatever_) may be expressed in various ways: (1) By a k-word followed by ajn, thus: Kion ajn, Kien ajn (the words vi volas or similar words being understood). (2) By an i-word followed by ajn, thus: Ion ajn, Ien ajn. Method 1 is usually adopted by Zamenhof, but method 2 is increasingly used. (3) Sometimes a ĉ-word may be used. Thus, the sentence: _Anyone could do that_, may be translated: Kiu ajn (or, Iu ajn, or, Ĉiu) povus tion fari.

(_e_). _AJN_. The word ajn is used not only as shown in the preceding paragraph, but also after the k-series, to correspond to the English _-ever_ (see par. 248 (_b_)). It is also occasionally used with the ĉ-series and the nen-series, thus: Mi serĉis lin ĉie ajn = _I looked for him absolutely everywhere._ Li estas nenie ajn = _He was nowhere at all, absolutely nowhere._

THE VERB (La Verbo).

159. There are no irregular verbs in Esperanto. Every verb is conjugated exactly the same.

160. The following are the grammatical terminations of all verbs, from which it will be seen that there are only three tenses (see pars. 214-236), three moods (see pars. 171-202), and six participles (see pars. 203-213).

TENSES. (Indicative Mood.)

-AS, Present, as: Mi faras = _I do_, or, _make_.
-IS, Past, as: Vi faris = _you did_, or, _have_ (or, _had) done_.
-OS, Future, as: Ili faros = _they will do_.

CONDITIONAL, or US MOOD.

-US, as: Se mi farus = _if I did_, or, _should_ (or, _would) do_, or, _were to do._

IMPERATIVE, or U MOOD.

-U, as: Diru al li, ke li tion faru = _tell him to do that_ (lit., _that he do that_). Ni faru tion = _let us do that_.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

-I, as: Fari = _to do_.

PARTICIPLES.

-ANTA, Active, Present, as: Faranta = _doing_.
Farante (adv.) = _in_ (_when_, or, other prep.) _doing_.

-INTA, Active, Past, as: Farinta = _having done_.
Farinte (adv.) = _in having done_.

-ONTA, Active, Future, as: Faronta = (_being_) _about to do._
Faronte (adv.) = _on being about to do_.

-ATA, Passive, Present, as: Farata = _being done_, or, _done_.
Farate (adv.) = _on being done_.

-ITA, Passive, Past, as: Farita = _been done_, or, _having been done_.
Farite (adv.) = _on having been done_.

-OTA, Passive, Future, as: Farota = (_being_) _about to be done_.
Farote (adv.) = _on being about to be done_.

N.B.--For examples of the noun-participles see par. 209.

CLASSES OF VERBS.

There are two classes of verbs--transitive and intransitive.

Transitive Verbs (_transitivaj verboj_).

161. A transitive verb has two forms or voices, the active and the passive.

(_a_). A verb is in the active voice when the subject is acting upon the object. The object then, being governed by the verb, must be in the accusative case; as:--Johano batis la hundon = _John beat the dog_. Here Johano is the subject acting upon hundon, the object; therefore hundon is in the accusative.

(_b_). A transitive verb is in the passive voice when the subject is acted upon; as:--La hundo estis batata de Johano = _The dog was (being) beaten by John_. The preposition "by" or "with," preceding the complement of a verb in the passive voice, is de or per. De is used for the agent, and per for the means or manner, as:--La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = _The house built by my father is (having been) covered with slates_.

Intransitive Verbs (_netransitivaj verboj_).

162. An intransitive verb expresses an action confined to the actor, as:--Johano dormas = _John sleeps_, or, _is sleeping_. Intransitive verbs have therefore no object and no passive voice.

Auxiliary Verb (_helpa verbo_).

163. There is but one auxiliary verb in Esperanto, esti = _to be_. This verb is used to form the passive voice, and also all the compound tenses of the active voice. The verb havi = _to have_ is in no sense an auxiliary, but is an ordinary active verb denoting ownership, and governing the accusative case, as: Mi havas libron = _I have a book_.

In Esperanto the following and other verbs are often used where English would usually employ "to be," viz., kuŝi = _to lie_; sidi = to be situate; sin trovi = _to find oneself_; troviĝi = _to be found_; stari = _to stand_; farti, or, stati = _to be_ (_well_ or _ill_).

Examples.--_La krajono kuŝas (estas) sur la tablo_ = The pencil is (lies) on the table. _Sur la kameno staris (estis) fera kaldrono, en kiu sin trovis (estis) bolanta akvo; tra la fenestro, kiu sin trovis (estis) apud la pordo, la vaporo iris sur la korton_ = On the hearth was (stood) an iron kettle, in which was (found itself) boiling water; through the window, which was near the door, steam went out into (on to) the yard. _Kiel statas via tuso?_ = How is your cough?

Impersonal Use of Verbs.

164. Verbs used impersonally (_senpersone_) express a fact or action without indicating any person as the subject or actor. In English they are used only in the third person singular, preceded by "it," but in Esperanto they are entirely impersonal. The following are cases of their impersonal use:--

(_a_). Verbs which relate to the weather.

Examples.--_Pluvas_ = It rains. _Pluvos_ = It will rain. _Fulmis_ = It lightened. _Neĝus_ = It would snow. _Hajlis_ = It hailed.

(_b_). Verbs which are generally used with the subject expressed, but occasionally without.

Examples.--_Okazas_ = It happens. _Ŝajnos_ = It will seem. _Prosperis al mi trovi_ = It was my fortune to find.

(_c_). The verb esti = to be, when used with an adjective-adverb, or passive participle-adverb.

Examples.--_Estas pli bone forkuri_ = It is better to run away. _Estas dirite, ke_ ... = It is said that ...

(_d_). In the compound tenses the participle takes the adverbial form, since there is no noun or pronoun with which it can agree (see par. 245).

Examples.--_Se estus pluvinte hieraŭ, ni ne estus povintaj eliri_ = If it had (should have) rained yesterday, we should not have been able to go out. _Mi tondigos la herbon, kiam estos pluvinte_ = I shall get the grass cut, when it has (will have) rained.

Reflexive Verbs (_refleksivaj verboj_).

165. Reflexive verbs show the action of the subject on itself. They are used only when the subject really acts on itself, and not, as in many other languages, on other occasions (see par. 128 on the use of the reflexive pronoun si, and par. 170, conjugation of a reflexive verb).

Examples.--_Mi lavas min_ = I wash myself. _Li lavis sin_ = He washed himself. _Vi razos vin_ = You will shave yourself. _Ili vestis sin_ = They dressed themselves.

166. When there are more subjects than one, and the act goes from one to another of the subjects, the word reciproke, or the expression unu la alian, may be used. With the latter the personal pronoun is not repeated.

Examples.--_Ili batis sin reciproke_, or, _Ili batis unu la alian_ = They beat one another. _Ili ĵetis terbulojn al la kapo unu de la alia_ = They threw clods (lumps of earth) at one another's heads.

167. CONJUGATION OF ESTI.

The following are the simple tenses and moods of esti, by the aid of which all the _compound_ tenses in the active voice and _all_ the tenses in the passive voice of every verb in Esperanto are formed. The compound tenses of esti, such as mi estas estanta = _I am being_, etc., are very rarely used.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Esti = _to be_.

PARTICIPLES.

Present, Estanta = being.
Past, Estinta = _been_, or, _having been_.
Future, Estonta = _about to be_, or, _going to be_.

Note that participles take the plural _J_ and accusative _N_ if required (see par. 207); also the adverbial _E_ (see par. 209 (_c_)).

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

Mi estas = _I am._
Vi, ci estas = _You (thou) are (art)._
Li, ŝi, ĝi, oni estas = _He_, _she_, _it_, _one is_.
Ni estas = _We are._
Vi estas = _You are._
Ili estas = _They are._

N.B.--The pronoun ci = _thou_ is rarely used.

Past.

Mi estis = _I was._
Vi estis = _You were._
Li, etc. estis = _He was._
Ni estis = _We were._
Vi estis = _You were._
Ili estis = _They were._

Future.

Singular. Mi estos = _I shall be._
Vi estos = _You will be._
Li, etc. estos = _He will be._
Plural. Ni estos = _We shall be._
Vi estos = _You will be._
Ili estos = _They will be._

CONDITIONAL MOOD.

The Conditional or US mood has no tenses (see par. 192). We can show its meaning best by using the conjunction se, which frequently introduces it. It has no time value in itself, and may relate to the past, present, or future.

Sing. (Se) Mi estus = _(If) I should be_, _were_, _had been_.
(Se) Vi estus = _(If) you would_, _were_, _had been_.
(Se) Li, etc. estus = _(If) he would_, _were_, _had been_.
Plural. (Se) Ni estus = _(If) we would_, _were_, _had been_.
(Se) Vi estus = _(If) you would_, _were_, _had been_.
(Se) Ili estus = _(If) they would_, _were_, _had been_.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

The imperative or U mood has no tenses.

The following is its form and meaning in a chief proposition (see par. 199).

Singular. Mi estu = _Let me be._
Estu = _Be_, or, _be you_, or, _be thou_.
Li, ŝi, ĝi, estu = _Let him_, _her_, _it be_.
Plural. Ni estu = _Let us be._
Estu = _Be_, or, _be you_, or, _be ye_.
Ili estu = _Let them be_.

The following is its meaning in a dependent proposition, which is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = _that_ (par. 200).

Sing. (Ke) Mi estu = _(That) I_ }
(Ke) Vi estu = (That) _you_ }
(Ke) Li, etc. estu = (That) _he_ }(_may_, _might_, _should_) _be_.
Plural. (Ke) Ni estu = (That) _we_ }
(Ke) Vi estu = (That) _you_ }
(Ke) Ili estu = (That) _they_ }

168. CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB.

The conjugation of the compound forms is given in par. 169. When simple forms sufficiently convey the meaning, they are preferable to the compound forms.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Simple _Present_, Teni = _To hold._
Compound _Present_, Esti tenanta = _To be holding._
Compound _Past_, Esti teninta = _To have held._
Compound _Future_, Esti tenonta = _To be about_ (or, _going_) _to hold_.

PARTICIPLES.

_Present_, Tenanta = _Holding._
_Past_, Teninta = _Having held._
_Future_, Tenonta = _About_ (or, _going_) _to hold_.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present (Simple).

Sing. Mi tenas = _I hold_, _am holding_, _do hold_.
Vi (or, ci) tenas = _You hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_.
Li, ŝi, ĝi tenas = _He_, _she_, _it holds_, _is holding_,
_does hold_.
Plural. Ni tenas = _We hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_.
Vi tenas = _You_ (or, _ye_) _hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_.
Ili tenas = _They hold_, _are holding_, _do hold_.

N.B.--Ci = _thou_ is rarely used. Vi = _you_ is used, as in English, for both singular and plural; but when vi is plural, the participle in compound tenses takes the plural _J_.

Past (Simple).

Mi, vi, etc., tenis = _I_, _you_, etc., _held_, _have_ (or, _had_) _held_, _was holding_, _did hold_.

Future (Simple).

Mi, vi, etc., tenos = _I_, _you_, etc., _shall hold_, or, _shall be holding_.

CONDITIONAL MOOD (OR "US" MOOD).

The translation of this mood into English depends upon the context, viz., whether we use the auxiliaries "should," "would," "were," "had," or simply the English past tense. It is frequently introduced by the conjunction se = _if_ (see pars. 190-194).

(Se) mi tenus = (_If_) _I held_, or, _should hold_, or, _should be holding_, or, _were holding_, or, _were to hold_, or, _had held_.

IMPERATIVE MOOD (OR "U" MOOD).

Singular. Mi tenu = _Let me hold._
Tenu = _Hold._
Li, ŝi, ĝi, tenu = _Let him, her, it hold._
Plural. Ni tenu = _Let us hold._
Tenu = _Hold._
Ili tenu = _Let them hold._

Sing. (Ke) mi tenu = (_That_) _I_ }
(Ke) vi (or, ci) tenu = (_That_) }
_you_ (or, _thou_) }
(Ke) li tenu = (_That_) _he_ }_may_, _might_, _should hold._
Plural. (Ke) ni tenu = (_That_) _we_ }
(Ke) vi tenu = (_That_) _you_ }
(or, _ye_) }
(Ke) ili tenu = (_That_) _they_ }

(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195-202).

CONJUGATION OF THE COMPOUND FORMS OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES.

169. The following shows the compound tenses in the active and passive voices, and the compound forms of the conditional and imperative moods:--For the three persons of the plural add _J_ to the participle (see pars. 173, 174, 235, 236).

The Present in the
Present
Mi estas tenanta = _I am holding._
Mi estas tenata = _I am_ (_being_) _held._
Past
Mi estis tenanta = _I was holding._
Mi estis tenata = _I was_ (_being_) _held._
Future
Mi estos tenanta = _I shall be holding._
Mi estos tenata = _I shall be_ (_being_) _held._

The Past in the
Present
Mi estas teninta = _I have held._
Mi estas tenita = _I have been_, or, _was held._
Past
Mi estis teninta = _I had held._
Mi estis tenita = _I had been held_, or, _was held_,
if the action is completed.
Future
Mi estos teninta = _I shall have held._
Mi estos tenita = _I shall have been held._

The Future in the
Present
Mi estas tenonta = _I am about_ (or, _going_) _to hold._
Mi estas tenota = _I am about_ (or, _going_) _to be held._
Past
Mi estis tenonta = _I was about_ (or, _going_) _to hold._
Mi estis tenota = _I was about_ (or, _going_) _to be held._
Future
Mi estos tenonta = _I shall be about to hold._
Mi estos tenota = _I shall be about to be held._

CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD.

Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.

Se mi estus tenanta = _If I should be_, or, _were_, _holding_.
Se mi estus tenata = _If I should be_ or, _were (being) held_,
or, _if I be held._
Se mi estus teninta = _If I should have held_, or, _if I had held._
Se mi estus tenita = _If I should have been held_, or, _if I had
been_, or, _were, held._
Se mi estus tenonta = _If I should be_, or, _were, about to hold._
Se mi estus tenota = _If I should be about to be held._

N.B.--In the active voice use the simple form instead of the present and past participle, unless the compound form is necessary to emphasize the meaning. For instance, in the sentence "He would not have struck me if you had held him," we use the past participle to show the anteriority, but we need not use it for the first clause; so we say:--_Li ne frapus min, se vi estus teninta lin_. If we use the simple form, _Li ne frapus min, se vi tenus lin_, it would be read:--"He would not strike me if you held him," unless the context clearly showed the action was completed. We could, however, use the adverb _antaŭe_ instead of the compound form, and say:--_Li ne frapus min, se vi antaŭe tenus lin_ = He would not have struck me if you had held him (lit., if you beforehand held him) (see par. 226 (_a_) and remarks on the Conditional mood, pars. 190-194).

IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD.

Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.

(Por ke) mi estu tenanta = _(In order that) I may be holding._

(Por ke) mi estu tenata = _(In order that) I may be held._

(Por ke) mi estu teninta = _(In order that) I may have held_, or, _might hold_.

(Por ke) mi estu tenita = _(In order that) I may have been held_, or, _might be held_.

(Por ke) mi estu tenonta = _(In order that) I may be about to hold._

(Por ke) mi estu tenota = _(In order that) I may be about to be held._

(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195-202.)

170. CONJUGATION OF A REFLEXIVE VERB.

(INDICATIVE MOOD).

Present (Simple).

Singular. Mi lavas min = _I wash myself._
Vi lavas vin = _You wash yourself._
Li, ŝi, ĝi, lavas sin = _He, she, it washes himself_,
_herself, itself_.
Plural. Ni lavas nin = _We wash ourselves._
Vi lavas vin = _You_, _ye wash yourselves._
Ili lavas sin = _They wash themselves._

Present (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Ili ne estas lavantaj sin = _They are not washing themselves._
Ĉu ni estas lavintaj nin? = _Have we washed ourselves?_
(lit., _are we having washed ourselves?_)
Mi estas lavonta min = _I am about_ (or, _going_) _to wash myself_.

Past (Simple).

Ŝi ne lavis sin = _She did not wash herself._
Ĉu ni lavis nin? = _Did we wash ourselves?_
Ĉu ili ne lavis sin? = _Did they not wash themselves?_

Past (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Kiam vi estis lavantaj vin? = _When were you washing yourselves?_
Ni estis lavintaj nin = _We had washed ourselves._
Kiam li estis lavonta sin? = _When was he about_ (or, _going_)
_to wash himself_?

Future (Simple).

Ĉu ni lavos nin? = _Shall we wash ourselves?_
Li ne lavos sin = _He will not wash himself._

Future (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Ŝi estos lavanta sin = _She will be washing herself._
Kiam li estos lavinta sin? = _When will he have washed himself?_
Mi estos lavonta min = _I shall be about_ (or, _going_)
_to wash myself_.

CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD (Simple Form).

Se li lavus sin = _If he should wash himself._
Ĉu ŝi lavus sin, se...? = _Would she wash herself, if...?_

Conditional (Compound), with the Three Participles.

Se ni estus lavantaj nin kiam.... = _If we should be washing
ourselves when_....
Ĉu ili estus lavintaj sin, se.... = _Would they have washed
themselves if_...?
Se li estus lavonta sin kiam.... = _If he should be about to
wash himself when_....

IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD (Simple Form).

Singular. Mi lavu min = _Let me wash myself._
Mi ne lavu min = _Let me not wash myself._
Lavu vin = _Wash yourself._
Ne lavu vin = _Do not wash yourself._
Li lavu sin = _Let him wash himself._
Li ne lavu sin = _Let him not wash himself._
Plural. Ni lavu nin = _Let us wash ourselves._
Ni ne lavu nin = _Let us not wash ourselves._
Lavu vin = _Wash yourselves._
Ne lavu vin = _Do not wash yourselves._
Ili lavu sin = _Let them wash themselves._
Ili ne lavu sin = _Let them not wash themselves._

MOODS (Modoj).

171 (_a_). The moods in Esperanto differ from those in English. They are three in number, the Conditional, Imperative, and Infinitive. Dr. Zamenhof makes no mention of any other mood. In Rule 6 (see par. 94) he mentions only the three tenses:--Present, ending in _-AS_, Past, in _-IS_, Future, in _-OS_; the Conditional (kondiĉa) mood in _-US_, the Imperative (ordona) mood in _-U_, and the Infinitive (sendifina) mood in _-I_; the three Active Participles:--Present, _-ANT-_, Past, _-INT-_, Future, _-ONT-_, and the three Passive Participles:--Present, _-AT-_, Past, _-IT-_, Future, _-OT-_. These twelve forms serve amply to represent all the various tenses and moods in English. However, to make the forms of the verb clearer to the student accustomed to the use of our indicative mood, we have called the tenses _-AS_, _-IS_, _-OS_, by that name.

(_b_). There is no Subjunctive mood, and it is not required. This mood has been defined as one governed by conjunctions, but since conjunctions have no bearing on any mood in Esperanto, it is clear that a mood, under the name of "subjunctive," is not required (see remarks on ke, par. 198).

The English Subjunctive, in the Present and Perfect, is represented by the Esperanto Imperative, and in the Pluperfect, Future, and Future Perfect, by the Esperanto Conditional mood. The auxiliaries "may" and "might" of the English Subjunctive are often rendered by the aid of such verbs as _permesi_, _povi_, or some word expressing possibility, as _eble_ (see par. 237 (_m_)).

172. The mood to be used in Esperanto is determined solely by the meaning the speaker wishes to convey, and as Esperanto is a purely logical language, we must be careful not to pedantically copy our own, but to use the logical mood and tense required by the ideas we wish to convey. If, therefore, we translate English literally into Esperanto, we may, in some points, be misunderstood by a foreigner, although our translation might be perfectly clear to an Englishman. For instance, our verbs in the present and past tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive moods have the same inflection in the first person singular and in the three persons of the plural. In Esperanto there is no such ambiguity. In such a phrase as "If they were rich, they would be happy," we must be careful to use the proper mood. Both the first and second propositions are conditional or suppositive, therefore in Esperanto the Conditional mood is logically employed, as:--Se ili estus riĉaj, ili estus feliĉaj = _If they were rich, they would be happy_. There is nothing of the past in the first proposition; the idea to be conveyed is of something that has not occurred, but which might occur.

THE INFINITIVE MOOD (Sendifina Modo).

173. The Infinitive mood in the active voice is formed by adding _-I_ to the root of the verb for the simple tense, and by the auxiliary verb esti = _to be_ with one of the active participles _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_ of the verb for the compound tenses, as:--

Present (simple), Skribi = _To write_.
Present (compound), Esti skribanta = _To be writing_
(lit., _to be being-writing_).
Past (compound), Esti skribinta = _To have written_
(lit., _to be having-written_).
Future (compound), Esti skribonta = _To be about to write_
(lit., _to be being-about-to-write_).

174. The passive voice is formed by the verb esti and one of the passive participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_.

Present, Esti skribata = _To be written_ (lit., _to be being-written_).

Past, Esti skribita = _To have been written_ (lit., _to be having-been-written_).

Future, Esti skribota = _To be about to be written_.

175. The Infinitive mood expresses the state of action denoted by the verb.

176. In Esperanto the infinitive is almost always used without a preposition, whereas in English the preposition "to" nearly always precedes the verb.

Examples.--_Mi volas lerni danci_ = I wish to learn to dance. _Li devigis min kuri_ = He compelled me to run. _Mi hontas esti laŭdata de li_ = I am ashamed to be praised by him. _Mi devas peni atingi tiun rezultaton_ = I must try to attain that result.

177. The only prepositions that can be used before the infinitive are:--(_a_). Por = _To_, or, _in order to_. (_b_). Anstataŭ = _Instead of_. (_c_). Antaŭ ol = _Before_. (_d_). Krom = _Except_, or, _besides_.

178. Por is used before the infinitive, when in English for the word "to" we could substitute the words "in order to" or "for to"; or, in some cases, when we could use "for" or "of" with a participle instead of the infinitive (par. 259 (24)).

Examples.--_La plej bonaj metodoj por ricevi ĝin_.... = The best methods to (in order to) obtain it (_or_, for, _or_, of obtaining it).... _Mi havas ion por diri al vi_ = I have something to (for to) say to you. _Kion vi havas ankoraŭ por skribi?_ = What have you still to (for to) write? _La tempo por legi_ = The time to read (for reading). _Tio estas malfacila por kompreni_ = That is difficult (for to) understand.

179. Anstataŭ, Antaŭ ol and Krom are used before the infinitive, when in English we use the participle or a simple tense.

Examples.--_Anstataŭ trinki_ = Instead of drinking. _Anstataŭ agi honeste, li fariĝis ŝtelisto_ = Instead of acting honestly, he became a thief. _Antaŭ ol manĝi_ = Before eating. _Antaŭ ol foriri, ili surmetis la ĉapelojn_ = Before going away (before they went away), they put on their (the) hats. _Ne ekzistas alia bono por la homo krom manĝi kaj trinki_ = There is nothing better for a man, than that he should eat and drink (than eating and drinking) (Pred. II, 14; III, 12).

180. As in English, the infinitive is used:--

(_a_). As the subject when the act demonstrated is general.