Chapter VIII: Part II: Grammar (3)

Examples.--_Erari estas home_ = To err is human. _Bone pensi kaj bone agi sufiĉas por vivi bone kaj feliĉe_ = To think well and to act well suffice for living well and happily.

(_b_). As the complement to explain an idea.

Examples.--_Vivi estas agi; kiu ne agas, tiu ne vivas_ = To live is to act; he who acts not, lives not. _Li ĉesis kuri_ = He ceased to run (running, _or_, from running).

181. The infinitive, used thus as the subject, resembles a noun, but, of course, never takes the article before it. The qualifying word, used as its predicate, takes the adverbial _-E_. The infinitive, when used as the subject, can always be changed into the noun by substituting _-O_ or _-ADO_ for _-I_; the noun then takes the article, since it is used in a general sense (see 99 (_a_)).

Examples.--_Scii estas utile_ = To know (_or_, to have knowledge) is useful; or, _La scio estas utila_ = Knowledge is useful. _Legi estas agrabla okupo_, or, _La legado estas agrabla okupo_ = Reading is an agreeable occupation.

182. The infinitive, or its noun, is used for the gerund, or a gerundial phrase in English.

Examples.--_Promenadi estas sanige_, or, _La promenado estas saniga_ = Walking is healthy. _Instrui infanojn diligentajn_ (or, _La instruado al infanoj diligentaj_) _estas agrabla okupo_ = Teaching diligent children is an agreeable occupation.

183. Occasionally another mood, a participle, or the suffix _-EBLA_ is used for our infinitive (par. 275 (_c_)).

Examples.--_Vi bone faris, ke vi venis_ (or, _venante_) = You did well to come (that you came). _Diru do al li, ke li al mi respondu_ = Tell him, then, to answer me. _Estos pli saĝe, se ni ne piediros domen_ = It will be wiser not to walk (go on foot) home (lit., if we shall not walk). _Estus malfacile renkontebla sindonemo pli plena, ol lia_ = It would be difficult to meet with more complete devotion than his. _Ŝi ŝajnis (esti) forgesinta, ke ŝi estas maljunulino_ = She seemed to have forgotten that she was (is) an old woman.

184. Sometimes the infinitive is used when we use another mood or the participle.

Examples.--_Mi prenos miajn glitilojn kaj iros por gliti_ = I shall take my skates and go skating. _Mi ĉesos kanti, se vi farados tiom de bruo_ = I shall cease singing if you go on making so much noise. _Mi kredis vidi ŝipon_ = I thought I saw a ship.

185. In the following examples it will be seen that the infinitive (present or past) is used in Esperanto after a noun, adjective, or participle, when in English a participial form is usually employed, as:--

_La deziro morti_ = The desire of dying (to die). _La ĝojo esti venkinta_ = The joy of having conquered. _Tro laca marŝi_ = Too tired for walking. _Lerta paroli_ = Clever in speaking. _Bona por manĝi_ = Good for eating.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

186. As stated in par. 171 (_a_), the indicative is not an Esperanto mood, but we use the name in order to explain more clearly to the English student the present, past, and future tenses of Esperanto verbs.

The Indicative mood, in the Active Voice, has three terminations, viz., _-AS_ for the Present, _-IS_ for the Past, and _-OS_ for the Future simple tenses. For the Compound tenses the auxiliary verb esti = _to be_, is used with one of the three Active participles of the verb, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_.

187. The Passive Voice is formed by the auxiliary esti with one of the Passive participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_.

188. By the Indicative mood we express something as actually true, either affirmatively, or negatively, or interrogatively. It is therefore the mood of certainty.

Examples.--_La patro venas_ = Father comes, _or_, is coming. _Patrino venis_ = Mother came, has come, _or_, did come. _Kiam mia frato venos, ni foriros_ = When my brother comes (shall come), we will go away. _Se li estas malsana, mi senkulpigas lin_ = If he is ill, I excuse him. _Li estis juste rekompencita_ = He had been justly rewarded. _Oni devas pardoni al li_ = One must pardon him. _Li estis amata de ĉiuj_ = He was (being) loved by all. _Mi estas vestita du horojn_ = I have been dressed for two hours (lit., I am having-been-dressed two hours).

189. The Indicative is therefore obligatory in Esperanto after verbs, adjectives, participles, and nouns expressing in a positive manner what one thinks or feels about an act presented as certain.

Examples.--_Mi esperas, ke li venos hodiaŭ_ = I hope that he will come to-day. _Ŝi ne estas certa, ĉu Petro sukcesis_ = She is not sure whether Peter succeeded (_or_, has succeeded). _Mi ne dubas, ke li venos_ = I do not doubt that he will come. _Mi timas, ke la respondo alvenos, dum mi estos promenanta_ = I fear that the answer will arrive whilst I am (shall be) taking a walk. _Mi timas, ke li venos, kaj eble difektos la ĝardenon_ = I fear that he will come, and possibly (perhaps) damage (_or_, and may damage) the garden. _Mi ne dubas, ke ŝi estos vestita kiam mi alvenos_ = I do not doubt that she will be (will have been) dressed when I arrive. _Ĉu vi opinias, ke li estas juste rekompencita?_ = Do you think that he has been justly rewarded?

THE CONDITIONAL MOOD (Kondiĉa Modo).

190. In the Active Voice the Conditional mood is formed by adding _-US_ to the root of the verb for the simple form, and by _ESTUS_ and one of the participles _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_ for the compound forms. These compound forms are not often used.

191. In the Passive Voice it is formed by _ESTUS_ and one of the participles _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_.

192. It shows that the matter spoken of is conditional, namely, that it depends on supposition; that an act had not taken place (past), and was not taking place (present), but that it might happen or have happened if something else actually occurred. In English the pluperfect, future, and future perfect tenses of the Subjunctive mood represent the Conditional mood in Esperanto.

193. After the conjunction "if," expressing a supposition, both the chief and dependent propositions are in the Conditional mood in Esperanto, when the act is conditional.

Examples.--_Se li estus riĉa, li havus multajn amikojn_ = If he were rich, he would have many friends. _Se vi volus, vi estus feliĉa_ = If you wished, you would be happy. _Se ni estus avertitaj, ni estus defendintaj vin_ = If we had been (should have been) warned, we should have defended you. _Se li forirus, li riskus, ke la patrino ne trovus lin_ = If he went (should go) away he would risk that his (the) mother would not find him.

193. (_a_). Note the various ways in which estus may be translated with the present and past passive participles in the following two sentences:--

(1). _Se li estus sendata Berlinon, li estus devigata lasi sian edzinon hejme._

(2). _Se li estus sendita Berlinon, li estus devigita lasi sian edzinon hejme._

(1). If he were (should be) sent to Berlin he would be compelled to leave his wife at home.

(2). If he had (should have) been sent to Berlin he would have been compelled to leave his wife at home.

194. As in other languages, the Conditional is used in Esperanto to attenuate or soften an expression that would be harsh or imperative, if the verb were in the Indicative; in fact, such attenuation implies some unexpressed condition.

Example.--_Mi volus, ke tiu laboro estu finita hodiaŭ vespere_ = I should like that work (to be) finished this evening. Here the condition might be, "if you possibly can do it" (see par. 202 as to _estu_, Imperative mood, for the Infinitive).

THE IMPERATIVE or "U" MOOD (Ordona Modo).

195. In the Active Voice the Imperative (or "U") mood is formed by adding _-U_ to the root of the verb, or by estu and one of the participles _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, or _-ONTA_ for the compound forms; but the latter are very rarely used.

196. In the Passive Voice it is formed by estu and one of the participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, or _-OTA_.

197. The "U" mood implies order (ordono), purpose (celo), entreaty (peto), wish (volo), obligation (devo), fitness (konveno), necessity (neceso), merit (merito), intention (intenco), etc. It will be seen that the Esperanto u has a wider application than what is usually understood by the "Imperative" mood, for it may indicate not only a direct command or order, but also desire or expediency of any degree, expressed or understood.

198. The ending u is used not only in a chief but also in a dependent proposition, and in the latter case it is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = _that_; but it must be borne in mind that conjunctions have no more influence in the Imperative than they have in other moods (pars. 171, 263), although when ke is followed by the Imperative we translate the phrase into English either by some tense of the Subjunctive mood, or, perhaps, more frequently, by the Infinitive.

199. In a chief proposition it is used to command or entreat, and when the verb of a chief proposition is in the Imperative, if the dependent proposition also contains an order of entreaty, its verb will, naturally, likewise be in the Imperative.

Examples.--_Venu tien ĉi_ = Come here. _Donu al mi tiun libron_ = Give me that book. _Li venu tien ĉi tuj_ = Let him come here at once. _Ni iru Parizon morgaŭ_ = Let us go to Paris to-morrow. _Do ne maltrankviligu vin_ (or, _Vi do ne maltrankviliĝu_) _pri la afero_ = Do not then trouble yourself about the matter. _Ordonu, ke li venu_ = Order him to come (that he come). _Diru al ŝi, ke ŝi foriru_ = Tell her to go away (that she go away). _Atentu, ke vi ne falu_ = Take care not to fall (_or_, lest you fall). _Ni ne toleru, ke li tiamaniere kontraŭstaru al ni_ = Let us not suffer him in that way to oppose us (_or_, Let us not tolerate that he oppose us in that manner). _Ni zorgu, ke li nenion povu difekti_ = Let us take care that he can damage nothing. _Diru al li, ke mi deziras, ke li estu silenta_ = Tell him that I desire him to be silent (that he be silent). For other examples see par. 237 (_m_).

200. In a dependent proposition the ending u is also used when the verb in the chief proposition, although not in the Imperative, implies order, entreaty, wish, etc., as mentioned in par. 197. And also after such verbs as, to advise, invite, write, etc., etc., when the idea to be conveyed is in the nature of an order, wish, etc. (pars. 58 (_a_), 237 (_m_) (3)).

Examples.--_Mi ordonis al li, ke li donu al mi la libron_ = I ordered him to give me the book. _Mi petas, ke vi sendu al mi la hundon_ = I beg you to send me the dog. _Li ne postulis, ke mi fermu la fenestron_ = He did not require me to shut the window. _Mi volas, ke vi skribu al via frato_ = I wish you to write to your brother. _Estas necese, ke ni tien iru_ = It is necessary for us to go thither. _Vi meritas, ke oni pendigu vin_ = You deserve to be hanged (that they hang you). _Mi bezonas, ke li venu_ = I want him to come (I have need that he come). _Mi ne volis, ke li venu_ = I did not wish him to come (that he should come). _Ŝi konsilis, ke mi ne sendu la leteron_ = She advised me not to send the letter (she advised "do not send the letter"). _Mi lin tien ĉi invitis, ke li klarigu la aferon_ = I invited him here to explain (that he might explain) the matter. _Ili skribis, ke mi ne venu hodiaŭ_ = They wrote to me not to come to-day (They wrote that I should not come to-day, _or_, They wrote "do not come to-day").

201. The expression por ke = _in order that_, _to the end that_, _so that_, etc., is always followed by the Imperative, because this expression implies "order."

Examples.--_Por ke vi povu pagi tiun ĉi ŝuldon, estas necese, ke vi kunportu sufiĉe grandan sumon da mono_ = In order to be able to pay (in order that you may be able to pay) this debt it is necessary for you to bring (that you bring) a sufficient large sum of money. _Por ke vi estu elektata, vi bezonas batali kun ekstrema energio_ = In order to be elected (that you may be elected), you need to fight with extreme energy. _Por ke oni rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi tion meritu_ = In order that they may reward you, it is fitting that you merit it. _Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta pri mi_ = I wish to do everything to satisfy you (so that you may be satisfied with me). _Respondu al mi antaŭ morgaŭ, por ke mi sciu, kion mi devos diri al li_ = Answer me before to-morrow, so that I may know what I must (shall have to) say to him. _Mi volas, ke li estu ordonata atendi mian alvenon_ = I wish that he may be ordered to await my arrival, _or_, I wish him to be ordered to await my arrival.

201 (_a_). The compound forms of the Imperative in the active voice are very rarely used, but they are occasionally useful to give exactitude to an expression.

Examples.--_Mi deziras, ke li estu min atendanta en la stacidomo je la dua horo morgaŭ posttagmeze_ = I desire that he be awaiting me in the station at 2 o'clock to-morrow afternoon. _Estas necese, ke li estu fininta sian laboron, je la tria horo_ = It is necessary that he have (for him to have) finished his work at 3 o'clock. _Mi ne volas, ke li estu fininta sian laboron, kiam mi alvenos, sed ke li estu finonta ĝin_ = I do not wish that he shall have finished his work when I (shall) come, but that he be about to finish it.

202. From the examples given of the use of the Imperative mood, we see that in Esperanto the verb in a dependent proposition is almost always preceded by the conjunction ke = _that_, and that the English rendering generally puts the verb in the Infinitive, the conjunction being omitted, or if it be retained, that the verb is in the Subjunctive mood. It is not generally advisable to translate this infinitive rendering literally into Esperanto, except when the _actor_ of the _first_ verb is also the _actor_ of the _second_.

Examples.--_Mi volas lin vidi morgaŭ_ = I wish to see him to-morrow. _La lernejestro deziris rekompenci la knabon_ = The schoolmaster desired to reward the boy. _Ni bezonos forte labori, se ni deziras fini la falĉadon hodiaŭ vespere_ = We shall need to work hard if we wish to finish the mowing this evening.

THE PARTICIPLES (Participoj).

There are three forms of the participle, viz.:--The adjectival in _-A_, the adverbial in _-E_, and the substantival in _-O_.

203. In the active voice the adjectival is formed by adding _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_ to the root of the verb, as:--

Present, Skribanta = _Writing_ (lit., _being writing_).

Past, Skribinta = _Having written_.

Future, Skribonta = _About_ (_going_) _to write_.

204. In the passive voice by adding _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_, as:--

Present, Skribata = _Being written_.

Past, Skribita = _Written_, or, _having been written_.

Future, Skribota = _About_ (or, _going_) _to be written_.

205. The active participles, preceded by the auxiliary verb esti = _to be_, in its various moods and tenses, form the compound tenses of the active voice.

206. The passive participles, with the verb esti, form all the moods and tenses in the passive voice.

207. Participles, like adjectives, agree in number and case with the nouns or pronouns to which they refer.

Examples. _Ni estas vidintaj la viron_ = We have seen the man. _Ŝi vidis la virojn legantajn_ = She saw the men who were reading (the reading men). _Ni vidas la krimojn elfaratajn ĉiutage sur la stratoj_ = We see the crimes being perpetrated daily in the streets.

208. All the participles can be used as adjectives and also as nouns and adverbs, by substituting _-O_ for _-A_ for a noun, and _-E_ for _-A_ for an adverb. The words still retain the signification of the tense of the participle. Participial adjectives and adverbs in the active voice govern the accusative.

209. Examples in the active voice.

(_a_). _Participial nouns_, as:--_La leganto_ = _The reader_ (_person now reading_). La leginto = _The reader_ (_person who has been reading_). La legonto = _The reader_ (_person about to read_).

Examples.--_La leganto havas bonan voĉon, sed la leginto havis pli bonan; mi kredas, tamen, ke la legonto havos la plej bonan voĉon el ĉiuj_ = The (present) reader has a good voice, but the (previous) reader had a better; I believe, however, that the (coming) reader will have the best voice of all. _Ĉi tiu_ (or, _tiu ĉi_) _ideo okupis la grandan pensanton ĝis la fino de lia vivo_ = This idea occupied the great thinker up to the end of his life.

(_b_). Participial adjectives agree with their nouns in number and case, but when predicative they agree in number only (see remarks on adjectives, pars. 36, 108, 110, also par. 87 (_d_)).

Examples.--_La mortanta viro vidis mortintan virinon sur la apuda lito_ = The dying man saw a dead woman in the next bed. _Ŝi paliĝis kaj aspektis kiel virino mortonta_ = She grew pale and appeared like a woman about to die. In the above sentences participial nouns might be used when the translation in English would be word for word the same, as:--_La mortanto vidis mortintinon sur la apuda lito. Ŝi paliĝis, kaj aspektis kiel mortontino._ This shows the wonderful flexibility of Esperanto!

(_c_). Participial adverbs are invariable.

Examples.--_Legante ni lernas_ = In reading we learn. _Fininte sian laboron, li iris hejmen_ = Having finished his work, he went home. _Aĉetonte libron, li petas, ke mi pruntu al li tri ŝilingojn_ = Being about to buy a book, he begs me to lend him (that I lend him) three shillings.

210. Examples in the passive voice.

(_a_). Participial nouns, as:--La aludato = _The person being spoken of_, or, _the person in question_. La aludito = _The aforesaid_ (_person_). La aludoto = _The person about to be spoken of_.

Examples.--_La pendigotino nun aperis sur la eŝafodo_ = The woman about to be hanged now appeared on the scaffold. _La batito tute meritis la punon, kiun la batinto donis al li_ = The beaten one quite deserved the punishment that the beater gave him.

(_b_). Participial adjectives and adverbs. La konstruata domo = _The house under construction_. La konstruita domo = _The (actually) constructed house_. La konstruota domo = _The house (about) to be constructed_. Konstruota does not show obligation to construct, but simply that it is intended to build the house, and that it will be eventually built.

Examples.--_Li venis al mi tute ne atendite_ = He came to me quite unexpectedly. _Ne estas atendate ke li venos_ = It is not expected (being expected) that he will come. _La domo estas vendota morgaŭ_ = The house is to be sold to-morrow.

N.B.--Note that when the subject is not expressed, the participle takes the adverbial form (see par. 245).

211. Relation of the participle to the subject.

(_a_). When a participle, relating to the subject of a sentence, but not qualifying it, expresses the circumstances, manner, time, occasion, etc., of an act, it takes the adverbial form. Zamenhof states that the "ablative absolute" does not exist in Esperanto, as its use would be against the spirit of the language.

Examples.--_Promenante sur la strato, mi falis_ = (While) walking in the street, I fell. _Trovinte pomon, mi ĝin manĝis_ = Having found an apple, I ate it (see par. 245 (_a_)).

(_b_). If, however, the participle does _not_ relate to the _subject_ of the sentence, we must either change the construction so as to make the participial portion of the sentence relate to the subject, or else use another mood with a conjunction, adverb, etc.

For instance, we might say in English, "The enemy having run away, we crossed the bridge," but we cannot translate this literally into Esperanto, because "having run away" does not relate to those who crossed the bridge; therefore it would be wrong to say _La malamiko forkurinte, ni transiris la ponton_. So we must change the construction, thus:--"Having put to flight (made to run away) the enemy, we crossed the bridge" = _Forkuriginte la malamikon, ni transiris la ponton_. Or, another construction would be:--"After the enemy ran away, we crossed the bridge" = _Post kiam la malamiko forkuris, ni transiris la ponton_. In the sentence, "Swimming in the lake, the man saw a large swan," it is not clear whether the man or the swan was swimming, but in Esperanto there is no ambiguity. In the sentence, _Naĝante sur la lago, la homo vidis grandan cignon_, the participle, _naĝante_, relates to the man, the subject of _vidis_. If we wish it to relate to the swan, we make it agree with _cignon_, and say, _Naĝantan sur la lago_, etc. But it would be better to alter the order, thus: _La homo vidis grandan cignon naĝantan (kiu naĝis) sur la lago_.

212. Participial expressions with prepositions.

(_a_). Without can be rendered by the negative ne and an adverbial participle, or by sen followed by a noun.

Examples.--_Li alvenis, ne avertinte min_ (or, _sen averto al mi_) = He arrived without (not) having warned me. _Mi ne povos tion ĉi fari, ne estante subtenata_ (or, _ne subtenate_, or, _sen subteno_) = I shall not be able to do this without being supported. _Ni iru al la danĝero, ne timante la morton_ (or, _sen timo pri la morto_) = Let us go to the danger without fearing death.

(_b_). For can be rendered by ke = _that_ (or, pro tio, ke or, tial, ke) and the indicative.

Examples.--_Mi estas al vi danka, ke vi avertis min_ = I am thankful to you for having (that you) warned me. _Pardonu al mi, ke mi tiel faras_ = Pardon me for so doing. _Pardonu al mi pro tio, ke mi tiel faris_ = Pardon me for having done so (that I so did).

(_c_). Of, by por and the infinitive.

Example.--_Mi pripensis pri rimedo por deturni lin de lia projekto_ = I reflected on a means of turning him from his project.

(_d_). After, by an adverbial past participle.

Example.--_"Kion ni faros?" li diris, sidinte momenton silente_ = "What shall we do?" he said, after sitting (having sat) for a moment in silence.

(_e_). Before, by antaŭ ol and the infinitive.

Example.--_Li ludis antaŭ ol labori_ = He played before working.

213. The participle for the adjective.

(_a_). Be careful not to use the participle terminations _-ANTA_, _-INTA_ for simple adjectives that have a form of their own. Some English words ending in "ing" and "ed" may be used either as participles or as simple adjectives. Note that the participle denotes _action_, whilst the adjective denotes _quality_, _state_, etc.

(_b_). Such words have, in Esperanto, an adjectival as well as a participial form, and we must be careful to use the right one in accordance with the sense.

Examples..--_Laboranta_ and _labora_ = Working. _Ĉarmanta_ and _ĉarma_ = Charming. _Interesanta_ and _interesa_ = Interesting. _Sufokanta_ and _sufoka_ = Suffocating. _Kontentigita_ and _kontenta_ = Satisfied; pleased, content.

(_c_). Observe the difference in meaning of the following:--

_Rigardu tiun homon, laborantan (kiu laboras) sur la kampo!_ = Look at that man, working in the field! _Rigardu tiun homon laboran_ (better, _tiun laboriston_) _sur la kampo!_ = Look at that working-man in the field! In the first sentence, _laborantan_, the participle, denotes the action of the man: in the second, _laboran_, the adjective, denotes his state, condition, etc. _Ŝi estas ĉarmanta nin per sia kantado_ = She is charming us with her singing. _Ŝi estas ĉarma, kiam ŝi kantas_ = She is charming when she sings. It would be better, instead of using the participle _ĉarmanta_, to say, _Ŝi ĉarmas nin per sia kantado._ _Mi ne estas kontentigita per liaj respondoj_ = I have not been satisfied with his replies. _Mi ne estas kontenta je li_ = I am not pleased with him.

THE TENSES (La Tempoj).

The Tenses, Active Voice.

214. The Tenses indicate the time of action, and its state of completeness or incompleteness. They are either simple or compound. The simple tenses are formed by adding -_AS_, -_IS_ or -_OS_ to the root of the verb, and the terminations remain the same for all persons and numbers. The compound tenses are formed by the auxiliary verb esti = _to be_, and one of the participles of the verb which must agree in number with its subject. Esti is conjugated in exactly the same way as all other verbs.

215. The three Tenses used in Esperanto are the Present, Past, and Future.

216. Duration of action of the verb.--(_a_). In English, to express the continuance of an action, the present participle of a transitive verb is used after the verb "to be" in all the moods and tenses--as "I am loving," or "I was (have been, shall be, should be) loving"; imperative, "Be thou loving." If great exactness as regards time be necessary, these forms can be represented in Esperanto word for word as they are in English, viz., by the compound forms, mi estas (estis, estos, estus) amanta, estu amanta.

(_a_). To show that an action is continuous or habitual, the suffix _-AD-_ may be added to the verb (see remarks on suffix _-AD-_, par. 270 (1)).

Examples.--_Ŝi kantadas la tutan tagon_ = She keeps on singing the whole day. _La birdoj flugadis de arbo al arbo_ = The birds were (kept on) flying from tree to tree.

(_b_). The commencement of an action, or a sudden action, is shown by adding the prefix _EK-_.

Examples.--_Ŝi ekkantis_ = She began to sing. _La lumo brilis_ = The light shone. _La lumo ekbrilis_ = The light flashed (see remarks on prefix _EK-_, par. 288).

217. Emphatic form of verb.--In English this form consists of the verb, preceded by "do" or "did," and is confined to the present and past tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the imperative mood of the active voice, as:--"I do love," "He does love," "I did love," "Do love." This form in Esperanto can be represented by the adverb ja = _indeed_, or by suitable adverbs, such as tre, tre multe, vere, certe, efektive, etc.

Examples.--_Mi ja lin amas_ = I _do_ love him. _Mi tiel multe amis ŝin_ = I _did_ so love her.

The Present.

218. The Present tense (simple) ends in _-AS_. It is used to express not only what is happening at the moment, but also what happens in all time, or what is understood to be present.

Examples.--_Mi kuras_ = I run, _or_ am running. _La vero ĉiam venkas_ = Truth always conquers. _La aŭtoro diras en sia verko, ke_ .... = The author says in his book that.... _Kiun vi vidas?_ = Whom do you see? _Mi vidas neniun_ = I see nobody. _Mi foriras, ĉar mia patro min atendas_ = I am going away, for my father awaits (_or_ expects) me. _Mi ĉiam leviĝas tre frue_ = I always get up (rise) very early. _Nenion oni faras sen peno_ = One does nothing without effort.

219. The Present in place of the Past or Future.--In Esperanto, as in other languages, the Present is often used for the Past or Future, to give vividness to an expression.

Examples.--_Mi haltas, perdante la spiron, kiam subite mi aŭdas post mi voĉon_ = I stop, losing breath, when suddenly I hear behind me a voice. _Hodiaŭ plenaj de vivo, ni estas morgaŭ la akiro de la tombo_ = To-day full of life, to-morrow we shall be (are) the prey (acquirement) of the tomb.

220. Esperanto logically always employs the Present, even in a phrase relating to what has past, if the action is present relatively to the time in question.

Example.--_Ĉiuj, kiuj ŝin vidis povis pensi, ke ili vidas la patrinon_ = All who saw her could think that they saw (see) her (the) mother. In this sentence, what did they think? Their thought was, "We see her mother," not "We saw her mother." The sight was present to them, hence _ili vidas_.

221. Present in place of the Past.--If it is a question of the truth of all time, or of a fact existing at the moment spoken of, English generally uses the Past tense, but in Esperanto the Present is always employed.

Examples.--_Ni eksciis, ke vi estas en Londono ok tagojn_ = We learnt that you were (are) in London for eight days. _Ni kredis, ke vi estas kuracisto_ = We believed that you were (are) a doctor. _Li instruis nin, he ĉiam oni devas esti indulga_ = He taught us that one must always be forbearing (merciful).

222. The Present tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti = _to be_ and one of the three participles, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_. The compound tenses are seldom used in Esperanto, and their use is to be avoided if the simple tenses suffice to convey our meaning. Their use, therefore, is confined to giving exactitude to the time of an action or to an idea (see par. 169).

Examples.--_Li estas vojaĝanta_ = He is travelling. The simple form, _Li vojaĝas_, might mean that he travels generally, but possibly is not at this moment on his way to any place. If, therefore, we wish to convey that he is actually on his way to some place, we use the compound form, or some additional word, as nun, e.g., _li nun vojaĝas. Kiam la abeloj estas forflugontaj, ili zumadas laŭte_ = When bees are about to fly away, they (are accustomed to) hum loudly (see par. 216 (_a_)). _Esti skribanta_ = To be writing.

The Past.

223. The Past tense (simple) ends in -_IS_. It expresses something that has passed. It is used for the three tenses in English; the past, imperfect, and perfect; and sometimes for the pluperfect, if its use does not cause ambiguity.

Examples.--_Mi skribis_ = I wrote, I was writing, _or_, I have written. _Li venis antaŭ du horoj_ = He came two hours ago. _Pluvis hieraŭ_ = It rained yesterday. _Se li estis malsana, li ne povis veni_ = If he was ill, he could not come. _Ĉu vi lin vidis?_ = Did you see (_or_, have you seen) him? _Li foriris, antaŭ ol mi alvenis_ = He had left before I arrived. _Mi promenis hieraŭ, kaj renkontis vian amikon_ = I took a walk (_or_, I was walking, better _promenadis_) yesterday, and met your friend.

224. The Past tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary verb esti = _to be_ and one of the three participles, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_. This form should not be used when the simple form suffices to convey the required meaning. It is better employed only when we wish to give to an expression more exactitude as regards the state of the subject at the time of the principal action than is conveyed by the simple form (see pars. 169, 226 (_a_)).

Examples.--_Kiam li estis fininta sian laboron, li iris hejmen_ = When he had finished his work, he went home. _Mi estis skribanta leteron, kiam okazis tertremo_ = I was writing a letter when an earthquake took place. _Ili interkonsentis kaj estis enirontaj la landon, sed io okazis, kio ilin malhelpis_ = They mutually agreed, and were about to enter the country, but something happened which prevented them.

225. To show that something has just happened, or is very soon going to happen, the words ĵus = _just_, or tuj = _immediately_, are often used respectively.

Examples.--_Mi ĵus vidis tre belan pentraĵon_ = I have just seen a very beautiful picture. _Ni estis tuj elirontaj, kiam ekpluvis_ = We were on the point of (_or_, just) going out when it began to rain.

226. The past tense of esti (estis) and the past participle (_-INTA_) of the verb correspond with the pluperfect in English. It denotes an action that was completed at a time now past. As before stated, it need not be employed when the simple past tense in _-IS_ sufficiently expresses the meaning wished to be conveyed.

Examples.--_Kiam ŝi estis rakontinta ĉion, kio okazis, ŝi ekploris_ = When she had related everything that happened, she began to weep. Here, in English, we should probably say "everything that _had_ happened," but "_ĉion, kio estis okazinta_" is unnecessary in Esperanto, as the meaning is quite clear with "_okazis_." _Li ne estis parolinta du sekundojn, kiam mi diris al li "Silentu!"_ = He had not spoken for two seconds when I said to him, "Be silent!"

226 (_a_). The adverb antaŭe = _beforehand_ (or jam, or jam antaŭe) is sometimes used with the past and future simple tenses, or with the simple forms of the Conditional or Imperative mood, instead of the compound tenses or forms (see Part III, Exercise 8).

Examples.--_Kiam vi eniris en la ĉambron, la gastoj jam antaŭe foriris (or, estis foririntaj)_ = When you entered the room, the guests had departed (lit., already beforehand departed). _Kiam vi venos al mi, mi jam antaŭe finos_ (or, _estos fininta_) _la laboron_ = When you have (will) come to me, I shall have finished the work. _Li ne aĉetus la libron, se vi antaŭe ne donus_ (or, _estus doninta_) _al li la monon_ = He would not have bought the book unless you had given him the money (lit., if you beforehand should not give him the money).

The Future.

227. The Future (simple) ends in _-OS_. The future (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti and one of the three participles, _-ANTA_, _-INTA_, _-ONTA_, but the compound form should be used only when we wish to express anteriority, that is to say, action taking place previous to that of the principal action.

228. The future denotes an action yet to take place.

Examples.--_La patro venos post du tagoj_ = Father will come in two days. _Ĉu vi pruntos al mi la libron?_ = Will you lend me the book? _Kiam li alvenos?_ = When will he arrive? _Li venos la lundon proksiman_ = He will come next Monday.

229. If we wish to mark a near future, we can use with the verb the adverbs tuj = _immediately_, baldaŭ = _soon_, tre baldaŭ = _very soon_.

Examples.--_Li tuj alvenos_ = He will arrive immediately. _Li tre baldaŭ estos tie ĉi_ = He will very soon be here.

230. The future compound with the present participle is used when we wish to mark that an action will be _going on_ at some particular time in the future.

Example.--_Je la deka morgaŭ matene mi estos veturanta Parizon_ = At 10 o'clock to-morrow morning I shall be travelling to Paris.

231. The future compound with the past participle is used when we wish to mark that an action will be _finished_ at some particular time in the future (see par. 226 (_a_)).

Example.--_Mi estos fininta mian laboron je la sesa horo morgaŭ vespere_ = I shall have finished my work at six o'clock to-morrow evening.

232. The future for the present indicative or subjunctive.--Be careful not to imitate English in using the present or subjunctive for the future.

Examples.--_Se pluvos, li ne venos_ = If it rains, he will not come. _Kion vi faros, kiam mi estos en la tombo?_ = What will you do when I am in the grave? _Mi skribos la leteron dum vi ripozos_ = I shall write the letter whilst you are resting. _Ŝi skribis al ni, ke ŝi estos tie ĉi morgaŭ_ = She wrote to us that she would (will) be here to-morrow (she wrote what? not "that she _would_," but "that she will," so the future is the correct tense).

The Tenses, Passive Voice.

233. The tenses of the passive voice are formed by the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb esti and the passive participles, _-ATA_, _-ITA_, _-OTA_. All the tenses are therefore compound. As with the active participles, _J_ is added to the three persons of the plural in all the tenses.

234. The signification of the tenses is the same as in the active voice, except, of course, that the subject of a passive verb is acted upon. Since esti is the only auxiliary verb used in Esperanto, it represents the two English auxiliaries, "to be" and "to have"; we must, therefore, translate it accordingly.

235. Care must be taken in the use of these participles. For instance, the participles of skribi = _to write_ used alone mean--

Present, Skribata = _Written_, or, _being written_ (action going on).

Past, Skribita = _Written_, or, _been written_ (lit., _having been written_) (action completed).

Future, Skribota = _About to be_, or, _going to be_, _written_ (action about to occur).

236. The various tenses of the verb esti show the _time_ of the action, and the three participles the state of the subject at that time. Note carefully the various shades of meaning in the following examples:--

_La pordego estas fermata, ĉar la ludo estas ludota_ = The gate is being shut, for the game is about to be played.

_La pordego estas fermita, ĉar la ludo estas ludata_ = The gate is (_or_, has been) shut, for the game is being played.

_La pordego estis fermita, dum la ludo estis ludata_ = The gate was (_or_, had been) shut whilst the game was being played.

_Kiam estos pendigata la homo?_ = When will the man be (being) hanged?

_Li estis pendigota morgaŭ, sed oni diras, ke li ne estos pendigata ĝis mardo_ = He was to have been (was about to be) hanged to-morrow, but they say he will not be hanged till Tuesday.

_Kaj kiam li estos pendigita, kie li estos enterigota?_ = And when he is (has been) hanged, where is he to be buried? (lit., and when he shall have been hanged, where will he be about to be buried?). Note that after the interrogative _kiam_ the English present tense is often future in Esperanto, as:--_Kiam li venos?_ When is he coming? _or_, When will he come?

_Pasero estis kaptita kaj enmetita en kaĝon, sed kiam la pordeto de la kaĝo estis malfermata, ĝi forflugis_ = A sparrow was (_or_, had been) caught and put into a cage, but when the door of the cage was being opened it flew away.

N.B.--In the above sentence we see that the sparrow _was_ (estis) first in the state of _having been caught_ (kaptita); then in the state of _having been put_ (enmetita) into a cage; then that the door was in the state of _being opened_ (malfermata), and that during this action the bird _flew away_ (forflugis).

(For examples of the passive conditional mood see par. 193.)

(For examples of the rare use of the passive imperative mood see par. 201.)

THE USE OF CERTAIN VERBS.

Devi.

237 (_a_). Devi = _to be obliged to, to have to_, means to be physically or morally obliged to do something, as:--Vi devas fari tion = _You must (have to, are to) do that_. Vi ne devas fari tion = _You are not obliged to do that_. If, however, the action is not immediate, the future tense is used for "must," as:--Vi devos fari tion morgaŭ = _You must (will have to) do that to-morrow._ In its Conditional form devi may be used, like other verbs, to soften an expression, and then it can be translated by "ought," as:--Vi devus ne fari tion = _You ought not to (should not) do that._ Here devus is used instead of the more peremptory form, devas; Vi devas ne fari tion would mean _You must not (are not to) do that_ (see par. 194, also pars. 237 (_o_), (_p_), on "should," "must," "ought," and par. 59 (_a_)).

Examples.--_Mi devas vin forlasi, ĉar oni atendas min_ = I must (have to) leave you, for they are waiting for me. _Ĉu mi devas fari tion tuj?_ = Must I (am I to) do that at once? _Ĉu mi devos veni morgaŭ_ = Must I (shall I have to, am I to) come to-morrow? _Mi devis skribi leteron_ = I had (have had) to write a letter. _Li devis min vidi hodiaŭ, sed li ne povas veni_ = He was to see me to-day, but he cannot come. _Ili devis vidi min hieraŭ, sed ili ne povis veni_ = They were to have seen me yesterday, but they could not come. _Li estis kolera hieraŭ, ĉar li devis iri lernejon_ = He was angry yesterday, because he was obliged to (had to) go to school. _Sed por tio ĉi mi devos atendi iom da tempo_ = But for this I shall have to (I must) wait some time. _Se mi lin vidus, mi devus paroli kun li_ = If I saw him, I should have to speak to him. _Se mi lin vidus, mi estus devinta paroli kun li_ = If I had seen (saw) him, I should have been obliged (have had) to speak to him. _La celo de ĉiu estas, aŭ devus esti, bonfaradi_ = The aim of everyone is, or ought to (should) be, to do good. _Li devus kolekti kaj aranĝi siajn faktojn_ = He ought to (should) collect and arrange his facts. _Kiam vi estas tie, vi devus vidi la kastelon_ = When you are there, you ought to see the castle. _Kiam vi estis tie, vi devus vidi_ (or, _vi devus esti vidinta_) _la kastelon_ = When you were there, you ought to have seen the castle. _Mi devus tute ne aŭskulti ŝin_ = I ought not to listen to her at all.

From these examples we see that the following is the meaning of devi in its moods and tenses. The compound forms should not be used unless absolutely necessary to render the meaning clear.

Present.

_Vi devas (paroli)_ = You must, have to, are to (speak).

_Past._

_Mi devis (paroli)_ = I had to (speak); _or_, I was to (speak, or, have spoken).

_Mi estas devinta (paroli)_ = I have been obliged, _or_, I have had to (speak).

_Mi estis devinta (paroli)_ = I had been obliged to (speak).

_Future._

_Mi devos (paroli)_ = I shall have to, I am to, I must (speak).

_Conditional._

_Mi devus (paroli), se ..._ = I should have to, or, be obliged to (speak), if ...

_Mi estus devinta (paroli), se ..._ = I should have had to, _or_, have been obliged to (speak), if ...

_Conditional (softened sense)._

_Vi devus (paroli)_ = You ought to, or, you should (speak, or, have spoken).

_Vi devus (esti parolinta)_ = You ought to have, or, you should have (spoken).

N.B.--Do not use _devi_ for "were to," when no obligation is implied. Note the difference in meaning in the following sentences:--_Se ili venus, mi vidus ilin_ = If (supposing) they were to come (if they came), I would see them. _Ili devis veni la lastan semajnon, sed io malhelpis ilin_ = They were to (have) come last week, but something prevented them.

Also do not use _devi_ for "am to," "was to," etc., when these words express not "obligation," but "_purpose_" or "_intention_." For instance, "Are you to speak at the meeting?" may mean either (1) "Do you intend to (Shall you) speak?" or, (2) "Have you to (Must you) speak?" So we translate (1) _Ĉu vi intencas paroli (Ĉu vi parolos) ĉe la kunveno?_ or, (2) _Ĉu vi devos paroli ĉe la kunveno?_ In such a phrase as "You are to do that" the obligation is clear, so we say _Vi devas tion fari._

Further, do not use devi in translating such a sentence as "The man must be a fool," which is _La viro sendube estas malsaĝulo,_ not, _devas esti ..._

Kuŝi.

237 (_b_). Kuŝi = _to lie, to be situated_, is sometimes used to denote anything in a state of rest, or in a recumbent position. It has, therefore, also the meaning of "to be."

Examples.--_La krajono kuŝas sur la libro_ = The pencil lies (is) on the book. _La libroj kuŝas sur la breto_ = The books are (lie) on the shelf.

Koni and Scii.

237 (_c_). Koni and scii are used in the same sense as the French verbs _connaître_ and _savoir_.

Koni means _to know_, _to be acquainted with_, _to know a person_, or, _thing_.

Examples.--_Mi konas vian fraton_ = I know your brother. _Li konas la hundon, sed li ne konas ĝian posedanton_ = He knows the dog, but he does not know its owner.

N.B.--It is never followed by the conjunction _KE_; _Mi konas, ke_, is wrong. _Mi scias, ke vi_ ... = I know that you ...

Scii means _to know_, _to be aware of_, _to know something is_ or _was happening_, etc.

N.B.--It is never used of persons.

Examples.--_Mi scias, ke li estas prava_ = I know that he is right. _Mi sciis, ke li estis tie hieraŭ_ = I knew he was there yesterday. _Mi ne sciis, ke vi konas lin_ = I did not know that you knew him. _Mi konas la francan lingvon, sed mi ne scias ĝin_ = I know (recognize) the French language (when I see it), but I do not know it.

Lasi.

237 (_d_). Lasi, like the English verb "to leave," has various meanings.

(1). To let remain, as:--_Li lasis la libron sur la tablo_ = He left the book on the table.

(2). To leave in a place, not to take with one, as:--_Li lasis sian edzinon en la domo_ = He left his wife in the house. _Lasu vian bastonon tie ĉi_ = Leave your stick here.

(3). To lose restraint upon something, as:--_Li lasis fali la libron_ = He let the book fall.

(4). To leave in a certain state, as:--_Li lasis min en la plej granda embaraso_ = He left me in the greatest embarrassment. _Li lasis la domon tre malpura_ = He left the house very dirty.

(5). To leave to the care of someone, as:--_La juĝisto lasis la infanojn al la patro_ = The judge left the children to the father.

(6). To have remaining at death, to leave behind one, as:--_Kiam li mortis, li lasis_ (or, _postlasis_) _grandan riĉaĵon, kiun li testamentis al diversaj bonfaraj institucioj_ = When he died, he left great wealth, which he left to various charitable institutions (note that to "leave," "bequeath," is _testamenti_).

(7). _Lasi_, followed by the preposition _en_, means to "leave in," or to "let into," according as the complement is in the nominative or accusative, e.g.:--_Mi lasis la hundon en la domo_ = I left the dog in the house. _Mi lasis la hundon en la domon_ = I let the dog into the house.

(8). In the "Krestomatio," page 25, it is used in the sense to "leave off," "cease," as:--_Aleksandro lasis sian paroladon pri batalo kaj petis de ili panon_ = Alexander left off talking of battle, and asked them for bread.

(9). _Lasi_, followed by an infinitive, means to "let," or, "allow," as:--_Lasu al mi ĝin fari_ = Let me do it, _or_, Leave it to me to do. Sometimes we find it used in the sense "allow to be," as:--_Neniu volis lasi rimarki, ke li nenion vidas_ = No one wished to let it be noticed that he saw (sees) nothing. This imitates the idiom of some national languages. It can be explained as an omission of _onin_ or some other pronoun, thus:--_Neniu volis lasi onin_ (_nin_) _rimarki, ke_ ... = No one wished to let people (us) notice that ...

(10). _Allasi_ = to admit (own the truth), as:--_Li allasis, ke li estas malprava_ = He admitted he was (is) wrong.

(11). _Delasi_ = to allow to leave, as:--_Li delasis lin de la domo_ = He let him leave the house.

(12). _Enlasi_ (like _lasi en_) = to let go in, as:--_Enlasu min!_ = Let me in!

(13). _Forlasi_ = to abandon, as:--_Li forlasis sian postenon_ = He abandoned his post.

(14). _Preterlasi_ = to let pass, as:--_Li preterlasis la okazon_ = He let the opportunity pass, _or_, He missed the opportunity. _Li ne povis uzi sian bileton, ĉar ĝia limtempo preterlasiĝis_ = He could not use his ticket because its time limit had expired.

(15). _Tralasi_ = to allow to pass through, as:--_Li tralasis la homon tra la pordo_ = He let the man pass through the door. _Kiam ŝi atingis la pordegon, ili ŝin tralasis_ = When she reached the gate, they let her through.

Pesi and Pezi.

237 (_e_). Pesi = _to weigh_, _to examine by balance_ (transitive).

Pezi = _to weigh_, _to have weight_ (intransitive).

Peso = _the weighing_, _the act of weighing_.

Pezo = _the weight_, or, _heaviness of a thing_.

Pesilo = _the scales_, or, _the weighing machine_.

Pezilo = _a_ (_metal_) _weight_.

From the above words we see that the roots pes- and pez- both signify "weight," and care must be taken to use the words in their transitive or intransitive sense.

Examples. _Tiuj ĉi tabloj estas de granda pezo: mi kredas, ke ilia pezo estas pli ol cent okdek funtoj_ = These tables are a great weight; I believe that their weight is more than a hundred and eighty pounds. _Tiu kesto estas tre peza; mi estas certa ke ĝi pezas almenaŭ naŭdek funtojn; metu ĝin sur la pesilon, alportu la pezilojn, pesu ĝin, kaj diru al mi la ĝustan pezon_ = That chest is very weighty (heavy); I am certain that it weighs at least ninety pounds; put it on the scales (weighing machine), bring the weights, weigh it, and tell me the exact weight.

Povi.

237 (_f_). Povi = _to be able_. Beginners sometimes find a difficulty in dealing with this verb, owing to the irregularity of the English equivalents. For instance, the beginner may say, "How can 'can' be both present and future, or 'could' both past and conditional?" The following examples giving translations of povi in its various tenses should be helpful in removing the difficulty.

Present, Mi povas = _I am able to_, _I can_.

Past, Mi povis = _I have been_ (or, _was_) _able to_, _I could_.

Future, Mi povos = _I shall be able to_, _I can_.

Future, Ni estos povintaj = _We shall have been able to_.

Conditional, Mi povus = _I should_ (or, _would_) _be able to_, or, _I could_, or, _I might_.

Conditional, Li estus povinta = _He would have been able to_, or, _He could have_.

Examples.--_Ĉu vi povas tion fari? Jes, mi povas_ = Are you able to (can you) do that? Yes, I can. _Mi ne povas vidi la arbon, kiun vi montras_ = I cannot see the tree which you point out. _Mi povis fari tion, kion vi volis_ = I was (have been) able to do what you wished. _Mi ne povis fari tion, kion vi postulis_ = I was not (have not been) able to do (I could not do) what you required. _Mi povos tion fari morgaŭ_ = I shall be able to (I can) do that to-morrow. _Se vi povus veni mardon, mi povus vin vidi_ = If you should be able to (if you could) come on a Tuesday, I could see you. _Mi povus tion fari morgaŭ, se...._ = I could (should be able to) do that to-morrow if.... _Ĉu li estos povinta plenumi la laboraĵon, kiam vi lin vidos morgaŭ?_ = Will he have been able to complete the work when you (will) see him to-morrow? _Se vi venus hieraŭ, mi estus povinta vin vidi_ = If you had come yesterday, I could have seen you. _Li povus veni, se li volus_ = He might (would be able to) come if he wished (see pars. 237 (_l_), (_m_)).

Sidi.

237 (_g_). Sidi = _to sit_, _to be sitting_. Sidi has sometimes the signification "to be" in some defined place.

Examples.--_En la ĉambro sidis nur kelke da homoj_ = In the room were (sat) only a few (some) men. _La kuiristo sidas en la kuirejo_ = The cook is (sits) in the kitchen. _En la kandelingo sidis brulanta kandelo_ = In the candlestick was (sat) a burning candle.

Sin trovi.

237 (_h_). Sin trovi = _to find oneself_. This expression (or, troviĝi = _to be found_, _to find oneself_, _to be_, or, _to be situated_) is often used for the English verb "to be."

Examples.--_Sur la arbo sin trovis multe da birdoj_ = On the tree were (found themselves) many birds. _Super la tero troviĝas aero_ = Over the earth is air.

Ĉesi, Daŭri, Pasi, Fini, Komenci.[17]

237 (_i_). In English the following and many other verbs are used in both a transitive and intransitive sense:--_to stop_, _to continue_, _to pass_, _to finish_, _to commence_. In Esperanto ĉesi, daŭri, pasi are intransitive; so, to make them transitive, we must add _IGI_. On the other hand, fini and komenci are transitive; therefore, to make them intransitive, we must add _IĜI_ (par. 280).

Transitive. Intransitive.

_Ĉesigu tiun bruon_ = _La pluvo ĉesis fali_ =
Cease (stop) that noise. The rain ceased to fall (stopped).

_Li daŭrigis sian rakonton_ = _La ventego daŭris unu horon_ =
He continued his story. The storm lasted an hour.