Chapter IX: Part II: Grammar (4)

_Li pasigis du horojn en la budo_ = _La tempo pasas rapide_ =
He passed two hours in the booth. Time passes rapidly.

_Li finis sian laboron_ = _La monato finiĝos morgaŭ_ =
He finished his work. The month will finish to-morrow.

_Ŝi komencos sian vojaĝon morgaŭ_ = _La semajno komenciĝis hieraŭ_ =
She will commence her journey tomorrow. The week commenced yesterday.

Footnote:

[17] The following is a list of the chief Esperanto verb roots whose English equivalents are used both transitively and intransitively. (E.g., _wakes_, in _he wakes her_, is transitive; in _she wakes_ it is intransitive.) Esperanto follows international usage in giving such verbs one meaning only, either transitive or intransitive.

Transitive Verbs (can be used in the passive, and with -ebla, -inda; may be used intransitively with -iĝ-):--

Aplik, balanc, ban, ĉagren, etend, fend, ferm, fin, flar, fleks, izol, klin, kolekt, komenc, lev, mezur, montr, mov, nask, paŝt, renvers, romp, rul, renkont, sku, sving, sufok, ŝancel, ŝanĝ, ŝir, tren, turn, vek, verŝ.

Intransitive Verbs (cannot be used in the passive, nor with -ebla, -inda, unless made transitive by -ig-):--

Bol, brul, ĉes, daŭr, degel, dolor, dron, eksplod, fal, glit, halt, kresk, krev, kuŝ, lum, odor, pas, pend, sid, son, sonor, ŝpruc, ŝrump, ŝvel, velk.

Do, Did.

237 (_j_). The English verb "to do" is represented as follows:--

(1). In the sense of to "perform," "make," "commit," "execute," etc., it is represented by fari or agi.

Examples.--_Ne faru tion_ = Don't do that. _Batante la knabon, li faris_ (or, _agis_) _malprave_ = He did wrong in beating the boy. _La ĉambristino faris tion, kion mi ordonis_ = The chambermaid did what I ordered.

(2). In interrogation and negation it is represented by the present and past tenses (pars. 58, 63, 64).

Examples.--_Ĉu vi pensas, ke li venos?_ = Do you think that he will come? _Ĉu vi lin vidis hieraŭ?_ = Did you see him yesterday? _Mi ne konas lin_ = I do not know him.

(3). As an emphatic auxiliary, it may be represented by ja = _indeed, in fact_, or other similar adverb: e.g., sincere (par. 217).

Example.--_Mi ja esperas, ke li venos_ = I do hope he will come.

(4). As an inquiry after health.

Example.--_Kiel vi fartas?_ or, _Kia estas via sano?_ or, _Kiel vi statas?_ = How do you do? or, How are you?

(5). To "do," in the sense of "to cheat," by trompi or friponi. In the sense of "to suffice" by sufiĉi.

Examples.--_Li friponis min_ = He did (cheated) me. _Tio sufiĉos_ = That will do.

(6). Followed by prepositions, it must be translated in accordance with the sense of the phrases.

Examples:--

To do away with (abolish) = _neniigi_, (destroy) = _detrui_.
To do business = _komerci_, _fari negocon kun_.
To do for, or away with (murder, kill) = _mortigi_.
To do into (translate) = _traduki_.
To do well (prosper) = _prosperi_.
To do up (arrange) = _aranĝi_, (tie up) = _kunligi_, (repair) = _ripari_.
To do with (make use of) = _fari uzon el_.
To do without (dispense with) = _forlasi, ne bezoni_.

Get.

237 (_k_). The English verb to "get" must be translated in accordance with its numerous meanings. For instance:--

(1). To "get," in the sense of to "become," may be rendered by iĝi = _to become_, or the suffix _-IĜ-_.

Examples.--_Edziĝi_ = To get married (man). _Edziniĝi_ = To get married (woman). _Leviĝi_ = To get up. _Alproksimiĝi_ = To get near. _Laciĝi_ = To get tired. _Tediĝi_ = To get bored. _Ĉu vi pretiĝas_ = Are you getting ready? _Mi malsatiĝas_ = I am getting hungry. _Mi kutimiĝas je tio_ = I am getting accustomed (used) to that. _Mallumiĝas_ (or, _Iĝas mallume_) = It is getting dark. _La tagoj pli mallongiĝas_ = The days are getting shorter. _La infanoj kuŝiĝis_ = The children got into bed (lit., lay down). _La vespermanĝo malvarmiĝas_ = The dinner is getting cold; but _malvarmumi_ = to get (or catch) a cold.

(2). To "get," in the sense of to "make," to "cause," is rendered by igi = to make, or the suffix _-IG-_ added to a verb.

Examples.--_Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado_ = Get her to come to our dance. _Mi presigos la libron baldaŭ_ = I shall get the book printed soon.

(3). To "get," in the sense of to "have got," or to "possess," is not translated.

Examples.--_Mi havas_ (or, _posedas_) _du ĉevalojn_ = I have got two horses. _Kion vi havas?_ = What have you got?

(4). To "get," in the sense of to "procure," "fetch," is rendered by havigi, or, venigi.

Examples.--_Mi havigos al mi tiom, kiom mi povos_ = I shall get as much as I can. _Venigu al mi veturilon_ = Get me a carriage. _Venigu la kuraciston_ = Send for (get) the doctor.

(5). "Get" is translated in various other ways according to its meaning. Note the following examples:--

_Alveni en_ = To get to, to arrive at.
_Alkonduku mian ĉevalon_ = Get my horse.
_Alportu al mi la mustardon_ = Get me the mustard.
_Mi ricevis vian leteron_ = I got your letter.

(6). To "get," followed by prepositions, etc., must be translated in accordance with the sense of the phrase.

Examples:--

To get across = _transiri_.
To get along, forward, on = _antaŭeniri_.
To get at (attain, reach) = _atingi_.
To get back (something lent) = _rericevi_, (to a place) = _reveni_.
To get down = _deiri_, _malsupreniri_.
To get off (be acquitted) = _senkulpiĝi_, (escape) = _forkuri_,
(a horse or coach) = _deiri_.
To get dirty = _malpuriĝi_.
To get on (a horse or coach) = _supreniri_, (in learning) = _progresadi_,
(in business) = _prosperi_.
To get on with (continue) = _daŭrigi_.
To get out (of doors) = _eliri_, (publish) = _eldoni_, or, _elirigi_.
To get over (across) = _transiri_, (surmount) = _venki_.
To get ready = _pretigi_ (trans.), _pretiĝi_ (intrans.).
To get round (coax, allure) = _logi_, _allogi_, (persuade) = _konvinki_.
To get up (rise) = _leviĝi_, (ascend) = _supreniri_.

Can and Could.

237 (_l_). "Can" and "could" are translated by povi = _to be able_, except when "can" has the permissive sense of "may" (see par. 237 (_m_) (3)).

Examples.--_Mi ne povas lin vidi nuntempe_ = I cannot see him at present. _Li ne povis iri hieraŭ_ = He could not go yesterday. _Li povus iri hodiaŭ, se li volus_ = He could (would be able to) go to day, if he would.

For other examples of "can" and "could," see povi, par. 237 (_f_).

May and Might.

237 (_m_). These verbs are used (1) as auxiliaries in the English Subjunctive mood; also to express (2) wish, (3) permission, (4) possibility, (5) power or ability.

(1). When used as auxiliary verbs, they can be expressed by the Esperanto Imperative mood.

Examples.--_Li rapidas, por ke li alvenu ĝustatempe_ = He hastens that he may arrive in time. _Li kuris rapide, por ke li ne maltrafu la vagonaron_ = He ran quickly that he might not miss the train.

(2). When they express "wish," the Esperanto Imperative is also used.

Examples.--_Vi estu feliĉa!_ = May you be happy! _Via deziro efektiviĝu!_ = May your wish be realized! _Ĉielo vin benu!_ = May Heaven bless you! _Nenio difektu vian feliĉon!_ = May nothing mar your happiness! _Ĉia beno estu via!_ = May every blessing be yours!

In the above examples ellipsis takes place both in Esperanto and English, some such words as _mi deziras, ke ..._ = I wish that..., being omitted (par. 66 (_c_)). _Ke vi prosperu, estas mia fervora deziro!_ = That you may succeed, is my fervent desire! _Ke li vivu, estis mia ĉiutaga preĝo!_ = That he might live, was my daily prayer! _Mi mortu, se mi iom mensogas!_ = May I die, if I am lying at all!

(3). When they express "permission," some word denoting this must be used, or the imperative may be used, the verb expressing permission being omitted (par. 58 (_a_)). The English verb "can" is sometimes employed to express the permissive sense of "may"; in that case it is better to avoid the use of povi = _to be able_.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi (oni) permesas, ke mi parolu kun vi?_ = May (can) I speak to you? (lit., Do you permit that I speak to you?) _Ĉu oni permesas_, (or, _ĉu estas permesate_), _ke mi vidu la kastelon?_ = May (can) I see the castle? _Mi permesas, ke vi tion faru, se vi volas_, or, _Vi faru tion, se vi volas_ = You may (I permit that you) do that, if you like. _Se mi estus permesita tion diri_ (or, _se estus permesite_, or, _se oni permesus_, _ke mi tion diru_) = If I might (were permitted to) say so (that).

The above questions may be shortened thus:--_Ĉu mi parolu kun vi? Ĉu mi vidu la kastelon?_ in this sense. The ellipsis understood here might, however, equally well be _Ĉu_ (_vi volas_, _ĉu necesas_, _ĉu estas bone_, _ke_) _mi parolu? vidu la kastelon?_ = Shall I (Am I to) speak (see the castle)?

(4). When they express "possibility," some word showing that the action is more or less a matter of doubt must be used, as eble = _possibly_, kredeble = _probably_, etc.

Examples.--_Eble li venos_ = He _may_ come, _or_, Maybe (possibly) he will come. _Eble li tranĉos la fingron, se vi donos al li tranĉilon_ = He may (possibly he will) cut his finger, if you (will) give him a knife. _Eble li venus, se vi lin invitus_ = He might (possibly he would) come, if you invited (were to invite) him. _Se vi tien irus, eble_ (_kredeble_) _vi lin vidus_ = If you went (were to go) there, you might (possibly, probably would) see him.

Note that the possibility of something happening varies with the adverb used. "May" rendered by _eble_ throws greater doubt on the contingency than _kredeble_.

(5). When they express "power," or "ability," povi = _to be able_ can be used.

Examples.--_La malsano povas konduki el komplikaĵoj_ = The illness may lead to complications. _Li povus tion fari, se li antaŭe volus_ (or, _estus volinta_) _ĝin fari_ = He might (could) have done that, if he had wished to do it.

Shall and Will.

237 (_n_). These verbs are used in English to denote:--

(1). Futurity.
(2). Determination or will.

As they are sometimes misplaced, it would be well for the student, not thoroughly conversant with their proper use, to consult some good English Grammar.

(1). Futurity. As the auxiliary for the Future tense, "shall," in _direct_ speech, is generally used for the first person, and "will" for the second and third persons, as "_I_, or _we_, _shall go_," "_He_, _you_, or _they will go_," except in interrogation, when "shall" is generally used for the second person, as "Shall you go?" But in _indirect_ speech "shall" is used for all three persons, as, "_He says he shall come._" "_You say you shall write._" In any of these cases they are translated by the future in _-os_.

(2). Determination or Will. When the meaning is not futurity, but _determination_ on the part of the speaker, then, in _direct_ speech, "will" is used for the first person, and "shall" for the second and third persons, as, "I _will_ do it, you cannot stop me." "You _shall_ not kill that bird." "Thou _shalt_ not steal." But in _indirect_ speech "will" is used for all the persons, as, "He says he _will_ go" (it is his determination to go). "You say you _will_ try it" (you are determined to try it). In such cases one must, in Esperanto, use not the future, but the imperative, or some word expressing "will" or "determination."

N.B.--In some cases it is difficult to tell in which of the above senses "shall" or "will" is used, unless the context makes it clear; so, in writing, we have to underline the words, or, in speaking, to emphasize them strongly when they mean "determination." Note carefully their meaning in the following sentences. The number prefixed to each example denotes the heading under which it comes.

Examples.--(1). _Mi revenos, kiam ili foriros_ = I shall come back when they go away. (2). _Mi intencas ĝin fari, ĉu vi konsentos, aŭ ne_ = I _will_ (intend to) do it whether you consent or not. (1). _Vi mortigos tiun birdon, se vi rekte pafos_ = You will kill that bird if you shoot straight. (2). _Mi ne permesas, ke vi mortigu tiun birdon_ = You _shall_ not (I do not allow you to) kill that bird. (1). _Mi scias, ke vi ĝin faros_ = I know that you will do it. (2). _Mi scias, ke vi povas ĝin fari, se vi volos_ = I know you can do it if you _will_.

Note the difference in meaning of "shall" and "will" in the following sentences:--I shall/will not see you to-morrow unless you come early. If "shall" be used, it means that something will prevent the speaker from seeing the individual; the speaker may be out, or engaged; therefore, since the reason is unimportant, we can translate the sentence, as in English, by the future, as:--(1). _Mi ne vidos vin morgaŭ, se vi ne_ (or, _krom se vi_) _venos frue_. But if "will" be used, determination on the part of the speaker is implied; nothing prevents him; he could see you if he wished, but he _will_ not (won't). Therefore, in Esperanto, we must express this determination, and say (2). _Mi ne volas_ (or, _mi ne intencas_) _vin vidi morgaŭ, krom se vi venos frue_ = I _will_ not (I do not intend to) see you to-morrow unless you come early. (1). _Mi ne mortos sola_ = I shall not die alone. (2). _Mi ne volas_ (or, _mi certe ne intencas_) _morti sola_ = I _will_ not (I certainly do not intend to) die alone. (1). _Ĉu vi estos_ (or, _ĉeestos_) _tie ĉi morgaŭ?_ = Will you be here to-morrow? (1). _Jes, mi estos_ = Yes, I will. Note that "will" here repeats the verb in the question, and is used instead of "shall." (1). _Li diras, ke li venos, sed_ (1) _ĉu li venos?_ or, (2) _ĉu li volos?_ = He says he will come, but will he? Here the words "but will he?" must be translated in accordance with the sense to be conveyed, viz.:--(1) will something prevent him? (2) will he have the will?

The phrase "Shall I do that?" can be translated by the future, _Ĉu mi tion faros?_ = Is it a fact that I shall do that? or, _Ĉu estos plej bone tion fari_ = Is it best to do that? or, _Ĉu estos profite_, _saĝe_, _k.c._ = Will it be expedient, wise, etc., or, _Ĉu decos, ke mi tion faru?_ = Will it be proper (right) to do that? or, _Ĉu vi volas_ (or, _deziras_), _ke mi tion faru_, or, _Ĉu mi faru tion?_ = Shall I (do you wish me to, Am I to) do that? (1). _Ĉu vi iros?_ = Shall you go? (2). _Ĉu vi volas iri?_ = _Will_ you go? _Ĉu vi volas, ke mi iru?_ or, _Ĉu mi iru?_ = Shall I go? Am I to go? (pars. 58 (_a_), 237 (_m_) (3)). "Will I go" is bad English, and untranslatable!

Should and Would.

237 (_o_). "Should" and "would" follow the rules of "shall" and "will" when employed in parallel circumstances. They express:--

(1). Supposition, or a future that is doubtful, conditional, or merely supposed (par. 192), as "_I should do it if I knew how._"

(2). Duty or obligation (par. 237 (_a_)) as "He _should_ not do that."

(3). Determination, as "Nothing could influence him, he _would_ do it."

(4). The softening of an expression (par. 194), as "Would you object to do that?"

(5). The future in _indirect_ speech (par. 232), as "_She said she would (will) come._"

(6). Would, when it signifies _custom_ or _habit_, is sometimes translated by adding the suffix _-AD-_ to the verb.

The following sentences will show how these various meanings may be expressed in Esperanto. The number before each example shows under which class of meanings it comes.

Examples.--(1). _Mi ĝin farus, se vi min permesus_ = I should do it if you would permit me. (1). _Li min frapus, se li ne timus_ = He would strike me if he were not afraid. (3). _Li insistis ĝin fari malgraŭ la danĝero_ = He _would_ do it in spite of the danger. (4). _Ĉu vi donus al mi tiun libron?_ = Would you give me that book? (1). _Se vi vidus Johanon morgaŭ_ (2) _vi devus diri al li, ke li ne aĉetu tiun domon_ = If you should see John to-morrow, you should tell him not to buy that house. (5). _Ŝi diris al mi, ke ŝi venos_ = She told me that she would (will) come. (1). _Mi iomete suspektis, ke ili venos_ = I had a slight suspicion that they would come. (6). _Ili ofte rajdadis tra la arbaroj, kie la branĉoj tuŝadis iliajn ŝultrojn, kaj la birdoj kantadis inter la freŝaj folioj_ = They would often ride through the woods, where the branches would touch their shoulders, and the birds would sing amid the fresh leaves.

Must, Ought.

237 (_p_). "Must" and "Have to" always signify physical or moral obligation, and are stronger terms than "ought," which implies moral obligation or duty. Compare "_You must_ (_have to_, _are to_) _go_" with "_You ought to go._" The former can be rendered by devi, and the latter, "ought," by _deci_, or some word implying moral obligation. Devi is also used for "ought" in the Conditional mood; devus, in this case, being the softened form of the Conditional mood (see par. 194). Care must be taken not to translate "must" when it signifies "have to" or "am to" by havi or esti (see par. 237 (_a_) on devi).

Examples.--_Li devas labori_ = He must (has to) work. _Mi devas havi tiun libron_ = I must have that book. _Ĉio, kio troviĝas en tiu ĉi libro, devas esti rigardata kiel deviga por ĉiuj_ = Everything which is in this book must be regarded as obligatory for all. _La "Fundamento de Esperanto" devas resti severe netuŝebla_ = The "Fundamento de Esperanto" must remain strictly unalterable (untouchable). _Vi devus ne fari tion_, or, _Ne decas, ke vi tion faru_ = You ought not to (it is not proper, right that you should) do that. _Vi devus viziti (Decas, ke vi vizitu) la patron_ = You ought to see (it is proper that you should see) your father. _Li devus ne forgesi_ (or, _esti forgesinta_) = He ought not to have forgotten. _Decas, ke mi alportu miajn servojn al la reĝo_ = I ought to offer my services to the king. _Kiam vi devos vidi la homon?_ = When must you (will you have to) see the man? _Mi devus vidi lin hieraŭ, sed li malsaniĝis, tial nun mi devos atendi ĝis morgaŭ_ = I ought to have seen him yesterday, but he fell ill, so now I must wait till to-morrow.

N.B.--Note, in the last example, that the adverb _hieraŭ_ = yesterday, clearly shows the action is past; it is therefore unnecessary to use the past infinitive _esti vidinta_.

ADVERBS (Adverboj).

238. Adverbs are more widely used in Esperanto than in any other language. The root of every word, and any grammatical termination or affix, the sense of which permits this, can be made into an adverb by adding the adverbial termination _E_. This facility enables the Esperantist to express in one word, to an unlimited extent, what in other languages often takes two, three, or more words to express adequately. E.g., Tiamaniere = _In such a manner_. Matene = _In the morning_. Vespere = _In the evening_.

239. An adverb answers to a preposition accompanied by a complement.

Example.--_Li parolas saĝe_ = "He speaks wisely," has the same signification as _Li parolas kun saĝeco_ = He speaks with wisdom.

240. Adverbs are used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Examples.--_Li agas bone_ = He acts well. _Tiu ĉi estas tre granda domo_ = This is a very large house. _Li skribas treege bone_ = He writes extremely well.

N.B.--When an adverb seems to qualify a preposition, it really qualifies an adverbial phrase, as:--Multe antaŭ la horo = _Much before the time_ (_hour_).

241. Position.--Adverbs, as a rule, immediately precede or follow the words which they modify (see par. 88).

242. There are two classes of adverbs in Esperanto, which for the sake of distinction we will call (_a_) "Primary" and (_b_) "Grammatical."

(_a_). Primary adverbs are all to be found in the list of primary words in Part V. They have no distinctive termination.

(_b_). Grammatical adverbs are those which are formed by adding _E_ to a root, grammatical termination, or affix. Some are formed by adding _E_ to a primary word.

A list of adverbs will be found at page 166.

243. No influence on case.--Adverbs exercise no influence on the case of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns. If such be in the accusative, it is not by the influence of the adverb. For example:--Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mian fraton = _I love John as warmly as my brother_. Here kiel exercises no influence on mian fraton, for both mian fraton and Johanon are governed by the verb amas. Therefore the meaning is that the speaker loves my brother and John equally warmly. Or, we can place mian fraton in the nominative, as:--Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mia frato = _I love John as warmly as my brother_ (_does_). Ask yourself the question, "as my brother does what?" and the answer is "loves John." In English we are obliged to add "does" or "loves him," but in Esperanto the meaning is quite clear from the case of the noun (see also pars. 247 and 105).

244. Adverbs formed from Prepositions.--When a preposition has no complement, noun or pronoun, the preposition then takes the adverbial termination _E_. For instance, in the phrase mi staras apud li (_I am standing by him_); apud here is a preposition because it is followed by its complement li. But if li be omitted, we must alter the sentence, as:--Li staras apude = _He is standing by_ (_near_).

245. Subject not expressed.--When, in a sentence in Esperanto, there is no noun or pronoun which the adjective can qualify (as in case of verbs in the infinitive, or used impersonally), the adverb is used in Esperanto in place of the adjective.

Examples.--_Mensogi estas honte_ (not _honta_) = To lie is shameful. _Estas necese, ke...._ = It is necessary that.... _Estas bele, varme, malvarme_ = It is fine, warm, cold. _Ne estas atendate, ke...._ = It is not expected that.... If, however, a noun or pronoun is expressed, then the adjective is used, as:--_La vetero_ (or, _ĝi_) _estas bela_, _varma_, _malvarma_ = The weather (_or_, it) is fine, warm, cold.

245 (_a_). Participle-Adverbs.--In Esperanto, when the participle relates to the subject (par. 211), but does not qualify it, then the participle takes the adverbial form. For impersonal use see par. 164 (_d_).

Examples.--_Legante, ni lernas_ = In (by, when, while) reading we learn. _Starante sur la supro de la monteto, li povis vidi la preĝejon_ = By standing on the top of the hill, he could see the church. _Estante kolera, ŝi ne volis paroli al sia nevo_ = Being (as she was) angry, she did not wish to speak to her nephew. _Malferminte la fenestron, li vidis la amason sur la strato_ = Having opened (_or_, after opening) the window, he saw the crowd in (on) the street. _Ekrigardinte la libron, ŝi ĝin metis sur la tablon_ = Having glanced (_or_, after glancing) at the book, she put it on the table. _Forpelite el la urbo, ili rifuĝis en la arbarego_ = Having been (_or_, after being) driven from the town, they took refuge in the forest. _Batate de la lernejestro, la knabo terure kriegis_ = Being beaten by the schoolmaster, the boy howled terribly.

246. Adverbs of quantity, like other words signifying quantity, usually have their complement introduced by the preposition da.

Examples.--_Multe da homoj_ = Many men. _Nur malmulte da virinoj_ = Only a few women. _Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas?_ = How many horses have you? _Multe pli da bovaĵo, ol (da) ŝafaĵo_ = Much more beef than mutton. _Malpli da pano, ol (da) vino_ = Less bread than wine. _Tro da kuiristoj malbonigas la buljonon_ = Too many cooks spoil the broth. _Ne estas sufiĉe da supo_ = There is not sufficient soup.

246. (_a_). Expressions such as "more and more," "at most," etc., are thus rendered:--

Pli-malpli, pli aŭ malpli, plie aŭ malplie = _More or less_.

Plie = _In addition, besides_, _moreover_. Malplie = _Less and less_.[18]

Pleje = _At (the) most_, _mostly_. Malpleje = _At (the) least_, _least_.[18]

Troe = _In excess_, _too many_.

Footnote:

[18] These usages are seldom employed.

Examples.--_Unu pomo plie aŭ malplie ne gravas_ = One apple more or less does not signify. _Plie, mi devas diri al vi, ke...._ = Moreover, I must tell you that.... _Ni estos kvin pleje haj ili sep malpleje_ = We shall be five at most and they seven at least. _En la kesto mi trovis du librojn troe_ = In the box I found two books too many (in excess).

247. Adverbs and the accusative case.--Adverbs exercise no influence on case (see par. 243), but used adverbially, participles of active verbs are followed by the accusative if used without a preposition (see par. 66 (_b_)).

After such adverbs as konforme, rilate, escepte, spite, etc., it is optional either to use the accusative or to add a suitable preposition with the complement in the nominative, as konforme al, kun, or je; rilate al; escepte de (or, kun la escepto de = _with the exception of_); spite de (see par. 258 (_a_)).

248. Comparatives and superlatives.--These are marked in the same way as adjectives (see pars. 112-114).

Examples.--_Pli rapide, ol bone_ = More quickly than well. _Malpli forte, ol kutime_ = Weaker (less strong) than customary. _Tiel dolĉe, kiel eble_ (or, _kiel eble plej dolĉe_) = As sweetly as possible. _Ŝi kantas la plej bone el ĉiuj_ = She sings best of all. _Li agis tre saĝe_ = He acted very wisely.

248 (_a_). Adverbs and adjectives.--Be careful not to use the adjective for the adverb.

Examples.--_Li kuras rapide_ = He runs rapidly. _Parolu pli laŭte_ (not _laŭta_) = Speak louder (more loudly). _Ŝi vidis lin piediranta pli malrapide, ol kutime_ = She saw him walking (that he was (is) walking) more slowly than usual.

N.B.--Note that _piediranta_ is predicative (see par. 209 (_b_)).

LIST OF ADVERBS.

248 (_b_). The following list of adverbs contains all those found amongst the primary words and some formed from them, also a number of useful grammatical adverbs.

Adiaŭ = _Adieu_, _farewell_, _good-bye_.

Example.--_Li diris al ŝi adiaŭ, kaj foriris_ = He said good-bye to her, and departed.

Afrankite = _Post-paid_.

Ajn = _Ever_. Ajn is generally used after the correlative words beginning with _K_, as kia, kiam, etc. (see table of correlative words, par. 147). It then answers to words ending in "ever," but, unlike English, it is never joined to the preceding word (par. 145).

Examples.--_Kia ajn_ = Whatever kind of. _Kiam ajn_ = Whenever, whensoever. _Kie ajn_ = Wherever, wheresoever. _Kiel ajn_ = However. _Kies ajn_ = Whosesoever. _Kio ajn_ = Whatever, whatsoever. _Kiom ajn_ = However much. _Kiu ajn_ = Whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever.

Aliloke = _Elsewhere_.

Alivorte = _In other words_.

Almenaŭ = _At least_.

Example.--_Donu al mi almenaŭ la duonon de tiu biskvito_ = Give me at least the half of that biscuit.

Alvenante, Alveninte = _On arrival_.

Ambaŭ = _Both_, _one and the other_ (pronoun).

Examples.--_Ili ambaŭ kuris al la stacidomo_ = They both ran to the station.

Ankaŭ = _Also_, _too_.

Examples.--_Li ankaŭ ĝin faris_ = He, too, did it. _Nek mi ankaŭ_ = Nor I either (also).

Ankoraŭ = _Yet_, _still_. (See remarks on Jam).

Examples.--_Ĉu li estas ankoraŭ tie ĉi?_ = Is he still here? _Mi ankoraŭ ne vidis lin_ = I have not seen him yet.

Antaŭe = _Formerly_, _previously_, _beforehand_, _in front_.

Aparte = _Aside_, _apart_, _separately_, _specially_.

Apenaŭ = _Hardly_, _scarcely_.

Example.--_Mi apenaŭ pensas tion_ = I hardly think that (_or_, so).

Baldaŭ = _Soon_.

Example.--_Mi esperas, ke li venos baldaŭ_ = I hope he will (may) come soon.

Bis = _Once more_, _again_, _encore_.

Example.--_Bis!_ = Encore!

Bonstate = _In good condition_.

Certe = _Certainly_.

Ĉi = _The nearest_ (tio = _that_, tio ĉi or ĉi tio = _this_), (tiu = _that_, _the former_, tiu ĉi or ĉi tiu = _this_, _the latter_), (tie = _there_, tie ĉi or ĉi tie = _here_), (tien = _thither_, tien ĉi = _hither_), (ĉio = _all_, ĉio ĉi = _all this_) (par. 143).

Examples.--_Restu ĉi tie_ = Remain here. _Venu ĉi tien_ = Come hither.

Ĉial = _For all reasons_, _for every reason_ (par. 150).

Example.--_Ĉial tio estas la plej bona_ = For every reason that is the best.

Ĉiam = _Always_, _ever_ (par. 151).

Example.--_Li venas ĉiam, kiam oni ne bezonas lin_ = He always comes when one does not want him.

Ĉiame = _Perpetually_, _continually_.

Example.--_La infano ploras ĉiame_ (or, _senĉese_) = The child cries perpetually.

Ĉie = _Everywhere_ (par. 152).

Examples.--_Ĉie mi lin vidas_ = Everywhere I see him. _Li iras ĉien_ = He goes everywhere.

Ĉiel = _In every (manner) way, all ways_ (par. 153).

Example.--_Tiu estas ĉiel la plej bona sidejo_ = That is in every way the best seat.

Ĉiom = _All of it, the whole, all, every quantity_ (par. 156).

Example.--_Prenu iom, ne ĉiom_ = Take some, not the whole.

Ĉirkaŭe = _Round about_.

Ĉiufoje kiam, or, ĉiun fojon kiam, or, kiam ajn = _whenever_.

Ĉiujare = _Yearly, annually, every year_.

Ĉiumonate = _Monthly, every month_.

Ĉiusemajne = _Weekly, every (each) week_.

Ĉiutage = _Daily_. Laŭtage = _By the day_. Tage = _By day_. Nokte = _By night_.

Ĉu = _Whether_. An interrogative adverb used at the beginning of a direct question; it has no English equivalent. Ĉu simply shows that the sentence is interrogative, and therefore, to translate it, we must look to the tense of the verb and to the subject, so as to preface the interrogation with "do," "does," "did," "have," "has," "is," "will," "shall," "was," "were," "should," "would," "can," etc. etc.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi komprenis?_ = Did you understand? _Ĉu Johano skribas?_ = Is John writing? _Ĉu vi povas fari tion?_ = Can you do that? (see remarks on Interrogation, par. 58).

Ĉu = _whether_ (or _if_ in the sense of _whether_) (a conjunction) is used in indirect questions, when we generally use "if."

Examples.--_Diru al mi, ĉu li venos_ = Tell me if (whether) he will come. _Diru al mi, se li venos_ = Tell me if he comes.

Ĉu ... Ĉu = _Whether ... whether_.

Example.--_Ĉu li venos, ĉu li ne venos, Paŭlo foriros_ = Whether he comes (will come) (or) whether he does not (will not come), Paul will depart.

Dekstre = _On the right._ Maldekstren = _To the left._

Denove = _Afresh_, _again_, _once again_.

Due = _Secondly_, _in the second place_.

Dum = _While_, _whilst_, _as_ (also a preposition and conjunction).

Dume = _Meanwhile._

Eble = _Possibly_, _perhaps_.

Eĉ = _Even._

Examples.--_Li eĉ pensis, ke...._ = He even thought that.... _Eĉ la infanoj insultis min_ = Even the children abused me.

Efektive = _In fact_, _really_, _as a matter of fact_.

Ekstere = _Outwardly._ Interne = _inwardly_, _internally_, _within_, _inside_.

Entute = _On the whole_, _as a whole_.

Facile = _Easily._ Malfacile = _With difficulty._

Fine = _In conclusion_, _lastly_.

For = _Away_, _forth_.

Example.--_For de ĉi tie fripono!_ = Get thee hence (away), rascal!

Forme = _In shape_, _in form_.

Galope = _At a gallop._

Grandnombre = _In great numbers._

Ĝisdate = _Up to date._ Ĝisnune = _Up to now_, _hitherto_. Ĝisplue = _Until further notice._

Ĝissate = _Till satiety (is reached)._

Ĝustatempe = _Opportunely_, _to time_.

Hieraŭ = _Yesterday._

Examples.-_-Mi lin vidis hieraŭ_ = I saw him yesterday. _Antaŭhieraŭ_ = The day before yesterday.

Hieraŭ matene = _Yesterday morning._

Hodiaŭ = _To-day._

Example.--_Li alvenos hodiaŭ_ = He will arrive to-day.

Hodiaŭ vespere = _This (to-day) evening._

Ial = _For some_ (_any_) _reason_, _or cause_ (par. 150).

Example.--_Ial li venis Londonon_ = For some reason he came to London.

Iam = _At some_ (_any_) _time_, _once_, _ever_ (par. 151).

Examples.--_Venu iam morgaŭ_ = Come some time to-morrow. _Ĉu vi iam renkontis lin?_ = Did you ever meet him?

Ie = _Somewhere_, (_anywhere_) (par. 152).

Examples.--_Mi ne povas ĝin trovi ie en la ĉambro_ = I cannot find it anywhere in the room. _Ĝi estas ie_ = It is somewhere. _Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien?_ = Did you put it anywhere?

Iel = _Somehow_, _in some way_, _in some manner_, _anyhow_, (_in any way_) (par. 153).

Examples.--_Iel li sukcesas en ĉio_ = Somehow he succeeds in everything. _Respondu iel_ = Answer in some manner.

Iom = _Somewhat_, _some quantity_, _a little_, _some_ (par. 156).

Examples.--_La vetero estas iom pli varma_ = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer. _Jen estas cigaroj, ĉu vi deziras iom?_ = Here are cigars, do you want some?

Iomete = _A very little_, _in a very slight degree_, _at all_.

Example.--_Ĝi estis iomete pli granda, ol kulo_ = It was slightly larger than a gnat.

Intence = _Intentionally_, _on purpose_.

Ja = _In fact_, _indeed_.

Examples.--_Li ja alvenos morgaŭ_ = He in fact will arrive to-morrow. _Ja_ may be used to express the emphatic English use of "do," "did," as:--_Mi ja volas, ke li estu tie ĉi_ = I do wish he were here (par. 217).

Jam = _Already_, _as yet_, _by now_, _now_.

Examples.--_Vi jam diris tion_ = You said (have said) that already. _Ĉu vi jam trovis vian horloĝon?_ = Have you _as yet_ found your watch? _Mi ĝin ankoraŭ ne serĉis_ = I have _not yet_ looked for it. _La knabo jam ne ridas_ = The boy does not laugh _now_ (no longer laughs).

N.B.--Compare _jam_ with _ankoraŭ_. Jam shows that the circumstances are changed; _ankoraŭ_, that there is no change. Ex.:--_La infano jam dormas_ = The child is _now_ sleeping (it was not sleeping before). _La infano ankoraŭ dormas_ = The child is _still_ sleeping.

Jen = _Behold_, _here_. Jene = _As follows_.

Examples.--_Jen estas tio, kion vi bezonas_ = Here is what (that which) you want. _Jen estas la libroj_ = Here are the books.

Jes = _Yes_, _it is so_ (par. 63). Jese = _Affirmatively_.

Examples.--_Jes, vi estas prava_ = Yes, you are right. _Mi vin certigas, ke jes_ = I assure you that it is so.

Ju pli ... des pli = _The more ... the more_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin amas_ = The more I know him, the more I love him.

Ju pli ... des malpli = _The more ... the less._

Example.--_Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi_ = The more I see him, the less he pleases me.

Ju malpli ... des malpli = _The less ... the less_.

Example.--_Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon dormi_ = The less I sleep, the less I feel the need (to sleep) of sleeping.

Ju malpli ... des pli = _The less ... the more_.

Example.--_Ju malpli mi trinkas, des pli mi manĝas_ = The less I drink, the more I eat.

Ĵus = _Just_, _at the_ (_past_) _moment_, _just now_.

Examples.--_Mi ĵus vidis ŝin_ = I have just seen her. _Mi ĵus diris al vi lian nomon_ = I have just told you his name. _Lia ĵusa parolo_ = The speech he has just made.

Kaŝe or sekrete = _In secret_.

Kelkafoje or kelkfoje = _Sometimes_. Iafoje = _At times_. Multfoje = _Many times_.

Kia ajn = _Whatever_ (_kind of_) (par. 145).

Example.--_Mi aĉetos de vi tiun libron, kia ajn ĝi estos_ = I will buy from you that book whatever it may (shall) be.

Kial = _Why_, _wherefore_ (par. 150).

Example.--_Kial vi silentis?_ = Why were you silent?

Kiam = _When_, _at what time_ (par. 151).

Example.--_Kiam li alvenos?_ = When will he arrive?

Kiam ajn = _Whenever_, _whensoever_ (par. 145).

Example.--_Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos_ = Send him to me whenever he comes (shall come).

Kie = _Where_, _in what place_ (par. 152).

Examples.--_Kie kreskas tiuj floroj?_ = Where do those flowers grow? _Diru al mi, kie li estas_ = Tell me where he is. _Kien_ (accusative) = Whither. _Kien vi iras?_ = Whither (_or_, where) are you going? _De kie li venis?_ = Whence did he come?

Kie ajn = _Wherever_, _wheresoever_ (par. 145).

Examples.--_Kie ajn li estas, li estas ŝatata_ = Wherever he is, he is liked. _Kien ajn_ = Whithersoever. _Oni lin estimus, kien ajn li irus_ = He would be esteemed whithersoever he went (should go). _De kie ajn ĝi venis, ĝi estas tre bela katido_ = Whencesoever (from wherever) it came, it is a very fine kitten.

Kiel = _How_, _in what manner_, _like_ (in comparison = _... as_).

Examples.--_Kiel vi fartas?_ = How do you do? (how are you, _or_, fare you?) _Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari_ = I have some idea how to do it. _Tiel longe kiel_ = As long as. _Se vi estus kiel mi_ = If you were (should be) like me. _Kiel eble plej bone_ = As well as possible (as possibly, most well). _Kiel bona vi estas!_ = How good you are! (par. 153).

Kiel ajn = _However_, _in whatever manner_ (par. 145).

Example.--_Kiel ajn vi ĝin faros, faru ĝin bone_ = In whatever way you (will) do it, do it well.

Kiom = _How much_, _as much as_, _as far as_ (par. 156).

Examples.--_Kiom kostas tio?_ = How much does that cost? _Kiom mi scias_ = As far as I know. _Kiom li povos_ = As much as he can (will be able).

Kiom ajn = _However_ (_many_) _much_, _whatever quantity_.

Examples.--_Mi ĝin aĉetos, kiom ajn ĝi kostos_ = I shall buy it, however much it may (will) cost. _Kiom ajn da teo estas tie, tiom sufiĉas_ = Whatever quantity of tea is there, it (that quantity) is sufficient (par. 145).

Kompare = _Comparatively_, _in comparison_.

Kompate = _Compassionately_, _mercifully_. Senkompate = _Pitilessly_.

Kompreneble = _Of course_.

Kondiĉe = _Conditionally_, _on condition_.

Konforme = _Conformably_, _in accordance_.

Konsekvence = _Consistently_.

Konsente = _By consent_.

Kontente = _Contentedly_. Malkontente = _Discontentedly_.

Kontentige = _Satisfactorily_, _in a satisfactory manner_.

Kontraŭe = _On the contrary_, _opposite to_, _vice versâ_.

Kredeble = _Likely_, _probably_.

Kune = _Together_, _jointly_. Kune kun = _Together with_, _along with_. Malkune = _Separately_.

Kvazaŭ = _As if_, _as though_, _as it were_ (also conjunction).

Examples.--_Li staris, kvazaŭ li vidas fantomon_ = He stood as though he saw (sees) a phantom. _Li parolis, kvazaŭ li vidis ŝin_ = He spoke as if he had seen her.

Laŭlarĝe = _In breadth_, _broadways_, _transversely_.

Laŭlonge = _In length_, _lengthwise_.

Laŭvole = _At option_, _at will_.

Laŭte = _Loudly_, _in a loud voice_. Mallaŭte = _Softly_, _in a soft voice_.

Lerte = _Cleverly_. Mallerte = _Awkwardly_.

Longe = _Long_, _for a long time_. Mallonge = _Briefly_, _in short_. Antaŭ ne longe = _Recently_, _not long ago_, _a short time ago_. De longe = _Long ago_, _long since_, _for a long time_.

Male = _On the contrary_, _contrarily_.

Malpleje = _Least_, _at least_.

Examples.--_Li malpleje donis_ = He gave least. _Ni estos tri mapleje_ = We shall be three at least (see _pleje_).

Malpli = _Less_ (for comparatives) (par. 112).

Example.--_Georgo estas malpli forta, ol Johano_ = George is less strong than John.

Malproksime = _Afar_, _away_, _far off_, _in the distance_.

Matene = _In the morning_. Vespere = _In the evening_.

Mem = _Self_, _selves_, _very_ (pronoun) (par. 127).

Examples.--_Mi mem iros_ = I shall go my_self_. _Eĉ la virinoj mem laboris sur la kampoj_ = Even the women them_selves_ (_or_, the very women) were working in the fields. _Ĉe la pordo mem_ = At the very door (door it_self_).

Morgaŭ = _To-morrow_.

Examples.--_Mi iros tien morgaŭ_ = I shall go there to-morrow. _Li alvenos postmorgaŭ_ = He will arrive the day after to-morrow.

Multe pli multe da ... = _Many_ (_much_) _more of_ ... Nemulte = _Not much_, _not many_. Malmulte = _Little_, _few_.

Ne = _No_, _not_, _nay_.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi deziras kafon?_ = Do you wish for coffee? _Ne, mi jam havas_ = No, I have (some) already (see remarks on negation, par. 59).

Ne tute = _Not entirely_, _not altogether_, _not quite_.

Example.--_Li ne estis tute malprava pri tio, kion li diris_ = He was not altogether wrong in what he said.

Nenial = _For no cause_ (_reason_) (par. 150).

Example.--_Nenial li ĉesis skribi al mi_ = For no reason he ceased writing to me.

Neniam = _Never_ (par. 151).

Example.--_Mi neniam vidis lin_ = I never saw him.

Nenie = _Nowhere_, _in no place_ (par. 152).

Examples.--_Nenie oni povis trovi mian hundon_ = Nowhere could they find my dog. _Mi iras nenien speciale_ = I am going nowhere in particular.

Neniel = _Nohow_, _by no means_, _in no way_ (par. 153).

Example.--_Li neniel povis kompreni ŝin_ = He could in no way (not at all) understand her.

Neniom = _None_, _nothing_, _nothing at all_, _no quantity_ (par. 156).

Example.--_Li havas neniom_ = He has none at all.

Nepre = _Unfailingly_, _surely_, _infallibly_, _without fail_.

Example.--_Tiu libro nepre apartenas al mi_ = That book certainly belongs to me.

Norden = _Northwards_, _to the north_. Suden = _Southwards_, _to the south_. Orienten = _Eastwards_, _to the east_. Okcidenten = _Westwards_. Okcidente = _In the west_.

Nun = _Now_.

Examples.--_Mi nun foriras_ = I am now going out. _Mi ne povas lin vidi nun_ = I cannot see him now.

Nune = _At present_.

Example.--_Mi estas okupata nune_ = I am busy at present.

Nuntempe = _Now-a-days_, _at the present time_.

Nur = _Only_ (_but_, in the sense of _only_), _merely_.

Example.--_Li havas nur du ĉevalojn_ = He has but (only) two horses. N.B.--Care should be taken to place _nur_ in such a position in a sentence so as to convey the required meaning of the phrase. It is best generally to place it before the word to which it specially refers (see par. 88).

Pace = _In peace_, _peacefully_.

Page = _In payment_. Senpage = _Gratuitously_.

Parkere = _By heart_.

Parole = _Verbally_, _by word of mouth_. Skribe = _In writing_.

Example.--_Li tion komunikis al mi parole kaj skribe_ = He communicated that to me verbally and in writing.

Pasie = _With passion_, _passionately_. Kolere, _angrily_.

Pere = _Indirectly_. Senpere = _In a direct way_, _direct_.

Persone = _Personally_, _in person_.

Piedire = _On foot._

Example.--_Mi trapasis la arbaron piedire_ = I traversed the wood on foot.

(la) Plej = (_the_) _Most_ (for superlatives), _most_ (par. 113).

Examples.--_La plej bela el ĉiuj_ = The finest of all. _Vi agis plej saĝe, farante tion_ = You acted most wisely in doing that.

Pleje = _Most_, _mostly_, _mainly_, _at most_.

Examples.--_Ŝi donis pleje_ = She gave most. _Pleje_ (or, _plejofte_) _mi forgesas, ke ..._ = Mostly (frequently) I forget that ... _Ni estos kvin pleje_ = We shall be five at most (see _malpleje_).

Plezure = _With pleasure._

Pli = _More_ (for comparatives), _rather_ (par. 112).

Examples.--_Li ne vivos pli ol unu tagon_ = He will not live more than one day. _Pli kaj pli mi ŝin amas_ = More and more I love her. _Mi pli volis labori, ol ludi_ = I preferred to work than to play.

Plie = _Further_, _moreover_.

Plivole = _Preferably_, _rather_ (par. 112).

Plu = _Further_, _farther_, _more_. Ne ... plu = _No longer._

Examples.--_Mi ne faros unu paŝon plu_ = I shall not go (make) one step further. _Li ne plu faros tion_ = He will not do that any longer (more), or, He will no longer do that.

Plue = _Furthermore._

Poduone = _By half_, _by halves_.

Poste = _Afterwards_, _after_, _then_.

Precipe = _Especially_, _particularly_.

Prefere = _Preferably_, _rather_.

Preskaŭ = _Almost_, _nearly_, _well-nigh_.

Examples.--_Li preskaŭ falis_ = He nearly fell. _Ni preskaŭ pensas, ke ..._ = We almost think that ...

Pripensinte = _On reflection._

Proksime = _Near._ Malproksime = _Far off._

Proksimume = _Approximately._

Prunte = _On loan._

Example.--_Mi prenis (donis) la monon prunte_ = I took (gave) the money on loan.

Rapide = _Rapidly_, _quickly_, _apace_. Malrapide = _Slowly_, _tardily_.

Rapidire = _With speed_, _by express_. Malrapidire = _By slow train._

Rave = _Enchantingly_, _delightfully_.

Ree = _Again_, _in return_.

Rekte = _Straightforwardly_, _direct_. Malrekte = _Aslant._

Renversite = _Topsy-turvy_, _upset_.

Returne = _Back._ Returnen = _Backwards._

Ŝajne = _Seemingly._

Samtempe = _At the same time_, _simultaneously_.

Sekve = _Consequently_, _therefore_. Intersekve = _Consecutively_, _successively_.

Sendube = _No doubt_; _without doubt_, _doubtless_.

Senintermanke = _Continuously_, _without intermission_.

Skribe = _In writing._

Sovaĝe = _In a wild state._ Malsovaĝe = _In a tame state._

Somere = _In summer._ Vintre = _In winter._

Speciale = _Specially._

Sube = _Beneath_, _below_, _under_, _underneath_.

Sufiĉe = _Enough_, _sufficiently_.

Supre = _Above_, _up_. Supren = _Upwards._ Malsupre = _Below._ De supre = _From above._

Surgenue = _On one's knees_, _kneeling_.

Surprize = _By (with) surprise._

Tial = _Therefore_, _accordingly_, _for that (such) reason_.

Example.--_Tial mi konsilas, ke vi skribu al li_ = For that reason (therefore, accordingly) I advise you to write to him (par. 150).

Tiam = _Then_, _at that time_. The correlative is kiam, and tiam, kiam = _then_, _when_ (or, _when_) (par. 151).

Examples.--_Tiam ni povos iri al la kunveno_ = We shall at that time be able to go to the meeting. _Mi vizitos vin (tiam), kiam mi venos Londonon_ = I will visit you (then) when I (shall) come to London.

Tiamaniere = _In this (such a) manner_, _thus_.

Tie = _There_, _yonder_. Tien = _Thither_ (par. 152).

Examples.--_Ĉu iu estos tie?_ = Will anyone be there? _Vi ne vidos iun tie._ = You will not see anyone there. _Ĉu vi iras tien?_ = Are you going thither (there)?

Tie ĉi, or, Ĉi tie = _Here._ Tien ĉi, or, Ĉi tien = _Hither_, _here_ (par. 143).

Examples.--_Ĉu viaj fratoj estas tie ĉi?_ = Are your brothers here? _Venu tien ĉi_ = Come here (hither). _Ĉi tie ni vidis amasojn da viroj kaj virinoj_ (or, _geviroj_) = Here we saw crowds of men and women.

Tiel = _Thus_, _in that way_, _like that_, _so much so_. Its correlative in comparison is kiel. Tiel ... kiel = _as ... as_ (par. 153).

Example.--_Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi_ = He is as strong as you.

Tiel ... ke = _So ... that._

Example.--_Li tiel kriegis, ke li raŭkiĝis pro tio_ = He shouted so, that he became hoarse through it.

Tiom = _As much_, _as many_, _so much_, _so many_. Its correlative is kiom, and tiom, kiom = _as many as_, _as much as_ (par. 156).

Examples.--_Tiom estas malfacile memori_ = So much is difficult to remember. _Li tiom laboris, kiom vi_ = He worked as much as you. _Donu al mi tiom da pomoj, kiom da piroj_ = Give me as many apples as pears.

Tiom pli = _So much the more._

Examples.--_Tiom pli bone_ = So much the better. _Tiom pli malbone_ = So much the worse.

Trae = _Right through._

Tre = _Very_, _much_.

Examples.--_Li estas tre dika_ = He is very corpulent. _Mi tre estimas lin_ = I esteem him much.

Treege = _Extremely_, _exceedingly_.

Example.--_Ŝi estas treege kolera_ = She is extremely angry.

Trie = _Thirdly._

Triumfe = _Triumphantly_.

Tro = _Too_, _too much_.

Examples.--_Li estas tro grasa_ = He is too fat. _Mi lin tro amas_ = I love him too much.

Troe = _In excess_.

Example.--_Dudek funtoj troe_ = Twenty pounds in excess.

Tuj = _At once_, _immediately_, _just_ (_at the moment to come_).

Examples.--_Li tuj iris hejmen_ = He went home immediately (at once). _Tuj kantonta_ = just about to sing.

Tuj kiam = _As soon as_ (_immediately when_).

Example.--_Tuj kiam mi lin vidis, kuris al li renkonte_ = As soon as I saw him, I ran to meet him.

Tute = _Entirely_, _quite_, _utterly_, _stark_.

Examples.--_Vi estas tute prava_ = You are quite right. _Li estas tute freneza_ = He is stark mad.

Tute ne = _Not at all_.

Example.--_Mi tute ne komprenas vin_ = I don't at all understand you.

Unue = _First_, _firstly_, _at first_.

Verŝajne = _Probably_, _presumably_.

Vete = _Emulously_.

Vole = _With one's will_. Kontraŭvole = _Against one's will_. Memvole = _Voluntarily_. Senvole = _Involuntarily_.

Vole-nevole = _Willy-nilly_.

Volonte = _Willingly_, _readily_.

248 (_c_). From the above list we see that the adverb is often used in Esperanto in place of a preposition and its complement (par. 252).

Examples.--_Ŝi estas nigre vestita_ = She is dressed in black. _Li donis al mi du ŝilingojn page por la libro_ = He gave me two shillings in payment for the book. _Forme ĝi estis simila al krono_ = In shape it was like a crown. _La libro estas angle skribita_ = The book is written in English. _Hamleto estas tradukita Esperanten_ = Hamlet has been translated into Esperanto. Note that in the word _Esperanten_ the accusative of movement is used figuratively. (par. 67).

PREPOSITIONS.

The following is a list of the 34 simple prepositions, showing the paragraphs under which remarks and examples of their use will be found:--

Par.
Al _To, towards_ 259 (1).
Anstataŭ _Instead of_ 259 (2).
Antaŭ _Before, in front of_ 259 (3).
Apud _Beside, close by_ 259 (4).
Ĉe _At, with_ 259 (5).
Ĉirkaŭ _About, around_ 259 (6).
Da _Of_ 259 (7).
De _Of, from, by_ 259 (8).
Dum _During_ 259 (9).
Ekster _Outside_ 259 (10).
El _Out of_ 259 (11).
En _In_ 259 (12).
Ĝis _Till, as far as_ 259 (13).
Inter _Between_ 259 (14).
Je _(Indefinite)_ 259 (15).
Kontraŭ _Against, opposite_ 259 (16).
Krom _Besides, except_ 259 (17).
Kun _With_ 259 (18).
Laŭ _According to_ 259 (19).
Malgraŭ _Notwithstanding_ 259 (20).
Per _By means of_ 259 (21).
Po _At the rate of_ 259 (22).
Por _In order to, for_ 259 (23).
Post _After, behind_ 259 (24).
Preter _Beyond, past_ 259 (25).
Pri _Concerning, of, about_ 259 (26).
Pro _Because of, for_ 259 (27).
Sen _Without_ 259 (28).
Sub _Under_ 259 (30).
Super _Above, over_ 259 (31).
Sur _On_ 259 (32).
Tra _Through_ 259 (33).
Trans _Across_ 259 (34).

PREPOSITIONS (Prepozicioj).

249. Prepositions express the relation between words, showing how some thing, action, or quality stands in relation to some other thing, action, or quality.

Examples.--_La riveroj fluas al la oceano_ = Rivers flow towards the ocean. _Li manĝas antaŭ la tagmezo_ = He eats before midday. _Nia domo staras ekster la arbetaro_ = Our house stands outside the plantation.

250. Every preposition, but one, in Esperanto has a fixed and definite signification, and great care must be taken to use the preposition which gives the meaning we wish to convey. A careful examination of the list of prepositions in par. 259 will show the errors we should make by translating the English preposition into its apparent corresponding one in Esperanto.

251. The preposition je is the only one in Esperanto without a definite meaning. It should be used only when we have to employ a preposition and are uncertain which we ought to select. We can, however, omit the preposition, and put its complement (noun or pronoun) in the accusative case, provided no ambiguity is likely to arise through the presence of other accusatives in the sentence, as:--Li ĝojas je tio, or, Li ĝojas tion = _He rejoices at_ (or, _over_) _that_. There is no Esperanto preposition which gives exactly the English meaning of "at" or "over" in this sense. We might, perhaps, say that these words are part of the verb "to rejoice at," or, "to rejoice over." The nearest Esperanto preposition would be pri or pro = _about_, or, _because of_, and we could say Li ĝojas pro tio = _He rejoices because of that_ (see Rule 14, par. 94).

(_a_). Je, with the nominative, is generally used before the complement of the adjectives "deep, high, long, thick, wide," but the accusative without a preposition is equally correct.

Examples.--_Profunda_ (_alta_, _longa_) _je kvin futoj_ (or, _kvin futojn_) = Five feet deep (high, long). _La rivero estas larĝa je kvindek metroj_ (or, _larĝa kvindek metrojn_) = The river is fifty metres wide. We could, however, say, _La rivero havas kvindek metrojn da larĝo_ (or, _da larĝeco_).

252. Adverb for preposition.--An adverb is often used instead of a preposition and its complement (par. 248 (_c_)).

Examples.--_Li parolas saĝe_ = He speaks with wisdom, instead of, _Li parolas kun saĝeco_. _Li estis frapata perfortege_ = He was being struck with great violence, instead of, _Li estis frapata kun perfortego_.

253. Preposition omitted.--Not only the preposition Je (par. 251), but also other prepositions, are frequently omitted in Esperanto where we use them in English; but in such case (as stated in par. 68) their complements must be in the accusative to show the omission. Care, however, must be taken that the omission does not make the phrase ambiguous.

Examples.--_Li venos la mardon proksiman_ (or, _en la mardo proksima_) = He will come next Tuesday. _Mi iros Madridon_ (or, _al Madrido_) _morgaŭ_ = I shall go to Madrid to-morrow. _Mi lin vidis la dekan_ (or, _en la deka_) _de Julio_ = I saw him on the 10th of July. _Ni restis en la veturilo du horojn_ (or, _dum du horoj_) = We remained two hours in the carriage.