Chapter XII: Part II: Grammar (7)

(_a_). These two are the most important and most widely used of all the suffixes. They form an infinity of words, especially verbs. Used as roots, (1). Igi = _to make_, _to cause_, as:--Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado = _Make her come to our dance._ Li penis igi sian amikon tuŝi la aferon = _He tried to make his friend broach the subject_ (_touch upon the matter_). (2). Iĝi = _to become_ (_to be made_, _to get_), as La vetero iĝas pli varma = _The weather is getting_ (_becoming_) _warmer_. Li baldaŭ iĝos maljunulo = _He will soon become an old man._

(_b_). Used as suffixes:--

(1). _-IG-_ denotes (like the English suffix -fy) to make, to cause (to get), to render, as ruĝa = _red_, ruĝigi = _to make red_, _to redden_, and from this verb is formed ruĝigo = _the action of reddening_, ruĝiga = _reddening_ (adj.).

(2). _-IĜ-_ denotes to become, to get (in the sense of to become). Note the following difference in meaning of ruĝa with this suffix and with _-IG-_ in the preceding paragraph; ruĝiĝi = _to become or get red_, _to blush_; ruĝiĝo = _the action of getting red_, _a blush_; ruĝiĝa = _blushing_ (adj.).

(_c_). The above instances are words derived from an adjective, but the suffixes can be applied to almost any part of speech, as the following examples will show:--

(_d_). From adjectives.

Examples.--_Bona_ = good, _bonigi_ = to make or render good, _boniĝi_ = to become good. _Plibonigi_ = to make better, to improve, _pliboniĝi_ = to become better, to improve, _plibonigo_ = the act of making better, improvement (made), _pliboniĝo_ = the state of becoming better, improvement (experienced). _Laca_ = tired, fatigued, _lacigi_ = to tire (active), _laciĝi_ = to get tired, _lacigo_ = the act of tiring others, _laciĝo_ = the state of growing tired. _Preta_ = ready, _pretigi_ = to make ready, _pretiĝi_ = to get (become) ready. From all these verbs nouns, adjectives, and adverbs can be formed.

(_e_). From nouns.

Examples.--_Fianĉo_ = a fiancé (man), _fianĉigi_ = to betroth, to affiance, _fianĉiĝi_ = to become betrothed, to be engaged, _fianĉiĝo_ = betrothal, engagement, _fianĉiĝa_ = betrothing, _fianĉiĝe_ = by betrothal. These words speak of the betrothal of a man, but in case of a woman we add the feminine suffix, as:--_fianĉino_, _fianĉinigi_, _fianĉiniĝi_, _fianĉinigo_, etc., etc.

(_f_). From verbs.

Examples.--_Morti_ = to die, _mortigi_ = to cause to die, to kill, _mortiĝi_ = to die out, to expire (become dead), _mortigo_ = killing (murder), _mortiga_ = deadly, _mortiganto_ = a murderer, _mortige_ = mortally. _Sinmortigo_ = suicide, _sinmortigi_ = to commit suicide. _Sidi_ = to be sitting, to sit, _sidigi_ = to cause to sit, _sidiĝi_ = to sit down, to seat oneself, _sidigo_ = the act of causing to sit, seating, _sidiĝo_ = the act of sitting down, or of seating oneself, as:--_Li kondukis la rigardontojn al iliaj sidejoj, sed la sidigo de tiom da gesinjoroj estis tasko malfacila, ĉar la sidiĝo de eĉ unu sinjorino bezonas iom da tempo, kvankam ne tiom, kiom la sidiĝo de hundo, kiu ofte turnadas sin multfoje antaŭ ol sidiĝi_ = He conducted the (about to be) spectators to their seats, but the seating of so many ladies and gentlemen was a difficult task, since the sitting down of even one lady needs some little time, although not so much as the sitting down of a dog, which often continues turning itself round many times before seating itself. _Sciigi_ = to cause (_someone_) to know, _or_, to make (_something_) known. _Mi sciigis la homon pri la novaĵo_, or, _Mi sciigis la novaĵon al la homo_ = I caused the man to know (_or_, I informed the man, _or_, I made the news known to the man). _Sciiĝi_ = to become informed, to learn. _Mi sciiĝis pri la novaĵo_ = I learnt the news.

(_g_). Verbs formed by _-IGI_ are transitive (par. 161), but those by _-IĜI_ are intransitive, and therefore have no passive voice (par. 162); with verbs in _-IĜI_, therefore, we cannot use the passive participles, _-ATA_, etc., but only the active forms _-ANTA_, etc., as:--Li estis fariĝinta (or, li fariĝis) maljunulo, antaŭ ol mi lin konis = _He had become an old man before I knew him._

(_h_). Intransitive verbs.--Some verbs, such as ĉesi = _to cease_, daŭri = _to continue_, pasi = _to pass_, are neuter or intransitive.

Examples.--_La pluvo ĉesas fali_ (or, _ĉesiĝas_) = The rain ceases to fall (or, comes to an end). _La pafado daŭris kelkan tempon_ = The shooting continued some time. _La tempo pasas_ = Time passes.

In English these verbs are used both transitively and intransitively, but if we wish to give them a transitive signification in Esperanto we must add the suffix _-IGI_.

Examples.--_Ĉesigu tion! vi surdigas min per via bruo!_ = Cease that, you deafen me with your noise! _Daŭrigu vian rakonton_ = Continue your narrative. _Pasigu al mi la karafon_ = Pass me the decanter (see par. 237 (_i_)).

(_i_). Transitive verbs.--On the contrary, fini = _to finish_, and komenci = _to commence_, are transitive, and therefore do not require the addition of -_IG_ to make them transitive.

Examples.--_Finu vian laboron_ = Finish your work. _Ni komencis nian vojaĝon je la dua horo_ = We commenced our journey at 2 o'clock.

But if we wish to give an intransitive sense to these verbs we may use the suffix -_IĜI_.

Examples.--_Lia laboro finiĝas_ = His work finishes. _La jaro finiĝos post kelkaj tagoj_ = The year will end in a few days. _La vojaĝo komenciĝis je la tria horo_ = The journey commenced at 3 o'clock (see par. 237 (_i_)).

(_j_). Numerals, prepositions, prefixes, and suffixes.--Joined to these, -_IG_- and -_IĜ_- serve to form numerous words.

Examples.--_Unuigi_ = to unify, _unuigo_ = union, _unuiĝi_ = to unite together, to be combined, _unuiĝo_ = union (undergone). _Duobligi_ = to double, _duobliĝi_ = to become double. _Aligi al_ = to attribute to, _aliĝi_ = to join (oneself) to, to adhere, _aliĝo_ = adhesion. _Eksigi_ = to dismiss, _eksiĝi_ = to become ex-, to resign (a position). _Disigi_ = to separate, _disiĝi_ = to separate mutually, _disigo_ = act of separating, disjunction, _disiĝo_ = disunion, schism. _Kunigi_ = to connect, _kuniĝi_ = to join together, to coalesce, _kunigo_ = connection, _kuniĝo_ = junction. _Forigi_ = to do away with, _foriĝi_ = to withdraw.

281. Suffix -IL-. (Ex. 29.)

-_IL_- denotes the tool, instrument, or means by which something is done. As a root, ilo = _a tool, an instrument, an implement, a means of_.

Examples.--_Kombi_ = to comb, _kombilo_ = a comb. _Razi_ = to shave, _razilo_ = a razor. _Tranĉi_ = to cut, _tranĉilo_ = a knive. _Haki_ = to hack, to chop, _hakilo_ = an axe, a hatchet, a chopper. _Kudri_ = to sew, _kudrilo_ = a needle. _Tondi_ = to shear, to clip, _tondilo_ = shears, scissors. _Presi_ = to print, _presilo_ = a printing press. _Fermenti_ = to ferment, _fermentilo_ = yeast, leaven (a means of fermenting). _Batali_ = to fight, _batalilo_ = a weapon. _Armi_ = to arm, _armiloj_ = arms, _armilejo_ = an arsenal (a place for arms, see -_EJ_-, 278).

282. Suffix -IN-. (Ex. 25.)

-_IN_- denotes the feminine gender. As a root, ino = _a female_, ina = _female_.

Examples.--_Frato_ = a brother, _fratino_ = a sister. _Patro_ = a father, _patrino_ = a mother. _Kuzo_ = a male cousin, _kuzino_ = a female cousin. _Avo_ = grandfather, _avino_ = grandmother. _Nepo_ = a grandson, _nepino_ = a granddaughter. _Onklo_ = an uncle, _onklino_ = an aunt. _Nevo_ = a nephew, _nevino_ = a niece. _Patra_ = paternal, _patrina_ = maternal, _patrineco_ = maternity. _Frata_ = brotherly, fraternal, _fratina_ = sisterly. _Ĉevalo_ = a horse, _ĉevalino_ = a mare, _ĉevalido_ = a colt, _ĉevalidino_ = a filly. _Ŝafo_ = a sheep, _ŝafino_ = a ewe. _Hundo_ = a dog, _hundino_ = a bitch. _Bovo_ = an ox, _bovino_ = a cow.

283. MOŜTO. (Ex. 23.)

(_a_). This is not a suffix, since it does not form part of a word. It is a word used by itself or added after a title to denote respect. Via moŝto is a higher expression of respect than sinjoro = _sir_.

(_b_). No special rule has been laid down for the use of moŝto, but the usual practice is to make the title an adjective and add moŝto.

(_c_). In speaking to persons bearing titles by birth or profession it would be well to address them by their full title first, as shown below, and afterwards use the expression via moŝto to represent "Your Majesty," "Your Royal Highness," "Your Grace," "Your Lordship," "Your Ladyship," "Your Honour," "Your Worship," "Your Excellency," "Your Eminence," "Your Highness," etc. The suffix -_IN_ is hardly ever added.

Examples:--

Emperor = Via imperiestra moŝto = _Your Imperial Majesty_.
King = Via reĝa moŝto = _Your Majesty_.
Queen = Via reĝina moŝto = _Your Majesty_.
Royal Family = Via reĝida moŝto = _Your Royal Highness_.
Prince = Via princa moŝto = _Your Highness_, or, _Serene Highness_.
Duke = Via duka moŝto = _Your Grace_.
Duchess = Via dukina moŝto = _Your Grace_.
Archbishop = Via ĉefepiskopa moŝto = _Your Grace_.
Marquis = Via markiza moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_.
Earl, Count = Via grafa moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_.
Viscount = Via vicgrafa moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_.
Lord, Baron (Judge) = Via barona moŝto = _Your Lordship, My Lord_.
Viceroy = Via vicreĝa moŝto = _Your Excellency_.
Governor = Via rega moŝto = _Your Excellency_.
Judge (not a Baron) = Via juĝista moŝto = _Your Honour_.
Mayor = Via urbestra moŝto = _Your Worship_.
General (Officer) = Via generala moŝto = _General_.

N.B.--No title beyond his rank is given to a General in England, like "Monsieur le General" in France. We usually say "General," or "Sir," but moŝto might be used in Esperanto.

(_d_). As regards addresses of letters, we can say:--

_Al Lia Duka Moŝto de ..._ or, _Al Lia Duka Moŝto, la Duko de ..._ = To His Grace the Duke of ...

_Al Ŝia Grafina Moŝto de ..._ = To the Countess of ...

_Al Lia Rega Moŝto de ..._ = To His Excellency the Governor of ...; or if we mention him by name:--

_Al Lia Moŝto, Sir Henry Smith La Reganto de ..._ = To His Excellency, Sir Henry Smith, The Governor of ...

284. Suffixes -OBL-, -ON-, -OP-. (Ex. 18.) These three suffixes are used with numerals, making them multiples, fractions, or collectives (see pars. 119, 120, 121).

(_a_). -_OBL_- added to a cardinal number denotes the number is a multiple. It is equivalent to the English suffixes "-fold" or "-uple."

Examples.--_Multoblo_ = a multiple, _multobla_ = manifold. _Unu_ = one, _unuobla_ = single, _unuoble_ = singly. _Du_ = two, _duobla_ = double, _la duoblo_ = the double. _Kvar_ = four, _kvarobla_ = fourfold, quadruple, _la kvaroblo_ = the quadruple. _Cent_ = hundred, _centoblo_ = a centuple. It is used in the multiplication table:--

_kvaroble tri estas_ (or, _faras_) _dek du_ 4 times 3 = 12
_kvinoble kvar estas dudek_ 5 times 4 = 20
_sesoble kvin estas tridek_ 6 times 5 = 30
_sepoble ses estas kvardek du_ 7 times 6 = 42
_okoble sep estas kvindek ses_ 8 times 7 = 56
_naŭoble ok estas sepdek du_ 9 times 8 = 72
_dekoble naŭ estas naŭdek_ 10 times 9 = 90
_dek-unuoble dek estas cent dek_ 11 times 10 = 110
_dek-duoble dek unu estas cent tridek du_ 12 times 11 = 132

(_b_). -_ON_- added to a cardinal number denotes a fraction. As a root, ona = _fractional_.

Examples.--_Du_ = two, _duona_ = half, _duone_ = by halves, _duono_ = a half (1/2). _Tri_ = three, _triona_ = third, _triono_ = a third (1/3). _Kvar_ = four, _kvarona_ = quarter, _kvarono_ = a fourth (1/4). _Dek_ = ten, _dekona_ = tenth, _dekono_ = a tenth (1/10), _tri dekonoj_ = 3/10ths. _Dek du_ = twelve, _dek-duona_ = twelfth, _dek-duono_ = a twelfth (1/12), _kvin dek-duonoj_ = 5/12ths. _Sesdek kvin centonoj_ = sixty-five hundredths (65/100). _La kvinona parto (la kvinono) de cent estas la triona parto (la triono) de sesdek, tio estas dudek_ = The 5th part of 100 is the 3rd part of 60, that is 20.

(_c_). -_OP_- added to a cardinal number denotes that the number must be taken in a collective sense. As a root, opa = _collective_.

Examples.--_Du_ = two, _duope_ = two together, in twos. _Tri_ = three, _triope_ = in threes, in triplets. _Dek_ = ten, _dekope_ = in tens. _Dudek_ = twenty, _dudekope_ = in twenties, by scores. _Cent_ = hundred, _centope_ = in hundreds. _Mil_ = thousand, _milope_ = in thousands. _Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min_ = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me. _La soldatoj marŝis kvarope_ = The soldiers were marching in fours.

285. Suffix -UM-. (Ex. 30.)

-_UM_- has no special meaning. Its different meanings are easily suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it is joined. There are but few words in which it is used, and these should be learnt as simple words.

The following embrace nearly all:--

*_Aerumi_ = to air, aerate. _Aero_ = air.
*_Amindumi_ = to court, woo. _Amo_ = love.
_Brulumo_ = a swelling, inflammation. _Bruli_ = to burn.
*_Buŝumo_ = a muzzle (for a dog), a nose-band. _Buŝumi_ = to muzzle,
to gag. _Buŝo_ = mouth.
*_Butonumi_ = to button. _Butonumilo_ = a buttonhook. _Butono_ = a
button.
_Cerbumi_ = to rack one's brains. _Cerbo_ = a brain.
*_Gustumi_ = to taste (something). _Gustumado_ = tasting, the sense
of tasting. _Gusto_ = taste.
_Kalkanumo_ = a heel of a boot, etc. _Kalkano_ = heel (of the foot).
*_Kolumo_ = a shirt collar. _Kolo_ = neck.
_Kolombumi_ = to spoon, bill and coo. _Kolombo_ = a dove.
*_Komunumo_ = a commune, a community. _Komuna_ = common.
*_Krucumi_ = to crucify. _Kruco_ = a cross.
*Laktumo = milt, melt, soft roe. _Lakto_ = milk.
_Lekumi_ = to lap. _Leki_ = lick.
*_Lotumi_ = to allot. _Loti_ = to draw lots.
*_Malvarmumo_ = a cold, chill. _Malvarmumi_ = to catch cold.
_Malvarma_ = cold.
*_Manumo_ = a cuff, a wristband. _Mano_ = hand.
*_Mastrumi_ = to manage (the household), keep house. _Mastrumado_ =
household management. _Mastro_ = master.
*_Nazumo_ = a pince-nez. _Nazo_ = nose.
_Okulumi_ = to make eyes at. _Okulo_ = an eye.
*_Palpebrumi_ = to wink, blink. _Palpebro_ = an eyelid.
_Partumo_ = a fraction (mathematics). _Parto_ = a part, a share.
*_Plenumi_ = to fulfil, accomplish. _Plenumiĝi_ = to be
accomplished, fulfilled. _Plena_ = full, complete.
_Proksimuma_, _proksimume_ = approximately. _Proksima_ near.
_Sapumi_ = to soap, lather. _Sapo_ = soap.
*_Ventumi_ = to ventilate, to use a fan. _Ventumilo_ = a fan.
_Vento_ = wind.

N.B.--The 17 words marked * are given in Dr. Zamenhof's "Fundamento de Esperanto."

286. Prefixes BO-, DUON-, GE-, PRA-. (Ex. 25.)

These four prefixes all denote relationship in a greater or less degree.

(_a_). _BO_- denotes relationship by marriage, and is equivalent to the English suffix -_in-law_, as patro = _father_, bopatro = _father-in-law_.

(_b_). _DUON_- also denotes relationship by marriage, and is also a prefix in such words as duonpago = _half-pay_, duonjara = _half-yearly_, etc. As a root, duono = _a half_, so properly it should signify only half-blood relationship. As, however, there are few relationships of this nature, it is used also for step relationship, as:--Duonfrato = _stepbrother_ or _half-brother_.

(_c_). _GE_- denotes both sexes taken together. The words are always in the plural, and the feminine suffix is, of course, never added.

Examples.--_Edzo_ = a husband, _geedzoj_ = husband and wife, a married couple. _Sinjoro_ = Sir, Mr., _gesinjoroj_ = Mr. and Mrs., _or_, ladies and gentlemen. _Patro_ = father, _gepatroj_ = father and mother, parents. _Mastro_ = a master (of a household), _gemastroj_ = master and mistress. _Frato_ = brother, _gefratoj_ = brother(s) and sister(s).

(_d_). _PRA_- denotes great distance of time, past or future. As regards relationship, it is the equivalent of the English prefixes "fore-," "great," or "grand." As a root, praa = _primeval_.

Examples.--_Pratempo_ = primitive time. _Praarbarego_ = primeval forest. _Prapatroj_ = forefathers, ancestors. _Praonklo_ = grand, or great, uncle. _Praavino_ = great-grandmother.

(_e_). The following are examples of these four prefixes:--

_Patro_ = father, _bopatro_ = father-in-law, _duonpatro_ = stepfather, _gepatroj_ = father and mother, parents.

_Patrino_ = mother, _bopatrino_ = mother-in-law, _duonpatrino_ = stepmother.

_Avo_ = grandfather, _boavo_ = grandfather-in-law, _duonavo_ = stepgrandfather, _geavoj_ = grandparents, _prageavoj_ = great-grandparents.

_Filo_ = son, _bofilo_ = son-in-law, _duonfilo_ = stepson.

_Filino_ = daughter, _bofilino_ = daughter-in-law, _duonfilino_ = stepdaughter.

_Nepo_ = grandson, _pranepo_ = great-grandson, _genepoj_ = grandson(s) and granddaughter(s), grandchildren.

_Nepino_ = granddaughter, _pranepino_ = great-granddaughter.

_Frato_ = brother, _bofrato_ = brother-in-law, _duonfrato_ = step, or half, brother, _gefratoj_ = brother(s) and sister(s), _bogefratoj_ = brother(s) and sister(s)-in-law.

_Fratino_ = sister, _bofratino_ = sister in law, _duonfratino_ = step, or half, sister.

_Onklo_ = uncle, _praonklo_ = grand, or great, uncle, _geonkloj_ = uncle(s) and aunt(s).

_Onklino_ = aunt, _praonklino_ = grand, or great, aunt.

_Nevo_ = nephew, _pranevo_ = grandnephew, _genevoj_ = nephew(s) and niece(s).

_Nevino_ = niece, _pranevino_ = grandniece.

_Infano_ = child, _duoninfano_ = stepchild.

287. Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR-. (Ex. 31.)

These three prefixes give the idea of separation or change of position.

(_a_). _DE_- as a preposition = _from, of_. As a prefix it marks the point of departure, or movement from one place or position to another.

(_b_). _DIS_- denotes a separation, in the sense of a rupture, or breaking up into parts, or in several different directions.

(_c_). _FOR_- as an adverb = _away_. As a prefix it denotes distance from something.

(_d_). Thus, birds on a tree can fly down from the tree to the ground = deflugi; or fly in different directions, viz., _disperse_ = disflugi; or fly away altogether from the tree = forflugi.

(_e_) The following examples will give a good idea of the meanings of these prefixes:--

_Ŝiri_ = to tear, _deŝiri_ = to tear from, to pluck.
_disŝiri_ = to tear to pieces, to lacerate.
_forŝiri_ = to tear away from.

_Iri_ = to go, _deiri_ = to go from (a place).
_disiri_ = to go in different directions, to separate.
_foriri_ = to go away, to depart.

_Ĵeti_ =to throw, _deĵeti_ = to throw down, to overthrow.
_disĵeti_ = to throw about, to demolish, scatter.
_forĵeti_ = to throw away, to discard.

_Meti_ = to put, _demeti_ = to put down, take off, doff.
_dismeti_ = to disperse, to distribute.
_formeti_ = to put away, to omit.

_Porti_ = to carry, _deporti_ = to carry from, to deport.
_disporti_ = to carry here and there.
_forporti_ = to carry away.

288. Prefix EK-. (Exs. 19, 32.)

_EK_- denotes an action just begun, of short duration, sudden, momentary.

Examples.--_Kanti_ = to sing, _ekkanti_ = to begin to sing, or to start singing. _Ridi_ = to laugh, _ekridi_ = to burst out laughing. _Krii_ = to cry, _ekkrii_ = to exclaim, to cry out. _Lerni_ = to learn, _eklerni_ = to begin to learn. _Iri_ = to go, _ekiri_ = to start, to set out. _Plori_ = to shed tears, _ekplori_ = to burst out crying. _Kapti_ = to catch, _ekkapti_ = to seize. _Dormi_ = to sleep, _ekdormi_ = to fall asleep. _Vidi_ = to see, _ekvidi_ = to perceive. _Tremi_ = to tremble, _ektremi_ = to start (with fear, etc.).

_EK_- is useful in such expressions as "begin to," "come to," frequently used in English before a verb, as:--Kiam mi ekpripensas = _When I begin to_ (or, _come to_) _reflect_. Kiam mi ekpensas pri ĝi = _When I come to think of it_.

289. Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN-. (Ex. 33.)

(_a_). These three prefixes give an opposite or negative meaning to the words before which they are placed, the nature of which varies with the prefix used.

(_b_). _MAL_- is used as a root in the adjective mala = _contrary_, and the adverb male = _on the contrary, conversely_. As a prefix it signifies that the word has a meaning exactly the contrary to that which it had before _MAL_- was prefixed. It is never used to give the meaning of badness, unless because it is prefixed to some word signifying goodness. For instance, timulo = _a coward_ has a bad signification, but its opposite maltimulo = _a bold man_ has no such meaning. Bona = _good_, malbona = _bad_, simply because "bad" is the opposite of "good."

(_c_). _NE_ is a primary adverb, meaning "no," "not," and is often used as a prefix to give a negative signification to a word, as:--Plena = _complete, full_, neplena = _incomplete, not full_. Ne estas certe = _it is not certain_ has the same signification as estas necerte = _it is uncertain_. Used as a root, it forms nei = _to deny_, nea = _negative_, etc.

(_d_). _SEN_ is a preposition meaning "without," and as a prefix it has the same signification; as ĉesi = _to cease_, senĉesa = _without ceasing, incessant, ceaseless_; senco = _meaning, sense_, sensenca = _without meaning, senseless_; senkapigi = _to decapitate_. Used as a root, it forms senigi je = _to deprive of_, seneco = _want_, etc.

(_e_). The student may at first wonder which of these three prefixes to use in a given case. He should bear in mind that _MAL_- denotes the exact opposite of the root, and therefore it may be much stronger in signification than the mere negative ne = _not_, or the privative sen = _without_. For instance, plena = _complete, full_, but neplena = _incomplete, not full_. Now the opposite to "complete" or "full" is not "incomplete" or "not full," but something stronger, viz., "void" or "empty," therefore malplena = _empty, void, vacuous_. Again, from riĉa = _rich_, we form the opposite, malriĉa = _poor_, which is clearly a worse state than neriĉa = _not rich_, or senriĉa, which, in its literal sense, means "without wealth or riches." A man not rich might be well off, a man without riches might have enough to live upon. Fermita = _shut_, closed; the opposite is malfermita = _opened, open_. Applied to a window it would mean the window was wide open, but if it were only ajar it would be better to say nefermita = _not closed_.

(_f_) In using _MAL_- we must consider the _strength_ of the word to which we are giving an opposite meaning, and not oppose a word like "destitute" to "rich," for "destitute" is the opposite to "rolling in wealth," the adjective for which would be "riĉega," therefore malriĉega = _destitute_. So bela = _beautiful_, belega = _splendid, magnificent;_ therefore their opposites are malbela = _ugly_, malbelega = _hideous_.

(_g_). Generally speaking, it will be right (1), to use _MAL_- if we wish to give a stronger idea than _NE_ or _SEN_ would infer; (2), to use _NE_ in cases where a simple negative will give the meaning; (3), to use _SEN_ if "without" is more applicable than "not," as:--Senmova = _without motion, stationary_, but nemovebla = _not movable, immovable_. It will generally be right to employ _SEN_ to represent the English suffix -_less_, as:--Sendanka = _thankless_, senmona = _penniless_, senhara = _hairless, bald_, senutila = _useless_. The opposite to "useful" is something stronger than "useless," therefore malutila = _detrimental, prejudicial_.

(_h_). The following examples will give an idea of the use of these three prefixes:--

_Venko_ = victory, _malvenko_ = defeat. _Videbla_ = visible, _nevidebla_ = invisible. _Ŝanĝebla_ = changeable (in the sense "able to be changed"), _neŝanĝebla_ = unchangeable. _Ofta_ = frequent, _neofta_ = infrequent, _malofta_ = scarce, rare. _Simple_ = simple, _malsimpla_ = intricate, complex. _Permesi_ = to permit, _malpermesi_ = to forbid. _Helpi_ = to help, _malhelpi_ = to hinder, _nehelpi_ = to give no assistance. _Sobreco_ = sobriety, _malsobreco_ = intemperance, drunkenness. _Saĝeco_ = wisdom, _malsaĝeco_ = foolishness. _Modesta_ = modest, _nemodesta_ = officious, _malmodesta_ = conceited. _Justa_ = just, _maljusta_ = unjust. _Pura_ = clean, _nepura_ = soiled, _malpura_ = dirty. _Pia_ = pious, _malpia_ = impious. _Agrabla_ = agreeable, _neagrabla_ = unpleasant, _malagrabla_ = disagreeable, nasty. _Glata_ = smooth, _malglata_ = rough. _Atento_ = attention, _malatento_ = negligence. _Respekto_ = respect, _nerespekto_ = non-respect, _malrespekto_ = violation. _Brua_ = noisy, _senbrua_ = noiseless.

290. Prefix RE-. (Ex. 32.)

(_a_). _RE_-, like the English prefix _re_-, means "back" or "again." It denotes (1) the repetition of an action, or (2) the return of some person or thing to the person, place, or state with whom, or in which, such person or thing originally was. As a root, ree = _again, in return_.

(_b_) (1). Repetition.

Examples.--_Refari_ = to make afresh, to remake; _rediri_ = to say again, to repeat (_ripeti_ is, however, more frequently used for "repeat"); _rekanti_ = to sing again; _rejuniĝi_ = to grow young again; _renaskiĝo_ = rebirth, regeneration; _repagi_ = to repay, to reimburse; _reenmeti_ = to put in again, to reinstate; _rekunigi_ = to reunite; _rebruligi_ = to rekindle; _reformi_ = to reform, to remodel; _reprodukti_ = to reproduce.

(2). Return, etc.

Examples.--_Redoni_ = to give back, to restore; _repreni_ = to take back; _reĵeti_ = to throw back; _resalti_ = to rebound; _rebrili_ = to shine back, to reflect; _reveni_ = to come back, to return; _reporti_ = to carry back, to carry to the original place.

N.B.--In addition to the 12 prefixes given in pars. 286-290, nearly all the prepositions are in common use as prefixes. Examples of these will be found in par. 259. When prefixed to a verb, the preposition is frequently repeated before the indirect complement (see par. 254).

291. Prefixes SIN- and MEM-.

_SIN-_ and _MEM-_ are used as prefixes to translate the English _-self_. If the idea is reflexive, it is better to use sin-, otherwise mem-. Singardo = _caution_; sinmortigo = _suicide_; sinteno = _attitude_; memstara = _independent_; memvola = _voluntary_.

292. Prefix VIC-.

The prefix _VIC-_ denotes the English _vice-_; vicprezidanto = _a vice-president_; vicadmiralo = _a vice-admiral_.

293. Suffix -ISM-.

The suffix _-ISM-_ was officialized in 1914 with the rather wide meaning given it by international usage in most European languages: _system_, _doctrine_, _school of thought_, _theory_, _party_.

Thus: absolutismo = _absolutism_. Similarly, we have agnostik-, alkohol-, braman-, despot-, epikur-, Esperant-, fatal-, fetiĉ-, homaran-, katolik-, kvaker-, komun-, ideal-, liberal-, mistik-, presbiter-, protestant-, puritan-, radikal-, real-, respublik-, vegetar-ismo.

It does not follow that if from any Esperanto word ending in -ism this syllable is subtracted, the remainder is an Esperanto root. Thus, -ism is not a suffix in the roots atavism, feminism, optimism, pesimism, silogism, solecism, sofism, any more than ist, in, il, ul, an, are suffixes in the roots optimist, turist; doktrin, vazelin; bacil, asimil; okul, formul; banan, turban, sultan. See par. 52 (_b_).