Chapter XI: Part II: Grammar (6)

Inter, as:--_La plej malgranda inter_ (or, _el_) _ĉiuj arboj en la ĝardeno_ = The smallest of (among) all the trees in the garden.

Kun, as:--_Ŝi estas virino kun gusto_ = She is a woman of (with) taste.

Pri, as:--_Ne pensu pri ĝi_ = Do not think of (about) it. _Ŝi parolis pri sia frato_ = She spoke of (about) her brother.

Pro, as:--_Li mortis pro_ (or, _de_) _malsato_ = He died of (owing to) hunger.

Adjective, as:--_Li estas sperta homo_ = He is a man of experience (an experienced man).

On.

261 (g). Represented by:--

Al, as:--_Peston al la tranĉilo!_ = Plague on the knife!

Ĉe, as:--_Ĉe_ (or better, _sur_) _la alia flanko de la strato_ = On (at) the other side of the street. _Ĉe tio mi eliris el la ĉambro_ = On that, I left the room.

Ĉirkaŭ, as:--_La rado turniĝis ĉirkaŭ sia akso_ = The wheel turned on its axis.

De, as:--_Ĝi dependas de la nombro de vortoj_ = It depends on (from) the number of words.

En, as:--_En la tago difinita_ = On (in) the appointed day.

Je, as:--_Mi gratulas vin je_ (or, _pri_) _via reveno_ = I congratulate you on (concerning) your return.

Kun, as:--_Ŝi ĝin donis al mi kun_ (or, _sub_) _tiu kondiĉo_ = She gave it me on (with) that condition.

Post, as:--_Post plua konsiderado_ = On (after) further consideration.

Pri, as:--_Li gratulis min pri mia edziĝo_ = He congratulated me on (concerning) my marriage.

Pro, as:--_Pro tio mi lin lasis_ = On that account I left him.

Sub, as:--_Li vizitis min sub la preteksto, ke li estas parenco_ = He visited me on (under) the pretext that he was (is) a relation.

Sur, as:--_La paperoj kuŝas sur la tablo_ = The papers are lying on the table.

Accusative, as:--_Li ĝin donis al mi lundon_ = He gave it me on a Monday.

Adjective, as:--_La veturilo estas luebla_ = The carriage is on hire (is able to be hired).

Adverb, as:--_Li staris dekstre_ = He stood on the right. _Li ĝin faris intence_ = He did it on purpose. _Prunte_ = On loan.

To.

261 (_h_). Represented by:--

Al, as:--_Mi iras al Parizo_ = I am going to Paris. _Li diris al mi_ = He said to me.

En, as:--_Li ridetis en si mem_ = He smiled to (in) himself. _Li reiris en la urbon_ = He went back to (into) the town.

Ĝis, as:--_De sabato ĝis mardo_ = From Saturday to (till) Tuesday. _Li amis ĝis freneziĝo_ = He loved to frenzy.

Ke (with a personal pronoun), as:--_Vi bone faris, ke vi venis_ = You did well to come (that you came).

Kontraŭ, as:--_Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo_ = Face to (opposite) face.

Kun, as:--_Li fianĉiĝis kun mia kuzino_ = He became engaged (affianced) to my cousin.

Por, as:--_Mi havas multe_ (or, _multon_) _por fari_ = I have much to do (for to do). _Ŝi estis muta por ĉiuj liaj demandoj_ = She was dumb to (for) all his questions. _Tia agado estas danĝera por ni_ = Such action is dangerous to (for) us.

Pri, as:--_Pri tio lasu min zorgi_ = Let me look to that.

Sub, as:--_Sub la sono de muziko_ = To (under) the sound of music.

Sur, as:--_Iri sur la kamparon_ = To go to (into) the country.

Adverb, as:--_Li iris dekstren_ = He went to the right. _Morte kondamnita_ = Condemned to death.

Accusative, as:--_Mi iris Parizon_ = I went to Paris.

With.

261 (_i_). Represented by:--

Ĉe, as:--_Por esti ĉe li, mi fordonis ĉion_ = To be with (at) him, I gave up everything.

De, as:--_Li eksaltis de surprizo_ = He started with (from) surprise.

El, as:--_Kion ni faros el tio?_ = What shall we do (make) with (out of) that?

Je, as:--_Li okupis sin je_ (or, _pri_) _meĥaniko_ = He occupied himself with (concerning, about) mechanics.

Kontraŭ, as:--_Li batalis kontraŭ la malamiko_ = He fought with the enemy.

Kun, as:--_Li paroladas kun sia amiko_ = He is conversing (talking) with (to) his friend.

Laŭ, as:--_Li kuris laŭ granda rapideco_ = He ran with great rapidity.

Per, as:--_Li mortigis sin per glavo_ = He killed himself with (by means of) a sword.

Pri, as:--_Pri tio mi havas nenion por diri_ = With regard to (concerning) that, I have nothing to say.

Sub, as:--_Mi ĝin donis al li sub tiu kondiĉo_ = I gave it to him with (under) that condition.

Adverb, as:--_Rilate vian leteron_ = With reference to (relating to) your letter.

CONJUNCTIONS (Konjunkcioj).

262. Conjunctions serve to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Examples.--_Somero_ kaj _Vintro_ = Summer and Winter. _Tage_ aŭ _nokte_ = By day or by night. _Li diras_, ke _vi estas mallaborema_ = He says that you are lazy. _Li estas fiera_, sed _vi estas humila_ = He is proud, but you are humble.

263. Conjunctions are of two kinds, Co-ordinating and Subordinating. They have no influence over the moods of verbs (par. 171 (_b_)).

264. Co-ordinating conjunctions connect two sentences, or two members of a sentence that are independent of each other. These are of five classes:--

(1). Copulative, as:--_kaj_ = and; _kaj ... kaj_ = both ... and.

(2). Alternative, as:--_aŭ_ = or; _aŭ ... aŭ_ = either ... or; _nek_ = nor, _nek ... nek_ = neither ... nor.

(3). Adversative, as:--_sed_ = but.

(4). Causative, as:--_ĉar_ = for.

(5). Illative, as:--_tial_ = therefore.

265. Subordinating conjunctions introduce a clause that is dependent on another. There are six classes, viz., conjunctions of:--

(1). Manner or Degree, as:--_kiel_ = as, _kvazaŭ_ = as if, as though, _ol_ = than, etc.

(2). Consequence, as:--_ke_ = that, _tiel ke_ = so that.

(3). Reason or Cause, as:--_ĉar_ = because, since, _tial ke_ = inasmuch as, since, etc.

(4). Purpose, as:--_timante ke_ = lest, for fear that, fearing that, etc.

(5). Condition, as:--_se_ = if, _esceptinte ke_, _krom se_ = unless, except, _se nur_ = provided that, if only, etc.

(6). Concession, as:--_kvankam_ = though, although, _tamen_ = however, notwithstanding, _eĉ se_ = even if, etc.

266. Conjunctions connect the same cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. When there is a diversity of case, it is due to ellipsis (see par. 105).

Example.--_Mi vidis lin kaj lian fraton, sed ne lian fratinon_ = I saw him and his brother, but not his sister.

267. The co-ordinating conjunction is sometimes omitted.

Examples.--_Li venis, li vidis, li venkis_ = He came, he saw, he conquered! _Vi iros, Johano restos tie ĉi_ = You will go, John will remain here.

268. Conjunctions and adverbs.--Some English words are sometimes adverbs and sometimes conjunctions, more especially those introducing clauses of time or place. Some are also prepositions as well as conjunctions and adverbs, and care must be taken to use the correct Esperanto words in such cases. For instance, in English "before," "after," and "since" are prepositions, adverbs, or conjunctions.

Before (prep.) = _Antaŭ._

Example.--_Li staris antaŭ la reĝo_ = He stood before the king.

Before (adv.) = _Antaŭe._

Example.--_La reĝo neniam lin vidis antaŭe_ = The king never saw him before.

Before (conj.) = _Antaŭ ol._

Example.--_Pripensu antaŭ ol paroli_ = Reflect before speaking.

After (prep.) = _Post_, or, _malantaŭ_.

Example.--_Post la hundoj, venis la homoj_ = After (behind) the dogs came the men.

After (adv.) = _Poste_, or, _malantaŭe_.

Example.--_La rajdantoj iris antaŭe, kaj la hundoj venis poste_ (or, _malantaŭe_) = The riders went in advance, and the dogs came after.

After (conj.) = _Post kiam_, or, _kiam_.

Example.--_Resendu al mi la libron, post kiam_ (or, _kiam_) _vi estos ĝin traleginta_ = Send me back the book after you (will) have read it through.

Since (prep.) = _De_.

Example.--_De la kreo de la mondo_ = Since the creation of the world.

Since (adv.) = _De tiu tempo; de tiam; de kiam; de la tempo, kiam._

Example.--_Mi lin vidis hieraŭ, sed mi lin ne vidis de tiu tempo_ = I saw him yesterday, but I have not seen him since.

Since (conj.) = _Ĉar_.

Example.--_Mi devas ĝin fari, ĉar vi insistas_ = I must do it, since you insist.

LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS

(Including Conjunctive Adverbs).

268. (_a_). The following is a list of the principal conjunctions. Some of them, according to the sense in which they are used, are employed also as adverbs or prepositions, and will be found in the lists of adverbs and prepositions in pars. 248 (_b_) and 259.

Alie = _Otherwise_, _or_, _else_.

Example.--_Mi ne vidis lin, alie mi estus vin sciiginta_ = I did not see him, otherwise (else, or) I should have told (informed) you.

Aliflanke = _On the other hand_.

Example.--_Kelkaj personoj diras, ke Johano estas fripono: aliflanke, aliaj diras, ke li estas naivulo_ = Some persons say John is a knave; on the other hand, some say he is a simpleton.

Almenaŭ = _At least_.

Example.--_Almenaŭ li provis ĝin fari_ = At least he tried to do it.

Ankaŭ = _Also_, _too_, _as well_ (also adverb).

Examples.--_Mi ankaŭ ĝin vidis_ = I, too, saw it. _Johano kaj ankaŭ Mario estis tie_ = John and also Mary were there.

Antaŭ ol = _Before_, _ere_.

Examples.--_Antaŭ ol morti, li diris ..._ = Before dying he said ... _Li vespermanĝis, antaŭ ol li foriris_ = He dined before he went away. _Antaŭ ol ni atingos lin, li estos malproksime_ = Ere we (shall) reach him, he will be far away. _Antaŭ ol iri Londonon, ni veturis Berlinon_ = Before going to London, we travelled to Berlin.

Aŭ = _Or._

Example.--_Oni ne scias, ĉu li ploras aŭ ridas_ = One does not know whether he is weeping or laughing.

Aŭ ... aŭ = _Either ... or._

Example.--_Aŭ vi aŭ mi devos ĝin fari_ = Either you or I must (will have to) do it.

Cetere = _Besides_, _for the rest_, _for the matter of that_.

Example.--_Li ne venis; cetere, se li estus veninta, mi ne estus vidinta_ (or, _vidus_) _lin_ = He did not come; besides, if he had (should have) come, I should not have seen him.

Ĉar = _Because_, _for_, _since_.

Examples.--_Tion mi scias, ĉar tie mi estas_ = I know that, because (for) I was there. _Ĉar vi ne estis tie, vi ne povas ĝin scii_ = Since you were not there, you cannot know it.

Ĉiufoje kiam, ĉiun fojon kiam = _Every time when_, _each time when_.

Example.--_Mi lin renkontadis ĉiufoje, kiam mi iris Londonon_ = I met him every time (when) I went to London.

Ĉu = _Whether_, or, _if_ (see remarks on ĉu in the list of adverbs, par. 248 (_b_)).

Ĉu ... aŭ = _Whether ... or._

Example.--_Mi iros, ĉu li venos aŭ ne_ = I shall go, whether he come (will come) or not.

Ĉu ... ĉu = _Whether ... whether_.

Example.--_Ĉu li skribos, ĉu li ne skribos, mi ne respondos al li_ = Whether he writes, whether he does not write, I shall not reply to him.

De l' tempo kiam, or, de kiam = _Since, from the time when._

Example.--_De l' tempo kiam li mortis...._ = Since he died....

Des pli = _So much the_. Des pli is generally used with Ju pli (_which see_), but sometimes alone in reply to questions (par. 112).

Example.--_Mi devas averti vin, ke li eble ne estos hejme_ = I must warn you, that perhaps he will not be (_or_, that he may not be) at home. _Des pli bone! mi tute ne deziras lin vidi_ = So much the better, I don't at all wish to see him.

Do = _Then_, _therefore_, _consequently_ (argumentative).

Examples.--_Mi do povas dormi trankvile_ = Then I can sleep tranquilly. _Estis do vidaĵo mirinda!_ = It was then a wonderful sight! _Kion do Johano diros?_ = What then will John say?

Dum (also preposition) = _While_, _whilst_ (par. 259 (10)).

Examples.--_Dum li estis parolanta, ni eliris el la ĉambro_ = Whilst he was speaking, we went out of the room. _Li povas labori, dum mi estas for_ = He can work, whilst I am away.

Dume = _Meantime_, _meanwhile_ (also adverb).

Example.--_Ili ekbruligis la fajron, dume ni pretigis la manĝaĵon_ = They lighted the fire, meanwhile we got the food ready.

Eĉ se = _Even if_.

Example.--_Ili ne volus iri, eĉ se ili estus invititaj_ = They would not wish to go, even if they were (should be) invited.

Foje kiam = _Once when_, _one day when_, _once upon a time._

Example.--_Foje kiam mi promenis, mi renkontis vian amikon_ = Once (one day), when walking, I met your friend.

Ĝis (also preposition) = _Till_, _until_ (par. 259 (13)).

Example.--_Atendu, ĝis mi revenos_[22] = Wait till I (shall) return.

Footnote:

[22] N.B.--Some writers would say _ĝis kiam_. Zamenhof never did--the second word appears superfluous.

Jen = _Behold_, _here_ (also an adverb and interjection).

Example.--_Jen la malsameco de la rezulto klariĝas_ = Here the difference of the result is explained.

Jen ... jen = _Now ... now_, _sometimes ... at other times_.

Example.--_Jen li kuras rapide, jen li haltas!_ = Now he runs rapidly, now he stops!

Ju malpli ... des malpli = _The less ... the less_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Ju malpli li laboras, des malpli li enspezas_ = The less he works, the less he earns.

Ju malpli ... des pli = _The less ... the more_.

Example.--_Ju malpli li trinkas, des pli li manĝas_ = The less he drinks, the more he eats.

Ju pli ... des malpli = _The more ... the less_.

Example.--_Ju pli ni trinkas, des malpli ni manĝas_ = The more we drink, the less we eat.

Ju pli ... des pli = _The more ... the more_.

Example.--_Ju pli bona vi estos, des pli vi estos amata_ = The better you are, the more you will be loved.

Kaj = _And_.

Example.--_Vi kaj mi devas ĝin fari_ = You and I must do it.

Kaj ... kaj = _Both ... and_.

Example.--_Mi vidis tie kaj Johanon kaj Georgon_ = I saw both John and George there.

Kaj ceteraj = _And the rest_, _et cetera_ (commonly written k.c.).

Kaj tiel plu = _And so forth_, _and so on_ (commonly written k.t.p.).

Ke = _That_. Be careful not to use ke for the pronouns kio, kiu, tio, or tiu = _that_.

Examples.--_Mi esperas, ke tio, kion vi havas en la mano, ne estas venena insekto_ = I hope that that which you have in your (the) hand is not a poisonous insect. _Mi pensas, ke tiu vorto estas malĝuste tradukita_ = I think that that word is wrongly translated.

Kial = _Wherefore_, _why_ (par. 150) (also adverb).

Example.--_Demandu lin, kial li tion faras_ = Ask him why he does that.

Kiam = _When_, _as_, _after_ (kiam = _after_, when used with the English pluperfect) (par. 151).

Examples.--_Pluvis forte, kiam ni atingis_ (_alproksimiĝis_) _la lagon_ = It rained heavily when (as) we reached the lake. _Kiam mi estis kolektinta la sumon, mi aĉetis novan libron_ = After (when) I had collected the amount, I bought a new book.

Kiam ajn = _Whenever_ (par. 145).

Example.--_Li balbutis, kiam ajn li parolis_ = He stammered whenever he spoke.

Kie = _Where_ (par. 152) (also adverb).

Example.--_Sciigu min, kie li estas_ = Tell (inform) me where he is.

Kie ajn = _Wherever_ (par. 145).

Example.--_Mi lin trovos, kie ajn li estas_ = I shall find him wherever he is.

Kiel = _As_ (in comparison) (par. 153).

Example.--_Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi_ = He is as strong as you.

Kiel ajn malmulte = _However little_.

Example.--_Kiel ajn malmulte vi volos_ (or, _volas_) ... = However little you may (will) wish....

Kiel ankaŭ = _As also_, _as well as_.

Example.--_Mia patro, kiel ankaŭ mi, pensas, ke...._ = My father, as well as I, thinks that....

Kiel eble plej baldaŭ = _As soon as possible_ (lit., as possible, most soon). Kiel eble plej should be used as follows:--

Examples.--_Kiel eble plej frue_ = As early as possible. _Kiel eble plej rapide_ = As quickly as possible. _Sendu lin al mi kiel eble plej baldaŭ_ = Send him to me as soon as possible.

Kiel ekzemple = _As for example_.

Example.--_Oni ne manĝas kelkajn birdojn, kiel ekzemple aglojn, akcipitrojn, vulturojn, cikoniojn, kaj aliajn_ = People do not eat some birds, as, for example, eagles, hawks, vultures, storks, and others.

Kio ajn okazos (or, _ĉiuokaze_) = _At all events_ (lit., whatever shall happen).

Example.--_Mi venos morgaŭ, kio ajn okazos_ = I shall come to-morrow whatever happens.

Kondiĉe, ke = _On condition that_.

Example.--_Mi vin forpermesos, kondiĉe, ke vi revenu postmorgaŭ_ = I will give you leave of absence, on condition that you return the day after to-morrow.

Konsente, ke = _It being agreed that_.

Example.--_Mi iros, konsente, ke vi ankaŭ estu tie_ = I will go, it being understood that (agreed that) you also be there.

Kontraŭe = _On the contrary_ (also adverb).

Example.--_Vi preferas la bovaĵon, mi, kontraŭe, preferas la ŝafaĵon_ = You prefer beef, I, on the contrary, prefer mutton.

Krom se = _Unless_.

Examples.--_Krom se ili rapidos_ (or, _se ili ne rapidos_), _ili maltrafos la vagonaron_ = Unless they (will) make haste, they will miss the train.

Krom tio = _Besides_, _moreover_, _apart from that_.

Example.--_Ŝi estis krom tio tre bela knabino_ = She was, besides (moreover), a very beautiful girl.

Kun la kondiĉo, ke = _On_ (_with_) _the condition that_.

Example.--_Mi pruntis al li la libron kun la kondiĉo, ke li redonu ĝin al mi postmorgaŭ_ = I lent him the book on the condition that he should (is to) return it to me the day after to-morrow.

Kvankam = _Although_, _though_.

Examples.--_Kvankam li estas riĉa, tamen li ne estas feliĉa_ = Although he is rich, yet he is not happy. _Kvankam mi konsentas vian opinion, tamen mi ne povas akordiĝi kun vi_ = Though I agree with your opinion, I cannot nevertheless be in accord with you.

Kvazaŭ = _As if_, _as though_ (also adverb).

Example.--_Li staris, kvazaŭ li vidas teruraĵon_ = He stood as if he saw a terrible object.

Laŭ tio ... ke = According as.

Example.--_Laŭ tio, ke vi estos atenta aŭ maldiligenta, la lernejestroj vin laŭdos aŭ mallaŭdos_ = According as you are (will be) attentive or idle, the schoolmaster will praise or blame you.

Malgraŭ ĉio = _In spite of all_ (_everything_), _after all_.

Example.--_Li foriris malgraŭ ĉio, kion mi diris_ = He went away in spite of all I said.

Malgraŭ tio, ke = _Notwithstanding that._

Example.--_Malgraŭ tio, ke mi ne havis palton, mi eliris_ = Notwithstanding that I had no overcoat, I went out.

Malpli ... ol = _Less ... than_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Li estas malpli kuraĝa, ol lia frato_ = He is less courageous than his brother.

Ne nur, ne sole = _Not only._

Example.--_Li ne nur ŝtelis, sed li mortigis ankaŭ_ = He not only stole, but he committed murder (murdered) also.

Nek = _Nor_ (par. 59 (_c_)).

Example.--_Li ne estis tie, nek mi_ = He was not there, nor I.

Nek ... ankaŭ = _Nor ... also_, _nor ... too_, _nor ... either_.

Example.--_Vi ne estis tie, nek mi ankaŭ_ = You were not there, nor I either.

Nek ... nek = _Neither ... nor_ (par. 59 (_c_)).

Example.--_Nek vi nek mi estis tie_ = Neither you nor I was there.

_Ol_ = _Than_ (par. 112).

Examples.--_Pli bone malfrue, ol neniam_ = Better late than never. _La libro ne kostos pli ol tri ŝilingojn_ = The book will not cost more than three shillings.

Per (or, pro) tio, ke = In that, since.

Example.--_La akvo diferencas de la glacio per tio, ke tiu estas fluida, kaj ĉi tiu malfluida_ = Water differs from ice, in that the former is fluid and the latter solid.

Pli ... ol = _More ... than_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Li estas pli forta, ol vi_ = He is stronger than you.

Plie = _Moreover_, _further_ (also adverb).

Example.--_Plie, mi diras al vi, ke ..._ = Moreover, I tell you that....

Por ke = _In order that_, _so that_, _to the end that_. Por ke is always followed by the Imperative mood, because, when used, this expression implies order (see remarks on Imperative, par. 201).

Examples.--_Por ke mi rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi ĝin meritu_ = In order that I may recompense you, it is proper (fitting) that you merit it. _Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta je mi_ = I wish to do everything, so that you may be satisfied with me, _or_, I will do everything to please you.

Post kiam = _After_.

Example.--_Post kiam la suno subiris, ni revenis hejmen_ = After the sun set we returned home.

Same kiel = _As_, _just as_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Same kiel la patrino amas sian infanon, tiel mi amas vin_ = Just as the mother loves her child, so do I love you.

Se = _If_.

Example.--_Mi ĝin faros, se mi povos_ = I shall do it if I can (shall be able).

Se ne = _If not_, _otherwise_, _lest_.

Example.--_Lernu vian lecionon, se ne, mi vin vergos!_ = Learn your lesson, otherwise I shall cane you!

Se nur = _If only_, _provided that_.

Example.--_Vi vidos Johanon, se nur vi alvenos frue_ = You will see John, provided that you (will) arrive early.

Se okaze = _If perchance_, _in case_, _in the event of_.

Example.--_Se okaze vi venus malfrue, Johano ne estus tie ĉi_ = If perchance you should come late, John would not be here.

Se tamen = _If however_, _if still_, _if though_, _if notwithstanding_.

Example.--_Se tamen vi ne povos veni morgaŭ matene, venu vespere_ = If, however, you are not (will not be) able to come to-morrow morning, come in the evening.

Sed = _But_.

Example.--_Li legas, sed ne komprenas tion, kion li legas_ = He reads, but does not understand what he reads.

Sed ankaŭ = _But also_.

Example.--_Ŝi donis al mi ne nur hundon, sed ankaŭ ĉevalon_ = She gave me not only a dog, but also a horse.

Sed eĉ = _But even_.

Example.--_Ne sole viroj, sed eĉ infanoj estis tie_ = Not only men, but even children were there.

Sekve = _Consequently_.

Example.--_Ekpluvis, sekve ni revenis domen_ = It began to rain, consequently we returned home.

Tamen = _However_, _yet_, _still_, _nevertheless_, _but_.

Examples.--_Kvankam li estas riĉa, tamen li ne estas feliĉa_ = Although he is rich, yet (still) he is not happy. _Mi ne povis veni hodiaŭ, tamen mi venos morgaŭ_ = I could not come to-day, however, I will come to-morrow. _Kvankam li perdis monon, tamen li ne mortis malriĉulo_ = Although he lost money, nevertheless he did not die a poor man.

Tia, ke = _Such that_.

Example.--_Mia teruro estis tia, ke mi ne povis paroli unu vorton_ = My terror was such, that I could not utter a single word.

Tial = _So_, _therefore_ (par. 150) (also adverb).

Example.--_Li rifuzis labori, tial mi eksigis lin_ = He refused to work, therefore (so) I dismissed him.

Tial, ke = _Inasmuch as_, _since_, _because_.

Example.--_Mi vin ne mallaŭdas, tial, ke tio ne estis via eraro_ = I do not blame you, inasmuch as (since) it (that) was not your mistake.

N.B.--Do not confuse tial, ke with tiel, ke = _so that_.

Tiam, kiam = _Then when_, _when_ (par. 151).

Example.--_Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa_, or, _Kiam mi estis riĉa,_ (_tiam_) _mi ne estis feliĉa_ = When I was rich, (then) I was not happy.

Tiamaniere, ke = _In such a manner that_, _so that_.

Example.--_Parolu tiamaniere_ (or, _tiel_), _ke mi povu vin kompreni_ = Speak in such a manner (so) that I can (may be able to) understand you.

Tiel, ke = _So that_.

Example.--_Estis muro inter ili, tiel, ke ili ne povis vidi unu la alian_ = There was a wall between them so that they could not see one another.

Tiel ... ke = _So ... that_.

Example.--_Li estas tiel bona, ke li ĉion pardonas_ = He is so good that he pardons everything.

Tiel ... kiel = _As ... as_ (par. 112).

Example.--_Ŝi estas tiel bona, kiel_ (_ŝi estas_) _bela_ = She is as good as she is beautiful.

Timante, ke, or, pro la timo, ke = _For fear that_, _fearing that_, _lest_.

Example.--_Mi tion diris, timante, ke li venos_ = I said that, fearing that (lest) he would (will) come. Note the use of the future tense here. "What is my fear?" I fear he will perhaps come.

Tio estas (t.e.) = _That is_, _that is to say_, _to wit_. The initial letters are nearly always used just as we say _id est_ = _i.e._

Tiom ... ke = _So many ... that_, _so much ... that_.

Example.--_Mi havis tiom da pomoj, ke mi devis ilin fordoni_ = I had so many apples that I was obliged to give them away.

Tiom ... kiom = _As much ... as_, _as many ... as_.

Example.--_Donu al mi tiom, kiom vi povas_ = Give me as much (many) as you can.

Tuj kiam = _As soon as_, _immediately when_, _directly_.

Example.--_Mi fermis la pordon, tuj kiam li eliris_ = I shut the door as soon as (directly) he went out.

INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.

269. Interjections (_interjekcioj_) and interjectional expressions vary so considerably in force and meaning in different languages that it is impossible to translate some of them. If we translated our English interjections literally into Esperanto, many of them would have no meaning to a foreigner. The following short list appears at present to be in use, but, no doubt, as the language becomes more widely spoken, more will be added.

Adiaŭ! = _Adieu! farewell! good-bye!_

Ah! Aha! = _Ah! hah!_

Aj! = _An exclamation of disgust_.

Antaŭen! = _Forward!_

Atentu! = _Look out! Take care! Attention!_

Aŭskultu! = _Hark! hist!_

Bis! = _Encore!_

Bone! = _Good!_

Bonvenu! Bonvenon! = _Welcome!_

Brave! = _Bravo! capital! splendid!_

Certe! = _Certainly!_

Ĉu estas eble! = _Is it possible!_

Ĉu ne! = _Isn't it! etc._ Ĉu! = _Is it! etc._

Ĉu ne vere! = _Is it not so!_

Dio gardu! = _God save us!_

Dio mia! = _God bless me!_

Dio min savu! = _God save me!_

Dio volu! = _Would to God! may God!_

Efektive! = _Really!_

Fi! = _Fie! for shame!_

For! = _Away! be off!_

For de tie ĉi! = _Begone! be off! avaunt!_

Ha! = _Ah! ha!_

Haltu! = _Stop!_

He! = _Halloo! hey!_

Helpon! Helpu! = _Help!_

Ho! = _O! oh! ho!_

Ho ve! = _Alack! alas! oh dear! welladay!_

Hontu! = _For shame!_

Hura! = _Hurrah! huzza!_

Ja! = _Indeed!_

Jen! = _Lo! there! behold! see!_

Kial do! = _Why indeed! why then!_

Kiel abomene! = _How abominable!_

Kion! = _What!_ Kion do! = _What then!_

Kompreneble! = _Of course!_

Kuraĝe! = _Courage!_

Ne! = _No!_

Nu! = _Well!_

Nu do! = _Well then!_

Pacience! Paciencu! Paciencon! = _Be quiet! Patience!_

Peston! = _Plague on't!_

Pluen! Daŭrigu! = _Proceed! Go on!_

Pro Dio! = _For God's sake!_

Rapidu! Rapide! = _Quick!_

Silentu! Silenton! = _Hist! hush!_

Ŝŝ! = _'Sh! Hush!_

Ts! = _Hist!_

Ve! = _Woe!_

Vere! = _Really! True!_

Verege! Tre vere! = _Very true!_

Vivu! = _Long live!_

269 (_a_). When adjectives are used as interjections, the adverbial form in E is used, because there is neither noun nor pronoun with which they can agree, as:--_Neeble!_ = Impossible! (par. 245).

REMARKS ON THE SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES.

270. Suffix -AĈ-. Prefixes FI- and FUŜ-.

The suffix -aĉ- denotes _badness of quality or condition_, and is used with any part of speech to show _disparagement_, _contempt_. Fuŝi, _to botch_, _bungle_, _do blunderingly_, is sometimes used as a prefix with a similar meaning, though it is less frequently used than -aĉ.

Aĉa = _nasty_; domaĉo = _a hovel_; veteraĉo = _vile weather_; ĉapelaĉo = _a shabby hat_; fuŝkonstrui, or, konstruaĉi = _to jerry-build_.

The exclamation Fi = _fie! for shame!_ is used as a prefix to denote _shamefulness_, _disgustingness_, _nastiness_. Fi- denotes moral rather than physical badness, and is stronger than -aĉ-, which has a more general sense.

Fidomo = _a house of ill repute_; fivorto = _a naughty word_; firakonto = _a low story_.

270 (1). Suffix -AD-. (Ex. 19.)

(_a_). This suffix marks that an action is being continued or is habitual. It marks an action of some duration, not momentary. Thus, pafo = _a shot from a gun_ (the gun is fired, and the action is over); but pafado = _a fusillade_ (a continuance of shots of more or less duration).

Thus _dancado_ = dancing, _desegnado_ = designing, drawing, _kantado_ = singing, _legado_ = reading, _pentrado_ = painting, _skulptado_ = (the art of) sculpture, _skribado_ = writing. These words signify not momentary acts, but habitual actions; in fact, they are used to denote arts or practices, as the art of painting, singing, etc. _Kanto_ = A song. _Ŝia kanto plaĉas al mi_ = Her song pleases me. _Ŝia kantado ĉarmas min_ = Her singing charms me.

(_b_). If we wish to speak of the faculties of hearing, smelling, touching, thought, feeling, will, we say aŭdado, flarado, palpado, pensado, sentado, volado; but if we speak of isolated acts of such faculties, we say aŭdo, flaro, palpo, penso, sento, volo.

(_c_). Sometimes the word arto is used when we wish to specify that some -ado is an art.

Examples.--_Danc-arto_ (_dancado_) = the art of dancing, _kant-arto_ (_kantado_) = the art of singing, _pentr-arto_ (_pentrado_) = the art of painting.

N.B.--The hyphens are not necessary.

(_d_). The difference in meaning of words with and without the suffix is seen in such words as:--

_Movo_ = a motion, _movado_ = movement (general), _progreso_ = a step of progress, _progresado_ = progress (general), _parolo_ = word (spoken), _parolado_ = speech, discourse, _fumo_ = smoke, _fumado_ = smoking (habit of smoking), _verko_ = a work (literary or musical), _verkado_ = composition (lit.).

(_e_). In the verb itself we use this suffix to show that the action is not merely momentary, but is being _continued_, _repeated_, or _is habitual_; an aspect of the verb which is, in English, often expressed by the words "keep on," "used to," etc.

Examples.--_Mi saltadis la tutan tagon de loko al loko_ = I jumped (about) all day long from place to place (kept on jumping). _Viziti_ = To visit. _Vizitadi_ = To frequent, to haunt.

(_f_). Where the root plus o denotes the name of an object, the ending -ado introduces the idea of action, thus: krono = _a crown_; kronado = _coronation_; martelo = _a hammer_; martelado = _hammering_, etc.

(_g_). Do not therefore use _-AD-_ without thinking of its significance, or merely for the sake of euphony.

271. Suffixes -AĴ- and -EC-. (Ex. 20).

(_a_). _-AĴ-_ denotes something having the quality denoted by the root, or made or derived from that which is named by the root. It is also used to denote the flesh of animals intended for food.

Examples.--_Ĉasi_ = to hunt, _ĉasaĵo_ = game. _Armi_ = to arm, _armaĵo_ = armour. _Bovo_ = an ox, _bovaĵo_ = beef. _Ovo_ = an egg, ovaĵo = an omelet.

(_b_). _-EC-_ denotes an _abstract_ quality, similar to the English suffixes, _-nce_, _-ncy_, _-ness_, _-tude_, _-ity_.

Examples.--_Pura_ = clean, _pureco_ = purity, cleanness. _Feliĉa_ = happy, _feliĉeco_ = happiness, felicity. _Sen_ = without, _seneco_ = dearth, want. _Kuraĝa_ = courageous, _kuraĝeco_ = fortitude. _Danki_ = to thank, _dankeco_ = gratitude, thankfulness. _Riĉa_ = rich, _riĉeco_ = wealth.

(_c_). Both suffixes apply to good or bad qualities. They can be used as roots, as aĵo = _a thing_, eco = _a quality_, _a distinctive mark_.

(_d_). A comparison of the following words will best illustrate their meaning.

_Amiko_ = a friend, _amikaĵo_ = a friendly act, _amikeco_ = friendship. _Bona_ = good, _bonaĵo_ = a good (action or thing), _boneco_ = goodness. _Fortika_ = solid, robust, _fortikaĵo_ = a stronghold, _fortikeco_ = robustness. _Mola_ = soft, _molaĵo_ = a soft substance, pulp, _moleco_ = softness. _Sprita_ = witty, _spritaĵo_ = a witticism, _spriteco_ = wittiness. _Malsprita_ = dull, stupid, _malspritaĵo_ = a stupidity, a _bêtise_, _malspriteco_ = stupidity, a state of silliness.

(_e_). To express an idea itself, namely, one that is neither concrete (_-AĴ-_) nor abstract (_-EC-_), we add only the grammatical termination to the root. For instance, la bono = _the good_, _good (itself)_, and from this arises bonaĵo = _a good action_, or, _something good_, the abstract quality being boneco = _goodness_. Again, acido = _an acid_, acidaĵo = _an acid thing_, something which has an acid taste, acideco = _acidity_. So, heroo = _a hero_, heroaĵo = _an exploit_ (something heroic), heroeco = _heroism_. The student should guard against the tendency of some writers to over-use -ec-: e.g., to use feliĉeco, kuraĝeco, boneco, rapideca, in cases where the sense does not call for a qualitative suffix, and simple feliĉo, kuraĝo, bono, rapida, would be more appropriate. In other words, use eco only when you wish to accentuate the abstractness, the "_nessness_" of the idea.

Examples.--_La bono, kiun vi faras estas rimarkinda, ĉar via boneco ĉiam instigadas vin fari bonaĵojn_ = The good that you are doing is remarkable, for your goodness is always prompting you to do kind acts. _Vitriolo estas acido, sed vinagro estas nur acidaĵo, kvankam ambaŭ posedas acidecon_ = Vitriol is an acid, but vinegar is only a sour fluid, although both possess acidity. _La heroo de la heroaĵo montris grandan heroecon_ = The hero of the exploit showed great heroism. _La amiko montras sian amikecon per amikaĵoj_ = A friend shows his friendship by friendly acts.

272. Suffixes -AN-, -IST-, -ESTR-, -UL-. (Ex. 21).

These four suffixes relate to individuals. When combined with a root, one or other of them serves to show a person's country, religion, profession, occupation, character, etc. Each has its distinct meaning, and care must be taken not to confuse them. The feminine suffix _-IN-_ is added to denote females.

(_a_). Like the English _-an_, _-man_, _-AN-_ denotes a member of something, such as a club, society, etc.; an inhabitant of a place or country; a partisan; an adherent to a party, faction, religion, etc.

Examples.--_Klubo_ = a club, _klubano_ = a member of a club. _Senato_ = senate, _senatano_ = a senator. _Ameriko_ = America, _amerikano_ = an American. _Londono_ = London, _londonano_ = a Londoner. _Parizo_ = Paris, _parizano_ = a Parisian. _Urbo_ = a town or city, _urbano_ = a townsman or citizen. _Kamparo_ = country (rural), _kamparano_ = a countryman. _Vilaĝo_ = a village, _vilaĝano_ = a villager. _Insulo_ = an island, _insulano_ = an islander. _Kristo_ = Christ, _Kristano_ = a Christian. _Partio_ = a party, _partiano_ = a partisan.

(_b_). The suffix _-AN-_ itself is used as a root. Ano = _a member_, anaro = _a band_ (a collection of members of something).

(_c_). _-IST-_, like the English affix _-ist_, denotes a person following a profession or trade, or some occupation by which he gains his livelihood, or who is habitually engaged in science, art, etc. In short, it denotes _habitual occupation_ (not necessarily for the sake of gain).

Examples.--_Juĝi_ = to judge, _juĝisto_ = a judge. _Kuraci_ = to treat the sick, _kuracisto_ = a doctor. _Drogo_ = a drug, _drogisto_ = a druggist. _Maro_ = sea, _maristo_ = a sailor (by occupation). _Rabi_ = to rob, _rabisto_ = a robber. _Ŝteli_ = to steal, _ŝtelisto_ = a thief. _Pentri_ = to paint, _pentristo_ = a painter (art). _Kolorigi_ = to colour, paint, _kolorigisto_ = a painter (house). _Servi_ = to serve, _servisto_ or _servistino_ = servant (male or female). _Astrologio_ = astrology, _astrologiisto_ (or, _astrologo_) = an astrologer.

(_d_). _-IST-_ is used only when there is a root to which it may be added to form the name of someone engaged in a trade, occupation, etc., as shown in the above examples. Thus, from Kudri = _to sew_, ŝuo = _a shoe_, boto = boot, we get kudristino = _a seamstress_ or _dressmaker_, ŝuisto = _a shoemaker_, botisto = _a bootmaker_. When there is no such root, Esperanto provides an independent root, as:--Tajloro = _a tailor_, lakeo = _a lackey_, or _valet_.

(_e_). When the person is engaged in a temporary occupation, or is not a professional, but an amateur, a participle is often used.

Examples.--_Juĝanto_ = a judge (of something), _juĝisto_, a judge (by occupation or profession). _Amanto_ = a lover, _amisto_ = a lover, a sweetheart, a gallant. _Fotografanto_ = a photographer, one who is now photographing, _fotografisto_ = a professional photographer. _Laboranto_ = a person working, _laboristo_ = a labourer, or man who works for a livelihood.

(_f_). _-ESTR-_ denotes a person who is a chief, leader, ruler, principal, or head of a State, party, body, etc. In the same way as the suffix _-AN-_ denotes a member of some profession, body, etc., so _-ESTR-_ would designate the head of it, as:--Urbo = _a city_, urbano = _citizen_, urbestro = _a mayor_, _a chief citizen_.

Examples.--_Imperio_ = an empire, _imperiestro_ = an emperor, _imperiestrino_ = an empress. _Regno_ = (the) State, _regnestro_ = a ruler, head of (the) State. _Ŝipo_ = a ship, _ŝipestro_ = a captain of a merchant vessel, a skipper. _Lernejo_ = a school, _lernejestro_ = a schoolmaster, head master (a teacher would be _instruisto_). From _polico_ = police, we get _policano_ = a policeman (a member of the police force), _policisto_ = an officer of police (one who has made the police his profession), _policestro_ = chief of police.

(_g_). Ĉefo = _chief_, _head_, is used as a prefix as an equivalent of the English _chief_, _main_, _head-_, _prime_.

Examples.--_Episkopo_ = a bishop, _ĉefepiskopo_ = archbishop. _Anĝelo_ = an angel, _ĉefanĝelo_ = archangel.

Compare _-estro_ (the one in command over) with _ĉef-_ (principal in honour, in comparison with the others). Ĉefŝipo = _principal ship_, ŝipestro = _ship's captain_.

(_h_). _-UL-_ denotes a person characterized by the idea contained in the root, the root being used in an adjectival sense to express that an individual is "rich," "poor," "just," "good," etc.

Examples.--_Riĉa_ = rich, _riĉulo_ = a rich man. _Malriĉa_ = poor, _malriĉulo_ = a poor man, a pauper. _Justa_ = just, _justulo_ = a just or righteous man. _Bona_ = good, _bonulo_ = a good man. _Bela_ = beautiful, _belulino_ = a beauty, a beautiful woman. _Paca_ = peaceful, _paculo_ = a man of peace. _Juna_ = young, _junulo_ = a youth, junulino = a young woman. _Avara_ = avaricious, _avarulo_ = a miser.

(_i_). Primary words can be used also as roots when applicable.

Examples.--_Tie_ = there, _tieulo_ = an aborigine (a man of there). _Tiam_ = then, at that time, _tiamulo_ = a contemporary (a man of that time). _Kun_ = with, _kunulo_ = a companion (a person with you).

(_j_). Since words like legi = _to read_, viziti = _to visit_, etc., are not adjectival in character, we use with them (in describing a person) by preference not _-UL-_ but _-IST-_ or a participial termination.

Examples.--_Leganto_ = a reader (who is reading), _leginto_ = a reader (who has read), _legonto_ = a reader (who is about to read), _legisto_ = a reader (by habitual occupation). But _legemulo_ = a person who is fond of reading.

273. Suffixes -AR- and -ER-. (Ex. 22.)

Aro = _a collection_, and ero = _an item_; therefore aro da eroj might be termed "a collection of items."

(_a_). _-AR-_ denotes a reunion or a collection of the idea contained in the root; a whole formed from a union of the parts.

Examples.--_Vorto_ = a word, _vortaro_ = a collection of words, a dictionary. _Homo_ = a man, _homaro_ = mankind. _Arbo_ = a tree, _arbaro_ = a wood, _arbareto_ = a small wood, clump of trees. _Arbeto_ = shrub, small tree, _arbetaro_ = shrubbery, a grove. _Insulo_ = an island, _insularo_ = an archipelago. _Vagono_ = a (railway) carriage, _vagonaro_ = a train. _Sekvanto_ = a follower, _sekvantaro_ = suite, cortège, retinue. _Nomo_ = a name, _nomaro_ = list of names, a register. _Ŝtupo_ = a step, _ŝtuparo_ = a staircase, _ŝtupetaro_ = a ladder, succession of small steps. _Aristokrato_ = an aristocrat, _aristokrataro_ = (the) aristocracy. _Aro_ = a collection, a flock, a herd. If we wish to specify the animals, we can add the suffix to the name, as:--_Bruto_ = cattle, _brutaro_ = a herd of cattle. _Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafaro_ = a flock of sheep. _Abelo_ = a bee, _abelaro_ = a swarm of bees.

(_b_). _-ER-_ denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment, one of many similar parts which together form the whole.

Examples.--_Sablo_ = sand, _sablero_ = a grain of sand. _Hajlo_ = hail, _hajlero_ = a hailstone. _Fajro_ = fire, _fajrero_ = a spark. _Mono_ = money, _monero_ = a coin. _Polvo_ = dust, _polvero_ = an atom or speck of dust. _Pulvo_ = gunpowder, _pulvero_ = a grain of gunpowder. _Sukero_ = sugar, _sukerero_ = a grain of sugar.

274. Suffixes -ĈJ- and -NJ-. (Ex. 23.)

(_a_). _-ĈJ-_ is an affectionate diminutive to the Christian name of a man. It is placed after any letter of the name not later than the fifth (occasionally, the sixth).

Examples.--_Vilhelmo_ = William, _Vilhelĉjo_ = Willie, _Vilheĉjo_ = Will, _Vilĉjo_ = Billy, _Viĉjo_ = Bill. _Petro_ = Peter, _Peĉjo_ = Pete. _Johano_ = John, _Johanĉjo_ = Johnnie, _Joĉjo_ = Jack. _Nikolao_ = Nicholas, _Nikolĉjo_ = Nickie, _Nikoĉjo_, _Nikĉjo_, or _Niĉjo_ = Nick. _Ernesto_ = Ernest, _Erneĉjo_, _Ernĉjo_, or _Erĉjo_ = Ernie. _Patro_ = father, _patreto_, _paĉjo_ = papa.

(_b_). _-NJ-_ is a similar diminutive for a female Christian name.

Examples.--_Mario_ = Mary, _Marinjo_ = Molly, _Manjo_ = Polly. _Klaro_ = Clara, _Klanjo_ = Clarrie. _Sofio_ = Sophia, _Sonjo_ = Sophy. _Patrineto_, _patrinjo_, _panjo_ = mamma, mammy, ma.

275. Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND-. (Ex. 24.)

(_a_). These three suffixes, when used as roots, form the words ebla = _possible_; emo = _propensity_, _tendency_; indo = _worth_, _merit_, _value_. As suffixes they are mostly used to form adjectives or adverbs, and the following three, from kredi = _to believe_, will give an idea of their different shades of meaning. Kredebla = _credible_, _possible of belief_, _believable_; kredema = _credulous_, _having a tendency to believe_; kredinda = _worthy of belief_.

(_b_). _-EBL-_ denotes possibility, or what is likely to happen, similar to the English suffix -able, -ible.

Examples.--_Pagi_ = to pay, _pagebla_ = payable. _Fleksi_ = to bend, _fleksebla_ = flexible. _Rompi_ = to break, _rompebla_ = breakable. _Fidi_ = to rely upon, _fidebla_ = reliable. _Kompreni_ = to understand, _komprenebla_ = comprehensible, _kompreneble_ = of course, comprehensibly.

(_c_). Do not confuse _-EBL-_ with _-EM-_ or _-IND-_ in words which in English end in -able or -ible, but have two distinct meanings. For instance, "readable" may mean either "able to be read" or "worth reading." In Esperanto there is no such confusion, for legebla = _readable_, _legible_, but leginda = _readable_, _worth reading_. Hence we see that _-EBL-_ must always denote possibility. It is possible to love or to honour all persons, whether they merit this or not; but when, in English, we talk of a lovable or honourable individual, we imply not possibility, but worthiness; therefore, in Esperanto, aminda = _lovable_, and honorinda = _honourable_. _-EBL-_ is sometimes used for the infinitive.

Examples.--_Tiuj ĉi vortoj ne estas troveblaj en la vortaro_ = These words are not to be found (findable) in the dictionary. _Tia amo estas malfacile imagebla_ = It is difficult to imagine such love.

(_d_). _-EM-_ denotes propensity, tendency, inclination, disposition, similar to the English suffix, -ful.

Examples.--_Paco_ = peace, _pacema_ = peaceful. _Helpi_ = to help, _helpema_ = helpful, obliging. _Trompi_ = to deceive, _trompema_ = deceitful, _trompemo_ = duplicity. _Servi_ = to serve, _servema_ = obliging, _servemo_ = inclination to serve. _Labori_ = to work, _laborema_ = laborious. _Pura_ = clean, pure, _purema_ = cleanly, _purigebla_ = cleanable. _Babili_ = to chatter, _babilema_ = talkative, chattering. _Koleri_ = to be angry, _kolerema_ = irascible, _ekkolerema_ = quick-tempered. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _dormema_ = disposed to sleep, sleepy, drowsy.

(_e_). Do not confuse _-EM-_ with _-IND-_ (or with _-AM-_ (love) in compound words). For instance:--

_Envii_ = to envy, _enviema_ = envious, inclined to envy, _enviinda_ = enviable, worthy or deserving of envy. _Honti_ = to be ashamed, _hontema_ = bashful, inclined to be ashamed, _hontemo_ = bashfulness, _hontinda_ = shameful, deserving of shame, impudent. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _dormema_ = drowsy, _dormama_ = fond of sleep.

(_f_). _-IND-_ denotes worthiness, worthy of.

Examples.--_Inda_ = worthy, _malinda_ = unworthy. _Laŭdi_ = to praise, _laŭdinda_ = praiseworthy. _Memori_ = to remember, _memorinda_ = memorable, worthy of being remembered. _Estimi_ = to esteem, _estiminda_ = esteemable, or estimable. If we use "estimable" in the sense of "able to be valued," we must form the word from _taksi_ = to estimate, to value, _taksebla_ = estimable, appraisable.

276. Suffix -EDZ-. (Exs. 25, 34.)

_-EDZ-_ denotes a married person, and can scarcely be called a suffix, although classed as such, since it is generally used as a root.

Examples.--_Edzo_ = a husband, a married man, _edzino_ = a wife, a married woman, _edzeco_ = matrimony, a state of marriage, _edziĝo_ = a wedding, nuptials, _edziĝa_ = nuptial, _geedzoj_ = a married couple, husband and wife.

When reference is made to a woman, the feminine suffix _-IN-_ is added to verbs as well as nouns and adjectives.

Examples.--_Doktoredzino_ = a doctor's wife; _kudristinedzo_ = a seamstress's husband; _laboristedzino_ = a labourer's wife; _lavistinedzo_ = a washerwoman's husband; _tajloredzino_ = a tailor's wife; _edzigi_ (trans.) = to marry a couple, or to marry (a man to a woman), _edzinigi_ (trans.) = to marry a woman to a man; _edziĝi_ (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (man), _edziniĝi_ (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (woman). Note the following sentences:--_Li edziĝis kun sia kuzino, kvankam liaj gepatroj volis edzigi lin kun alia sinjorino_ = He was married to (with) his cousin, although his parents wished to marry him to (with) another lady. _Ŝi edziniĝis kun sia kuzo, kvankam ŝiaj gepatroj volis edzinigi ŝin kun alia sinjoro_ = She was married to her cousin, although her parents wished to marry her to another gentleman.

277. Suffixes -EG- and -ET-. (Ex. 26.)

(_a_). These two suffixes are opposites, _-EG-_ denoting augmentation, and _-ET-_ diminution of degree. When employed in adjectives, the adverb "very" is often loosely used to denote the degree, as:--Grandega (_very large_), malgrandega (_very little_), but a better translation of these words is grandega = _huge_, _enormous_; malgrandega = _tiny_ (see remarks on degrees of intensity of adjectives, par. 114). If we cannot find English adjectives as equivalents of _-EG-_ or _-ET-_, we should use not the adverb "very," but a stronger term, as "excessively," "enormously," etc.

(_b_). In the case of nouns we must be careful to use the right words to express the English meaning.

Examples.--_Montego_ = a huge mountain, _granda monto_ = a big mountain, _monto_ = a mountain, _malgranda monto_ = a small mountain, _monteto_ = a hill, _altaĵo_ = an eminence, _altaĵeto_ = a hillock. Again:--_Riverego_ = a huge river, _larĝa rivero_ = a wide river, _rivero_ = a river, _malgranda rivero_ = a small river, _rivereto_ = a brook, stream, _malgranda rivereto_ = a streamlet.

(_c_). _-EG-_ denotes augmentation, intensity of degree. Used as a root, ega = _intense_, egeco = _intensity_.

(_d_). _-ET-_ denotes diminution of degree. Equivalent to the English suffixes -let in "streamlet," -ule in "globule," "pustule." Used as a root, eta = _little_, _tiny_, etulo = _a little one_.

Examples.--_Pluvo_ = rain, _pluvego_ = a downpour, _pluveto_ = a shower. _Ridi_ = to laugh, _ridegi_ = to guffaw, _rideti_ = to smile. _Plori_ = to shed tears, _ploregi_ = to weep bitterly, _ploreti_ = to whimper. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _dormegi_ = to sleep heavily, _dormeti_ = to doze, _dormeto_ = a nap. _Domo_ = a house, _domego_ = a mansion, _dometo_ = a cottage. _Ŝnuro_ = cord, _ŝnurego_ = rope, cable, _ŝnureto_ = string, twine. _Ami_ = to love, _amegi_ = to idolize, _ameti_ = to have some liking for.

N.B.--From the above we see that _-EG-_ and _-ET-_ may generally be translated by distinct words, and are not merely a substitute for adverbs, which will often more accurately express the meaning than the added suffix.

278. Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ-. (Ex. 27.)

These suffixes are akin, since they denote either a place or thing from which the idea of the root is produced, or in which it is contained.

(_a_). _-EJ-_ denotes the place of, used for, or allotted to, the idea contained in the root. As a root, ejo = _a place_, _a locality_.

Examples.--_Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafejo_ = a sheepfold, or a place specially used for sheep. _Preĝi_ = to pray, _preĝejo_ = a church, a place allotted to prayer. _Fruktarbo_ = a fruit-tree, _fruktarbejo_ = an orchard, a place used for fruit trees. _Kafo_ = coffee, _kafejo_ = a café. _Vinbero_ = a grape, _vinberejo_ = a vineyard. _Armilo_ = a weapon, _armilejo_ = an armoury. _Tombo_ = a tomb, grave, _tombejo_ = a cemetery. _Manĝi_ = to eat, _manĝejo_ = a refectory, _manĝaĵo_ = food, _manĝaĵejo_ = a larder. _Planti_ = to plant, _plantejo_ = nursery. _Mallibera_ = captive, _malliberejo_ = a prison. _Bovino_ = a cow, _bovinejo_ = cowshed. _Lerni_ = to learn, _lernejo_ = a school. _Juĝi_ = to judge, _juĝejo_ = a court of justice. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _dormejo_ = a dormitory. _Herbo_ = grass, _herbejo_ = a meadow, a field. _Paperfari_ = to make paper, _paperfarejo_ = a paper manufactory.

(_b_) _-ING-_ denotes a thing for holding one object only. Used as a root, ingo = _a socket_, _a sheath_, _a holder_.

Examples.--_Kandelo_ = a candle, _kandelingo_ = a candlestick. _Plumo_ = a pen, _plumingo_ = a penholder. _Fingro_ = a finger, _fingringo_ = a thimble. _Cigaredo_ = a cigarette, _cigaredingo_ = a cigarette mouthpiece. _Glavo_ = a sword, _glavingo_ = scabbard, sheath (sword). _Bajoneto_ = bayonet, _bayonetingo_ = a scabbard (bayonet).

(_c_). _-UJ-_ denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears. Used as a root, ujo = _a receptacle_, _a container_. It has a wide signification, for it can be used for:--

(1). The names of countries in cases where the root-word denotes the inhabitant, as being the places which contain their various races.

Examples.--_Franco_ = a Frenchman, _Francujo_ = France. _Turko_ = a Turk, _Turkujo_ = Turkey. _Anglo_ = an Englishman, _Anglujo_ = England. _Germano_ = a German, _Germanujo_ = Germany. _Italo_ = an Italian, _Italujo_ = Italy. _Brito_ = a Briton, _Granda Britujo_ = Great Britain. _Hispano_ = a Spaniard, _Hispanujo_ = Spain.

N.B.--_Lando_ can be used instead of -_ujo_, if desired.

Where the root-word denotes not the inhabitant, but the country, uj is of course not used, e.g., Aŭstralio, Nederlando, Usono. In these cases the name of the inhabitant is formed by an from that of the country, thus: aŭstraliano. See par. 272 (_a_).

(2). The names of trees producing fruits.

Examples.--_Pruno_ = a plum, _prunujo_ = a plum-tree. _Kaŝtano_ = a chestnut, _kaŝtanujo_ = a chestnut-tree. _Piro_ = a pear, _pirujo_ = a pear-tree. _Migdalo_ = an almond, _migdalujo_ = an almond-tree. _Moruso_ = a mulberry, _morusujo_ = a mulberry-tree. _Ĉerizo_ = a cherry, _ĉerizujo_ = a cherry-tree.

_Arbo_ can be used instead of _ujo_ in such cases, and is preferable, because clearer, thus: _prunarbo_, _ĉerizarbo_.

(3). The names of receptacles commonly used for certain articles.

Examples.--_Teo_ = tea, _teujo_ = a tea-caddy or canister (a teapot is a vessel in which tea is made, not kept, therefore _tekruĉo_ = a teapot, from _kruĉo_ = a vessel for fluids). _Mono_ = money, _monujo_ = a purse. _Papero_ = paper, _paperujo_ = a portfolio. _Sukero_ = sugar, _sukerujo_ = a sugar-basin. _Karto_ = a card, _kartujo_ = a card-case. _Abelo_ = a bee, _abelujo_ = a, beehive. _Mustardo_ = mustard, _mustardujo_ = mustard-pot.

(_d_). The difference in meaning of these three suffixes is shown in the following examples:--

For instance, _cigaro_ = a cigar, _cigarejo_ = a cigar depot; but if we wish to distinguish the kind of depôt, viz., store, shop, etc., we add the word required. If it be a store, we add _tenejo_ = a storehouse, as:--_Cigartenejo_ = a cigar storehouse or depôt. If a shop, we add _vendejo_ = a market, or place where things are sold, as:--_Cigarvendejo_ = a cigar shop, or we might say also _cigarbutiko_. _Cigaringo_ = a cigar holder or mouthpiece, which holds one cigar. _Cigarujo_ = a cigar case or box, which contains several cigars. _Pomo_ = an apple, _pomejo_ (or, _pomarbejo_) = an apple orchard, _pomujo_, _pomarbo_ = an apple-tree.

279. Suffix -ID-. (Ex. 25.)

_-ID-_ denotes the young of, offspring, descendant. Used as a root, ido = _offspring_, _descendant_; idaro = _issue_, _posterity_.

Examples.--_Kato_ = a cat, _katido_ = a kitten. _Bovo_ = an ox, or a general term for the animal, hence _bovido_ = a calf; if we wished to say a cow's calf, we make _bovo_ feminine, viz., _bovino_ = a cow, _bovinido_ = a cow's calf of either sex. A cow calf we should call _bovidino_, and a bull calf, to determine it exactly, would be _virbovido_, viz., a male calf. It is important that suffixes should follow in their natural order (see order of suffixes, par. 46). _Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafido_ = a lamb. _Cervo_ = a stag, _cervido_ = a fawn. _Hundo_ = a dog, _hundido_ = a puppy. _Ĉevalo_ = a horse, _ĉevalido_ = a foal. _Koko_ = a cock, _kokido_ = a chicken, _kokideto_ = a chick, a tiny chicken. _Birdo_ = a bird, _birdido_ = a fledgeling, a young bird. _Izraelo_ = Israel, _izraelido_ = an Israelite. _Napoleono_ = Napoleon, _napoleonido_ = a descendant of Napoleon. _Reĝo_ = a king, _reĝido_ = a prince, king's son.

280. Suffixes -IG- and -IĜ-. (Ex. 28.)