Chapter VI: Part II: Grammar (1)

94. The following is the Complete Grammar of Esperanto, as given by Dr. Zamenhof at page 254 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto," which he says is "a book that should be in the hands of every earnest _student_ who desires to acquire a correct Esperanto style." This book contains a series of Exercises, Fables, Legends, Stories, Extracts from Scientific Articles, Articles on Esperanto, Poetry, Translations from Hamlet and The Iliad, showing how well Esperanto is adapted for every kind of subject.

It will be seen that the whole Grammar consists of sixteen short Rules, which can be learnt in less than an hour. The Esperanto is given alongside the translation. Remarks on the Rules, with examples, will be found by referring to the paragraphs given after each Rule.

COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO.

Alphabet.

The twenty-eight letters and their pronunciation are given in pars. 1-4.

N.B.--Printing offices which do not possess the letters _ĉ_, _ĝ_, _ĥ_, _ĵ_, _ŝ_, _ŭ_, can use instead of them _ch_, _gh_, _hh_, _jh_, _sh_, _u_.

PLENA GRAMATIKO DE ESPERANTO.

Alfabeto.

Aa, Bb, Cc, Ĉĉ, Dd, Ee,
Ff, Gg, Ĝĝ, Hh, Ĥĥ, Ii,
Jj, Ĵĵ, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn,
Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ŝŝ, Tt,
Uu, Ŭŭ, Vv, Zz.

_Rimarko._--Presejoj, kiuj ne posedas la literojn _ĉ_, _ĝ_, _ĥ_, _ĵ_, _ŝ_, _ŭ_, povas anstataŭ ili uzi _ch_, _gh_, _hh_, _jh_, _sh_, _u_.

Rules.

I.

The Article.--There is no indefinite article; there is only a definite article (_la_), alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers.

N.B.--The use of the article is the same as in other languages. People to whom the use of the article presents a difficulty need not at first use it at all.

(See pars. 96-102.)

Reguloj.

I.

_Artikolo_ nedifinita ne ekzistas; ekzistas nur artikolo difinita (_la_), egala por ĉiuj seksoj, kazoj kaj nombroj.

_Rimarko._--La uzado de la artikolo estas tia sama, kiel en la aliaj lingvoj. La personoj, por kiuj la uzado de la artikolo prezentas malfacilaĵon, povas en la unua tempo tute ĝin ne uzi.

II.

The Substantive.--Substantives have the termination _o_. For the formation of the plural the termination _j_ is added. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from the nominative by the addition of the termination _n_. The other cases are expressed by the help of prepositions (the genitive by _de_, the dative by _al_, the ablative by _per_ or other prepositions according to sense).

(See pars. 103-106.)

II.

La _substantivoj_ havas la finiĝon _o_. Por la formado de la multenombro oni aldonas la finiĝon _j_. Kazoj ekzistas nur du: nominativo kaj akuzativo; la lasta estas ricevata el la nominativo per la aldono de la finiĝo _n_. La ceteraj kazoj estas esprimataj per helpo de prepozicioj (la genitivo per _de_, la dativo per _al_, la ablativo per _per_ aŭ aliaj prepozicioj laŭ la senco).

III.

The Adjective.--The adjective ends in _a_. Cases and numbers as with the substantive. The comparative is made by means of the word _pli_, the superlative by _plej_; with the comparative the conjunction _ol_ is used.

(See pars 107-114.)

III.

La _adjektivo_ finiĝas per _a_. Kazoj kaj nombroj kiel ĉe la substantivo. La komparativo estas farata per la vorto _pli_, la superlativo per _plej_; ĉe la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion _ol_.

IV.

The Numerals.--The cardinal numerals (they are not declined) are: _unu_, _du_, _tri_, _kvar_, _kvin_, _ses_, _sep_, _ok_, _naŭ_, _dek_, _cent_, _mil_. The tens and hundreds are formed by the simple junction of the numerals. For the signification of ordinal numerals, the termination of the adjective is added; for the multiple--the suffix _-obl_, for the fractional--_on_, for the collective--_op_, for the distributive--the word _po_. Besides these, substantival and adverbial numerals can be used.

(See pars. 115-124.)

IV.

La _numeraloj_ fundamentaj (ne estas deklinaciataj) estas: _unu_, _du_, _tri_, _kvar_, _kvin_, _ses_, _sep_, _ok_, _naŭ_, _dek_, _cent_, _mil_. La dekoj kaj centoj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la numeraloj. Por la signado de numeraloj ordaj oni aldonas la finiĝon de la adjektivo; por la multoblaj--la sufikson _-obl_, por la nombronaj--_on_, por la kolektaj--_op_, por la disdividaj--la vorton _po_. Krom tio povas esti uzataj numeraloj substantivaj kaj adverbaj.

V.

The Pronouns.--Personal pronouns = _mi_, _vi_, _li_, _ŝi_, _ĝi_ (referring to thing or animal), _si_, _ni_, _vi_, _ili_, _oni_; the possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the adjectival termination. Declension is as with the substantives.

(See pars. 125-138.)

V.

_Pronomoj_ personaj: _mi_, _vi_, _li_, _ŝi_, _ĝi_ (pri objekto aŭ besto), _si_, _ni_, _vi_, _ili_, _oni_; la pronomoj posedaj estas formataj per la aldono de la finiĝo adjektiva. La deklinacio estas kiel ĉe la substantivoj.

VI.

The Verb.--The verb is not changed in person or number. Forms of the verb: the present tense (the time being) takes the termination _-as_; the past tense (the time been, or having been) _-is_; the future tense (the time about to be, or going to be) _-os_; the Conditional mood _-us_; the Imperative (ordering) mood _-u_; the Indefinite (infinitive) mood _-i_. Participles (with an adjectival or adverbial sense): active present _-ant_; active past _-int_; active future _-ont_; passive present _-at_; passive past _-it_; passive future _-ot_. All forms of the passive are formed by help of a corresponding form of the verb _esti_ and a passive participle of the required verb. The preposition with the passive is _de_.

(See pars. 159-237.)

VI.

La _verbo_ ne estas ŝanĝata laŭ personoj nek nombroj. Formoj de la verbo: la tempo estanta akceptas la finiĝon _-as_; la tempo estinta _-is_; la tempo estonta _-os_; la modo kondiĉa _-us_; la modo ordona _-u_; la modo sendifina _-i_. Participoj (kun senco adjektiva aŭ adverba): aktiva estanta _-ant_; aktiva estinta _-int_; aktiva estonta _-ont_; pasiva estanta _-at_; pasiva estinta _-it_; pasiva estonta _-ot_. Ĉiuj formoj de la pasivo estas formataj per helpo de responda formo de la verbo _esti_ kaj participo pasiva de la bezonata verbo; la prepozicio ĉe la pasivo estas _de_.

VII.

The Adverb.--Adverbs end in _e_; degrees of comparison as with adjectives.

(See pars. 238-248.)

VII.

La _adverboj_ finiĝas per _e_; gradoj de komparado kiel ĉe la adjektivoj.

VIII.

The Preposition.--All prepositions require the nominative.

(See pars. 249-261.)

VIII.

Ĉiuj _prepozicioj_ postulas la nominativon.

IX.

Pronunciation.--Every word is read as it is written.

(See pars. 5-19.)

IX.

Ĉiu vorto estas legata, kiel ĝi estas skribita.

X.

Accent.--The accent is always on the penultimate syllable.

(See par. 17.)

X.

La akcento estas ĉiam sur la antaŭlasta silabo.

XI.

Compound Words.--Compound words are formed by the simple junction of words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical terminations are also regarded as independent words.

(See pars. 39-50.)

XI.

Vortoj kunmetitaj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la vortoj (la ĉefa vorto staras en la fino); la gramatikaj finiĝoj estas rigardataj ankaŭ kiel memstaraj vortoj.

XII.

Negation.--When another negative word is present the word _ne_ is omitted.

(See pars. 59-62.)

XII.

Ĉe alia nea vorto la vorto _ne_ estas forlasata.

XIII.

Direction.--In order to show direction, words take the termination of the accusative.

(See par. 67.)

XIII.

Por montri direkton, la vortoj ricevas la finiĝon de la akuzativo.

XIV.

Use of Prepositions.--Every preposition has a definite and constant meaning; but if we have to use some preposition and the direct sense does not indicate to us what special preposition we are to take, then we use the preposition _je_, which has no meaning of its own. Instead of the preposition _je_ we can also use the accusative without a preposition.

(See par. 251.)

XIV.

Ĉiu prepozicio havas difinitan kaj konstantan signifon; sed se ni devas uzi ian prepozicion kaj la rekta senco ne montras al ni, kian nome prepozicion ni devas preni, tiam ni uzas la prepozicion _je_, kiu memstaran signifon ne havas. Anstataŭ la prepozicio _je_ oni povas ankaŭ uzi la akuzativon sen prepozicio.

XV.

Foreign Words.--The so-called foreign words, that is, those which the majority of languages have taken from one source, are used in the Esperanto language without change, receiving only the orthography of the latter language; but with various words from one root it is better to use unchanged only the fundamental word, and to form the rest from this latter in accordance with the rules of the Esperanto language.

(See pars. 39, 52.)

XV.

La tiel nomataj vortoj _fremdaj_, t.e., tiuj, kiujn la plimulto de la lingvoj prenis el unu fonto, estas uzataj en la lingvo Esperanto sen ŝanĝo, ricevante nur la ortografion de tiu ĉi lingvo; sed ĉe diversaj vortoj de unu radiko estas pli bone uzi senŝanĝe nur la vorton fundamentan kaj la ceterajn formi el tiu ĉi lasta laŭ la reguloj de la lingvo Esperanto.

XVI.

Elision.--The final vowel of the substantive and the article can be dropped and replaced by an apostrophe.

(See pars. 56, 57.)

XVI.

La fina vokalo de la substantivo kaj de la artikolo povas esti forlasata kaj anstataŭigata de apostrofo.

COMMENTARY
ON THE
GRAMMAR.

PARTS OF SPEECH (Parolpartoj).

95. There are nine parts of speech in Esperanto, as found in most other languages, viz., the Article (Artikolo), Noun (Substantivo), Pronoun (Pronomo), Adjective (Adjektivo), Verb (Verbo), Adverb (Adverbo), Preposition (Prepozicio), Conjunction (Konjunkcio), Interjection (Interjekcio).

Nouns, derived adjectives and adverbs, and verbs have distinctive terminations. If a word ends in _-O_, it is a noun; if in _-A_, an adjective; if in _-E_, an adverb; if in _-I_, _-U_, _-AS_, _-IS_, _-OS_, or _-US_, a verb. If it ends in _-N_, it is in the accusative case, and if in _-J_, it is plural.

Examples.--_Domo_ = a house. _Facila_ = easy. _Feliĉe_ = happily. _Doni_ = to give (Infinitive). _Batu lin_ = beat him (Imperative and Accusative). _Mi vidas la homojn_ = I see the men (Present tense and Accusative plural). _Vi diris_ = you said (Past tense). _Ni iros_ = we shall go (Future tense). _Se ili estus bonaj_ = If they were good (Conditional mood and plural adjective).

THE ARTICLE (La Artikolo).

96. There is no word in Esperanto for the Indefinite Article. It is, as in Latin, implied in the noun, if the sense in English requires it.

Examples.--_Tio estas floro_ = That is a flower. _Patrino kaj filo_ = Mother and son. _Ĉu vi vidas birdon sur tiu arbo?_ = Do you see a bird on that tree?

97. The definite article is la = _the_. It is, as in English, the same for all genders, numbers, and cases.

Examples.--_La patro_ = The father. _La patrino_ = The mother. _Donu al mi la libron_ = Give me the book. _Ili estas la lernantoj diligentaj_ = They are the diligent scholars.

98. As regards its use, la is used very nearly as the definite article "the" in English, namely, to show that one is speaking of something known or definite, as opposed to what is indefinite.

Examples.--_En la mezo de la korto mi vidis du infanojn el la apuda vilaĝo_ = In the middle of the yard I saw two children of the neighbouring village. In this sentence the yard and village are each defined by the article _la_, as they are also in English by "the." But if we omit the article the sentence runs:--_En la mezo de korto mi vidis du infanojn el apuda vilaĝo_ = In the middle of a yard I saw two children of a neighbouring village. In this case the children might have been in _any_ yard, and have belonged to _any_ village in the neighbourhood of the speaker.

99. There are, however, cases in which the article is often used in Esperanto, though omitted in English, and also _vice versa_.

(_a_). It is usually used before nouns denoting the _totality_ of persons or things.

Examples.--_La homo estas mortema_ = Man is mortal. _La homoj estas mortemaj_ = Men are mortal. _La medicino estas scienco kaj la pentrado arto_ = Medicine is a science and painting an art. _Kelkaj kuracistoj pretendas, ke la vino estas malutila al la sano_ = Some doctors maintain that wine is hurtful to health. _Sen la akvo nia terglobo rapide fariĝus dezerto_ = Without water our earth would rapidly become a desert. _La nokto estis tiel nigra, kiel la peĉo_ = The night was as dark as pitch. _La azenoj amas la kardojn_ = Donkeys love thistles. _La vento kaŭzas ofte teruran detruon en kelkaj landoj_ = Wind often causes terrible ruin in some countries. (In this case _la vento_ means wind in general, spoken of as a whole, but "To-day we shall have wind" (meaning some wind) would be: _Hodiaŭ ni havos venton_.) _Hajlo falas_ = Hail is falling (viz., some hail), but _La hajlo estas tre malutila al la vinbero_ = Hail is very injurious to grapes (to the grape), means hail in general.

(_b_). It is not used before proper names, for the simple reason that they cannot be more definite than they are in themselves. In English it is sometimes used and sometimes not.[13]

Examples.--_Danubo_ = The Danube. _Tibro_ = The Tiber. _Mediteraneo_ = The Mediterranean. _Alpoj_ = The Alps. _Unuiĝintaj Ŝtatoj Amerikaj_ (or, _Usono_) = The United States of America.

Footnote:

[13] This is too strict. In practice the definite article is often used before proper names, and one can say (e.g.) _la Alpoj_, _la Mediteraneo_, etc.

(_c_). If, however, a proper name is preceded by a qualifying word, the article is used.

Examples. _La glora poeto, Dante_ = The famous poet, Dante. _La imperiestro de Japanujo_ = The Emperor of Japan. _La bona reĝino Viktorio_ = The good Queen Victoria.

100. The article may be used sometimes where, in English, we use a possessive pronoun.

Examples.--_Li havas doloron en la kapo_ = He has a pain in his (the) head. _Ŝi prezentis al mi la manon_ = She offered me her hand. _Mi malkovris la okulojn_ = I uncovered my eyes (see also par. 134(_a_)).

(_a_). It is also frequently used instead of a possessive pronoun in speaking of one's own relatives, or when there is no doubt as to the person to whom the article la refers.

Examples.--_Mi amas la patron_ = I love my (the) father. _Iru al la patrino_ = Go to your (the) mother. _Kie estas la kuzo?_ = Where is your (the) cousin? _La patro staras apud la filo_ = The father stands by (at the side of) his (the) son.

101. The article is almost always used before numeral adjectives showing the day, hour, month, etc., when these nouns are understood.

Example.--_Hodiaŭ estas la dudek-sepa (tago) de Marto_ = To-day is the 27th of March.

(_a_). Its use is optional before the names of the seasons, and also before each separate noun or adjective.

Examples.--_En la vintro_, or, _En vintro_ = In the winter. _En la somero_, or, _En somero_ = In the summer. _La arboj, la floroj kaj la kreskaĵoj de la ĝardeno_ (or, _La arboj, floroj kaj kreskaĵoj_) = The trees, (the) flowers and (the) plants of the garden.

(_b_). It is not generally used after ĉiuj = _all_, or, _all the_.

Example.--_Mi ne vidis ĉiujn arbojn en la ĝardeno_ = I did not see all the trees in the garden.

(_c_). It is not used after da (see par. 259).

N.B.--From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the English student will have no difficulty in the use of the article, if he be careful to use it with words defining a _class_ or the _totality_ of persons or things. He will get a good idea of its use if he will carefully study the first few exercises in the "Ekzercaro," or Exercises 1 to 4 in Part III.

In case of doubt whether the article should be used or not, it is better to omit it.

102. Elision.--The final _A_ of the article may be omitted in certain cases (see par. 56 and Rule 16, par. 94).

THE NOUN (La Substantivo).

103. A noun (in the singular number) in all its cases, except the accusative, ends in _-O_. The accusative is formed by the addition of _N_. In the plural it ends in _-OJ_, and the accusative plural is formed by adding _N_ to these letters. Thus the root arb- is made into a noun with its numbers and cases as follows:--

Arb-o = _a tree_ (nominative, singular).
Arb-on = _a tree_ (accusative, singular).
Arb-oj = _trees_ (nominative, plural).
Arb-ojn = _trees_ (accusative, plural).

Examples.--_Domo_ = A house. _La domo_ = The house. _La domoj_ = The houses. _Rigardu la domojn_ = Look at the houses. _Knabo_ = A boy. _La knabo_ = The boy. _Mi vidis la knabon_ = I saw the boy. _Knabino_ = A girl. _La knabino_ = The girl.

Declension of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns.

104. There are but two cases in Esperanto (Rule 2, par. 94), viz., the nominative and the accusative (or objective); the latter is obtained from the nominative by adding _N_ to the singular or plural. Other cases are expressed by the aid of prepositions, as:--

Nominative Mia bona patro = _My good father_.
Accusative Mian bonan patron = _My good father_.
Genitive or} {_Of my good_
Possessive } De mia bona patro = {_father, or, My_
} {_good father's_.
Dative Al mia bona patro = _To my good father_.
{ De mia bona patro = _From_ (_by_, see par. 259 (9))
{ _my good father_.
Ablative { Kun mia bona patro = _With my good
{ father._
{ Per bona glavo = _With (by means
{ of) a good sword._

Note that per = _by_ is the instrumental ablative, meaning "by means, or aid, or use, of," and that kun = _with_ means "in company with," but not in an instrumental sense, as it is sometimes in English, e.g., _I held him with both hands_ = Mi lin tenis per ambaŭ manoj, not _kun_ ambaŭ manoj (see par. 259 (22)).

Plural.

(_a_). In the plural the declension is the same, with the addition of the plural termination _J_, as:--

Genitive De miaj bonaj filoj = _Of my good sons._
Accusative Miajn bonajn filojn = _My good sons._

Examples.--_La frato skribas, kaj la fratino legas_ = The brother is writing and the sister reading. _La patro donis la libron al sia filo_ = The father gave the book to his son. _Tiu ĉi kaŭĉuka ringo_ (or, _ringo el kaŭĉuko_) _estas por la infaneto_ = This india-rubber ring is for the baby. _Mi vidis Jozefon kun lia kuzo_ = I saw Joseph with his cousin. _Venu, ni atendas Vin (Cin), Savinto de la mondo_ = Come, we await You (Thee), O Saviour of the world. _Mi lin salutis per la mano_ = I saluted him by the hand. _La domo estas kovrita per ardezoj_ = The house is covered with slates. _Mi vidis vian patron kun liaj du filoj_ = I saw your father with his two sons. _Kie estas la domo de via patro?_ = Where is your father's house?

105. Ellipsis.--The case (nominative or accusative) of words in Esperanto often depends upon the verb omitted when ellipsis occurs in a phrase, and unless we write the sentence in full, or think what the ellipsis is, we may not at first know what case to use to express our meaning. A glance at the following examples will show how easy it is to determine the case. The words in brackets show the ellipsis:--

_Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vi_ (_konas lin_) = I know him better than you (do, _or_ know him).

_Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vin_ (_ol mi konas vin_) = I know him better than you (than I know you).

_Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom_ (_li amas_) _Johanon_ = Peter loves Paul as much as (he loves) John.

_Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom Johano_ (_amas lin_) = Peter loves Paul as much as John (loves him).

N.B.--In the above sentences we cannot, in English, tell the meaning until the ellipsis is supplied, whereas, in Esperanto, the meaning is at once clear from the case of the noun or pronoun (par. 112).

_Li iris tien, kiel ankaŭ vi_ (_iris_) = He went there as well as you (went).

_Mi vidis lin tie, kiel ankaŭ_ (_mi vidis_) _vin_ = I saw him there as well as (I saw) you.

_Mi neniam vidis tian hundon, kia_ (_estas_) _via_ = I never saw such a dog as yours.

105 (_a_). Elision.--The final _O_ of a noun may be omitted (par. 57, and Rule 16, par. 94).

106. Possession is (_a_) expressed by help of the preposition de.

Examples.--_La domo de la patro_ = The father's house, _or_, the house of the father. _La libro de mia patrino_ = My mother's book, _or_, the book of my mother. _La tranĉilo de Georgo_ = George's knife. _Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj_ = That is my brothers' house (the house of my brothers). (See par. 73.)

(_b_). Possession is also denoted by the correlative words ending in _ES_, viz.:--ies = _someone's_, _somebody's_, ĉies = _everyone's_, kies = _whose_, nenies = _nobody's_, ties = _that one's_, _of those_ (see par. 154).

Examples.--_Ĉies ideo estis diversa_ = Everyone's idea was different. _Kies domo estas tiu?_ = Whose house is that? _Ĝi estas nenies domo_ = It is nobody's house. _Ĉu ĉi tio estas ies tranĉilo?_ = Is this anyone's (someone's) knife? (see par. 154).

(_c_). An adjective is sometimes conveniently used when in English we employ an apostrophe.

Examples.--_Unutaga laboro_ (for, _la laboro de unu tago_) = One day's work. _La unuataga laboro_ (for, _la laboro de la unua tago_) = The first day's work. _Lia unuataga laboro estis en la ĝardeno, kaj poste li faris unutagan laboron en la domo_ = His first day's work was in the garden, and then (afterwards) he did one day's work in the house. _Mi atendis la kapitanan respondon_ = I awaited the captain's reply.

(_d_). In speaking of places, the English preposition "of" is not translated.

Examples.--_La urbo Londono_ = The City of London. _La Kolonio Natalo_ = The Colony of Natal (see par. 253 (_a_)).

For numeral nouns, see par. 118; for participial, pars. 208, 209; for predicative, par. 109; for compound nouns, par. 49; for form of accusative with proper names, par. 69 (_d_); for the infinitive used as a noun, par. 180.

THE ADJECTIVE (La Adjektivo).

107. The Adjective always ends in _-A_ in the singular. _J_ is added to _A_ to form the plural. The accusative case is formed by the addition of _N_ to the singular or plural termination.

Examples.--_Forta_ = Strong. _Saĝa_ = Wise. _Brava_ = Brave. _Forta homo_ = A strong man. _Saĝa patro_ = A wise father. _Saĝaj patroj_ = Wise fathers. _La brava filo_ = The brave son. _La bravaj filoj_ = The brave sons.

108. There are two kinds of adjectives, viz.:--(_a_) Qualifying or attributive (apudmetita = _put adjacent_), and (_b_) Predicative (predikateca).

(_a_). A qualifying adjective is one placed before or after its noun, with which it agrees both in number and case (par. 36).

Examples.--_Johano havas bonan panon_ = John has good bread. _Vilhelmo akrigis la tranĉilojn malakrajn_ = William sharpened the blunt knives.

(_b_). A predicative adjective, usually placed after the verb, denotes what is said about the noun or pronoun to which it refers, or denotes their state, condition, appearance, etc. It agrees with them in number, but is never in the accusative case (par. 36).

Examples.--_La pomo estas bona_ = The apple is good. _Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakraj_ = William found the knives blunt. If the adjective were in this sentence in the accusative, the meaning would be quite altered, for, _Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakrajn_ would mean, "William found the blunt knives," that is to say, he was looking for blunt knives, and he found them. A predicative adjective shows that ellipsis has taken place, and the omitted verb is generally _esti_. For instance, the ellipsis in the above sentence might be as follows:--William found (that) the knives (are) blunt--_Vilhelmo trovis, ke la tranĉiloj estas malakraj_. If we elide _ke_ and _estas_, the substantive takes the accusative (_tranĉilojn_) and the adjective (_malakraj_) remains in the nominative. Other examples are:--_La kutimo faris lin_ (_ke li estu_) _indiferenta por tio ĉi_ (Hamleto V., 1) = Habit made him (to be, lit., that he be) indifferent to this. _Kion vi intencas nun fari, por vin montri_ (_ke vi estas_) _inda filo de via kara patro?_ (Hamleto IV.,7) = What do you now intend to do to show yourself (that you are) a worthy son of your dear father? (see par. 105 on ellipsis).

109. Predicative Noun.--A noun also can be predicative (see par. 35).

Examples.--_La patro nomis sian filon Johano_ = The father named his son John. Now in English it is not clear whether the father gave the name of "John" to his son, or whether he made mention of his son whose name was John. In Esperanto it is quite clear that he gave the name, for otherwise "John" would be in the accusative (_Johanon_, so:--_La patro nomis sian filon Johanon_ = The father named (made mention of) his son John. _Ili nomis lin Adolfo_ = They called him (gave him the name of) Adolphus.

110. Nominative or Accusative.--The rule, therefore, for qualifying and predicative adjectives or nouns is:--

(_a_). The word will be in the accusative if the object already possesses the quality in question.

(_b_). The word will be in the nominative if that quality, which it did not before possess, or was not known to possess, is being given to the object.

111. Participial Adjectives.--Participles are often used in Esperanto to qualify nouns and pronouns, and they are then in reality true adjectives. To distinguish them from other adjectives they are called "Participial Adjectives" (Participaj adjektivoj).

Examples.--_Johano kaj Georgo estis perditaj_ = John and George were lost. _Ni trovis ilin mortantajn_ = We found them (who were) dying. _Ni estis finintaj, kiam vi alvenis_ = We had finished when you arrived (see par. 209 (_b_)).

112. Comparison of Adjectives.

(_a_). The comparative of equality is tiel ... kiel = _as_, _so_ ... _as_.

Johano estas tiel forta, kiel Georgo = _John is as strong as George._

(_b_). The comparative of superiority is pli ... ol = _more_ ... _than_.

Johano estas pli forta, ol Georgo = _John is stronger than George._

(_c_). The comparative of inferiority is malpli ... ol = _less_ ... _than_.

Johano estas malpli forta, ol Georgo = _John is less strong (weaker) than George._

(_d_). The other modes of expressing comparison are:--

tia ... kia = _such_, _such a_, _such kind_ ... _as_.

sama ... kia = _the same_ ... _as_.

same ... kiel = _the same_ ... _as_.

Ju pli ... des pli = _the more_ ... _the more_.

Ju malpli ... des malpli = _the less_ ... _the less_.

Ju pli ... des malpli = _the more_ ... _the less_.

Ju malpli ... des pli = _the less_ ... _the more_.

Examples.--_Tia domo, kia tiu, estas malofte vidata_ = Such a house as that is rarely seen. _Mia bastono estas tia sama, kia via_, or, _Mia bastono estas same, kiel via_ = My stick is the same as yours. _Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin estimas_ = The more I know him, the more I esteem him. _Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon dormi_ = The less I sleep, the less I feel the want (need) to sleep. _Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi_ = The more I see him, the less he pleases me. _Ju malpli mi manĝas, des pli mi trinkas_ = The less I eat, the more I drink.

_Be careful to note_ that the second term in a comparison is in the nominative or accusative, according as it is the subject or complement, e.g., Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mia fratino = _I love my brother more than my sister (loves him)_. Mia fratino is in the nominative, amas lin being understood. But Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mian fratinon = _I love my brother more than my sister_. Here fratinon is in the accusative, and the meaning is perfectly clear. In English we should have to add "does" to the first example to make the phrase clear: "I love my brother more than my sister does" (see par. 105).

113. Superlatives (_Superlativoj_).

(_a_). The superlative of superiority is la plej = _the most_.

(_b_). The superlative of inferiority is la malplej = _the least_.

The preposition el = _out of_, _of_, is used with the superlative when it relates to numbers, or something collective, as a "group," "society," etc. But when the superlative relates to the place or position where the superiority is or was, then some other appropriate preposition is used.

Examples.--_Johano estas la plej forta el la knaboj_ = John is the strongest of the boys. _Petro estis la plej malforta el ĉiuj_ = Peter was the weakest of (out of) all. _Georgo estas la malplej kuraĝa knabo en la domo_ = George is the least courageous boy in the house. _Ŝi estis la plej bela virino, kiun mi iam vidis_ = She was the most beautiful woman whom I ever saw. _Tiuj ĉi estas la plej grandaj arboj en la arbaro_ = These are the largest trees in the wood. _Li estis la plej bona Esperantisto el la grupo_ (_klubo_, _societo_) = He was the best Esperantist of the group (club, society). _Metu la plej grandajn glasojn sur la tablon_ = Put the largest glasses upon the table. _Ne ĵetu la plej grandajn ŝtonojn en la puton, sed la plej malgrandajn_ (_malplej grandajn_) = Do not throw the largest stones into the well, but the smallest (the least large).

(_c_). The superlative absolute is indicated by tre = _very_, or treege = _exceedingly_, or troe = _excessively_, or some other suitable adverb.

Example.--_Tiu virino estas tre malbela kaj treege grasa_ = That woman is very ugly and exceedingly fat.

114. Degrees of intensity of adjectives can also be shown by the aid of the suffixes _-EG-_ and _-ET-_ with or without an adverb. The suffix _-EG-_ is stronger in its application than the adverb tre = _very_. For instance, take the adjective bela = _beautiful_, or _fine_. Tre bela = _very beautiful_, or _very fine_; but belega = _magnificent_, or _superb_. So, the diminutive _-ET-_ shows more diminution than the adjective malgranda = _small_, or _little_, would show when qualifying a noun. For instance, malgranda rivero = _a small river_, but rivereto = _a brook_, or _stream_. The following list shows how twelve adjectives of varying shades of intensity can be formed from the root varm-, between the extremes tre varmega = _broiling hot_ and tre malvarmega = _intensely cold_, supposing we were speaking of the weather:--

Tre varmega = _Broiling hot_. Tre malvarmega = _Intensely cold_.
Varmega = _Hot_. Malvarmega = _Bitterly cold_.
Tre varma = _Very warm_. Tre malvarma = _Very cold_.
Varma = _Warm_. Malvarma = _Cold_.
Iom varma = _Warmish_. Iom malvarma = _Coldish_.
Varmeta = _Mild_. Malvarmeta = _Cool_.

See remarks on the suffixes _-EG-_ and _-ET-_, par. 277.

NUMERALS.

Cardinal Numbers (_Numeraloj fundamentaj_).

115. The cardinal numbers are:--

(1) unu, (2) du, (3) tri, (4) kvar, (5) kvin, (6) ses, (7) sep, (8) ok, (9) naŭ, (10) dek, (100) cent, (1,000) mil, (0) (zero, naught) = nulo.

Miliono (million) is a noun, the root being milion-.

(_a_). The numbers 11 to 19 are formed by simply placing (10) dek before the first nine, as:--(11) dek unu, (12) dek du, (13) dek tri, (14) dek kvar, (15) dek kvin, (16) dek ses, (17) dek sep, (18) dek ok, (19) dek naŭ.

(_b_). The numbers (101 to 119), or (1,001 to 1,019), are formed by the addition cent, or mil, as:--(101) cent unu, (102) cent du, (110) cent dek, (116) cent dek ses, (1,001) mil unu, (1,006) mil ses, (1,114) mil cent dek kvar.

(_c_). The tens, hundreds, and thousands are formed by prefixing one of the numbers 2 to 9 before dek, cent, or mil, as:--(20) dudek, (30) tridek, (40) kvardek, (200) ducent, (500) kvincent, (900) naŭcent, (2,000) dumil, (4,000) kvarmil, (8,000) okmil.

(_d_). The intermediate numbers (21 to 29), (31 to 39), etc., are formed by adding the required number to the tens, as:--(21) dudek unu, (22) dudek du, (33) tridek tri, (96) naŭdek ses, (121) cent dudek unu, (342) tricent kvardek du, (1,021) mil dudek unu, (8,754) okmil sepcent kvindek kvar.

(_e_). The cardinal numbers never change their forms for case or number.

Examples.--_La du infanoj dividis inter si sep pomojn_ = The two children divided between themselves seven apples. _Unu prenis tri kaj la alia prenis kvar el la pomoj_ = One took three and the other took four of the apples. _Kvin kaj sep faras_ (or, _estas_) _dek du_ = 5 and 7 make (are) 12.

(_f_). Unu is sometimes used in the plural, and unuj then means _some_. It is used generally in relation with aliaj = _others_.

Examples.--_El ŝiaj multaj infanoj, unuj estas bonaj kaj aliaj malbonaj_ = Among (out of) her many children, some are good and others bad. _Li ekzamenis la pomojn, kaj trovis unujn bonaj kaj aliajn malbonaj_ = He examined the apples, and found some good and others bad. Note that _bonaj_ and _malbonaj_ are predicative adjectives, and therefore in the nominative (see pars. 36, 108 (_b_)).

(_g_). Unu is sometimes used when our indefinite article is employed as a numeral.[14]

Example.--_Ĉar ĉiu el ni havas unu vortaron, prenu vian kaj lasu mian_ = Since we have each _a_ dictionary, take yours and leave mine.

Footnote:

[14] This use of _unu_ is not recommended.

Ordinal Numbers (_Numeraloj ordaj_).

116. Ordinal numbers, being really adjectives, are, in Esperanto, made such in the usual way by adding _A_ to the cardinals, as:--unua = _first_, dua = _second_, tria = _third_, kvara = _fourth_, kvina = _fifth_, sesa = _sixth_, sepa = _seventh_, oka = _eighth_, naŭa = _ninth_, deka = _tenth_.

(_a_). If the cardinal is composed of two or more numbers, _A_ is added to the last only, as:--dek-unua = _eleventh_, dek-dua = _twelfth_, dek-naŭa = _nineteenth_, dudeka = _twentieth_, dudek-unua = _twenty-first_, cent-tridek-naŭa = _hundred and thirty-ninth_.

N.B.--Note that the ordinal numbers are linked by hyphens.

(_b_). The Ordinals follow all the rules of adjectives as to case and number.

Examples.--_Donu al li la trian, kaj prenu la kvaran_ = Give him the third, and take the fourth. _La kvinaj etaĝoj de tiuj domoj estas tre altaj_ = The fifth stories of those houses are very high.

(_c_). The Ordinals are usually used in speaking of pages, hours, days, months, years, kings, etc.

Examples.--_Paĝo trideka_ = Page thirty. _Vidu paĝon kvardekan_ (or, 40an) = See page forty (40). _Henriko kvara_ = Henry IV. _La dek-unua horo_ = 11 o'clock. _En la dek-sesa_ (_tago_) _de Aprilo_ = On the 16th of April. _En la jaro mil-okcent-naŭdek-naŭa_ = In 1899. _Mil-naŭcent-kvara_ = 1904.

In asking questions about the above, the adjective kioma is often used.

Examples.--_Sur kioma paĝo vi vidis tion?_ = On what page did you see that? _Kioma paĝo estas?_ = What page is it? _Kioma horo estas?_ = What o'clock is it? _Estas la dua_ = It is two o'clock. _Kiun daton ni havas?_ = What is the date (or, day of the month)? _Hodiaŭ estas la dudek-sepa_ (or, 27a) _de Marto_ = To-day is the 27th of March.

117. Ordinal adverbs are formed by adding _E_ to the cardinals, as:--unue, _firstly_, due, _secondly_, sepe, _seventhly_, etc.

118. Substantives are formed from the cardinals by adding _O_. They have various meanings, as:--Unuo = _a unit_, or _a one_. Duo = _a duet_, or _a two_ (of cards). Trio = _a trio_, or _triplet_, or _a three_ (of cards). Kvaro, etc. = _a four_, etc. (of cards, etc., up to ten). Dek-duo = _a dozen_. Deko = _half a score_. Dudeko = _a score_. Cento = _a hundred_. Milo = _a thousand_. Miliono = _a million_.

Examples.--_Li havas dudekojn da ĉevaloj, centojn da ŝafoj, kaj milojn da birdoj_ = He has scores of horses, hundreds of sheep, and thousands of birds. _Tiuj ludkartoj estas la kvaro pika kaj la seso kera_ = Those cards are the four of spades and the six of hearts. _Tiu cifero estas oko_ = That figure is an eight.

Multiples (_Numeraloj multoblaj_).

119. Multiples are formed by the addition of the suffix _-OBL-_ to the cardinals, and then adding _A_, _E_, or _O_ to mark the adjective, adverb, or noun. They can also be formed into transitive verbs by the suffix _-IGI-_, or intransitive by the suffix _-IĜI-_.

Examples.--_Unuobla_ = Single. _Unuoble_ = Singly. _Duobla_ = Double, twofold. _Duoble_ = Doubly. _La duoblo_ = The double. _Duobligi_ = To double, to duplicate. _Duobliĝi_ = To become double. _Triobla_ = Triple, threefold. _Trioble_ = Trebly. _La trioblo_ = The treble (of). _Triobligi_ = To treble, to triplicate. _Kvarobla_ = Fourfold, quadruple. _Kvaroble_ = Quadruply. _Kvaroblo_ = A quadruple. _Kvarobligi_ = To quadruple, to make fourfold. _Kvarobliĝi_ = To become quadruple. _Sepobla_ = Sevenfold, septuple. _Centoblo_ = A centuple. _Kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin_ = Five times (fivefold) 7 is 35. _Naŭoble ok estas sepdek du_ = Nine times (ninefold) 8 is 72. _Kvaroble kvar estas dek ses_ = Four times four is 16. _Dudek estas la kvaroblo de kvin_ = Twenty is the quadruple of five. _Duobla fadeno estas pli forta ol unuobla_ = A double thread is stronger than a single (one). _Kvarobligante sepdek kvin vi ricevas la centoblon de tri_ = By quadrupling 75 you get the centuple of 3.

Fractional Numbers (_Numeraloj nombronaj_).

120. Fractional numbers are formed by the addition of the suffix _-ON-_ to the cardinals, and then adding _A_, _E_, or _O_ to mark the adjective, adverb, or noun, as:--Duona = _half_, duone = _by halves_, duono = _a half_ (1/2), triona = _third_, trione = _by thirds_, triono = _a third_ (1/3).

Examples.--_La kvarona parto de dudek kvar estas la duono de dek du, tio estas ses_ = The fourth part of 24 is the half of 12, that is 6. _Unu triono_ = One third (1/3). _Tri okonoj_ = Three eighths (3/8). _Neniam faru ion poduone_ = Never do anything by halves. _Duone ses estas tri_ = half of six is three.

The Collectives (_Numeraloj kolektaj_).

121. The collectives are formed by the addition of the suffix _-OP-_ to the cardinals, and then adding _A_ or _E_ to mark adjectives or adverbs, as:--Duopa = _double_, _two together_, duope = _by twos_, _in pairs_, triope = _in threes_, _in triplets_, dekope = _by tens_.

Example.--_Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min_ = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me.

Reiteratives (_Numeraloj ripetaj_).

122. Reiteratives are formed by adding the adverb foje to the cardinals, as:--Unufoje = _once_, dufoje = _twice_, trifoje = _thrice_, kvarfoje = _four times_.

Examples.--_Hieraŭ mi renkontis lin unufoje_ (or, _unu fojon_), _sed hodiaŭ dufoje_ (or, _du fojojn_) = Yesterday I met him once, but to-day twice.

N.B.--Note that when the substantive _fojo_ is used, it is in the accusative, as denoting point of time (par. 68 (_b_)).

Distributives (_Numeraloj disdividaj_).

123. Distributives are marked by the preposition po placed before the cardinals, meaning _at the rate of_, _in the proportion of_.

Examples.--_Al ĉiu el la laborantoj mi pagis po kvin ŝilingoj_ = I paid each of the workmen at the rate of five shillings. _Tiu ĉi libro enhavas sesdek paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek kvin paĝoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj_ = This book contains 60 pages, therefore if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days (see "_po_" in list of prepositions, par. 259 (22)).

The Time of Day (_La horo_).

124. There are several possible ways of expressing the time of day. "A quarter to three" (2.45) may be either:--

(_a_). Tri kvaronoj de la tria = _three-quarters of the 3rd_ (_hour_).

(_b_). La dua kaj tri kvaronoj = _the 2nd_ (_hour_) _and three-quarters_.

(_c_). Kvarono antaŭ la tria = _a quarter before the 3rd_ (_hour_).

The last example is the only one which would be easily understood by an Englishman. Other nations use one or two of these methods, hence we find a diversity of methods used in Esperanto also. There is, however, one way used by nearly all nations, namely, that in railway time tables, and it is to be hoped that this will come into general use. Therefore to the question:--_Kioma horo estas?_ = What time (hour) is it? we might simply say as follows:--

2.0 =_La dua_ (_horo_).
2.15 =_La dua_ (_horo_) _kaj dek kvin_ (_minutoj_).
3.5 =_La tria_ (_horo_) _kvin_.
10.2 =_La deka_ (_horo_) _du_.
11.45 =_La dek-unua_ (_horo_) _kvardek kvin_.

In Italy, Belgium, etc., where the hours are numbered from one to twenty-four, this system is equally applicable, as:--4.10 p.m. in Italy = 16.10 = _La dek-sesa_ (_horo_) _dek_.

PRONOUNS (Pronomoj).

125. There are seven classes of Pronouns:--(1) Personal, (2) Possessive, (3) Relative, (4) Interrogative, (5) Demonstrative, (6) Distributive or Collective, (7) Indefinite.

As, however, the last five classes are so intimately connected with other parts of speech, and as some of the pronouns represent two classes, and some two parts of speech, it is better to treat them as correlative words (see pars. 139-157), so under the head of "Pronouns" we give only the personal and possessive.

Personal Pronouns (_personaj pronomoj_).

126. The personal pronouns are:--

Nominative.

Singular. 1st Person. Mi = _I_.
" 2nd Person. Vi = _you, thou_. (Ci = _thou_ is rarely used).
" 3rd Person. Li = _he_, Ŝi = _she_, Ĝi = _it_.
Plural. 1st Person. Ni = _we_.
" 2nd Person. Vi = _you_, _ye_.
" 3rd Person. Ili = _they_.

Accusative.

Singular. 1st Person. Min = _me_.
" 2nd Person. Vin = _you, thee_. (Cin = _thee_ is rarely used).
" 3rd Person. Lin = _him_, Ŝin = _her_, Ĝin = _it_.
Plural. 1st Person. Nin = _us_.
" 2nd Person. Vin = _you_.
" 3rd Person. Ilin = _them_.

Oni = _one_, _people_, _they_, _we_ (like the French "on"), is an indefinite pronoun of the 3rd person. Oni may be deemed singular or plural.

Owing to the fact that in most languages the word corresponding to oni is invariable, Esperanto authors have generally avoided the accusative and possessive forms onin and onia, although they are occasionally met with. These forms are, however, perfectly regular, and may be used without hesitation if desired.

Si = _self_, _selves_, _oneself_, is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, singular or plural.

Vi, like "you" in English, represents both the singular and plural, but when it refers to more than one person, words depending on it take the plural form.

Ĝi, like "it" in English, is used to represent things, and also persons and animals when the name does not reveal the sex.

Examples.--_Mi lin amas_ = I love him. _Li min vidas_ = He sees me. _Ili trovis lin kaj min en la ĝardeno_ = They found him and me in the garden. _Vi ne vidis nin_ = You did not see us. _Vi_ (plural) _estas pli saĝaj, ol ili (estas)_ = You are wiser than they are. _Ŝi vidis ilin en la dormoĉambro_ = She saw them in the bedroom. _Oni diras, "Per mono oni povas aĉeti ĉion"_ = They (people) say (it is said), "With money one (_or_, we) can buy everything. _Mi vidis la domon, sed ĝi estis tro malgranda_ = I saw the house, but it was too small. _Se oni estus riĉa_, or _riĉaj_ = If one were rich.

(_a_).--In words like infano = _child_, persono = _person_, individuo = _individual_, etc., the sex is not revealed; neither is it in the general name of an animal, as:--leono = _a lion_, hundo = _a dog_, birdo = _a bird_, etc., unless we add the feminine suffix -ino. In all such cases, when we do not know the sex, we use the pronoun ĝi. If, however, the sex is known, and we wish to demonstrate it, we can use the pronouns li or ŝi respectively. Zamenhof advises the use of li and ŝi for human beings only, and of ĝi for all other animals, even when the sex of the animal is known and indicated; the use of li or ŝi in such cases is nevertheless legitimate if desired.

Examples.--_La infano forkuris, kiam mi parolis al ĝi_ (or _li_ if we know the sex) = The child ran away when I spoke to it. _Tio estas bela ĉevalino, ĝi_ (or, _ŝi_) _trotas bone_ = That is a fine mare, she trots well. _Se iu vizitos min dum mi forestas, diru al ĝi, ke ĝi revenu morgaŭ_ = If anyone (someone) should call upon (visit) me whilst I am away, tell him or her (it) to come again to-morrow.[15]

Footnote:

[15] This use of _ĝi_ for a person is not recommended, and _li_ (or _tiu_) would be better in a case where there is doubt as to the sex.

127. The word mem = _self_ or _selves_ is sometimes used with a personal pronoun or noun to give emphasis.

Examples.--_Mi mem ĝin vidis_ = I myself saw it. _Ni mem ĝin trovis_, or, _Ni ĝin trovis mem_ = We found it ourselves. _Vi venu mem_ = Come yourself. _Ŝi mem parolos_ = She herself will speak. _Li mem respondu_ = Let him answer (for) himself. _La virinoj venu mem_ = Let the women come themselves.

128. Si is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, and therefore cannot refer to the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons.[16] We cannot say _Mi lavas sin_, or _Ni_, or _Vi lavas sin_, for "I wash myself," "We wash ourselves," "You wash yourself." We must, in each of these cases, use the pronoun which is the subject of the verb, as:--Mi lavas min--Ni lavas nin--_Vi lavas vin_ = _I wash myself_--_We wash ourselves_--_You wash yourself_ (or if vi = _you_ is plural), _You wash yourselves_. Si, therefore, is used for the 3rd person, singular or plural, when it refers to the _subject_ of the verb. It takes the accusative termination _N_ when necessary, and then represents "_himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _oneself_, _themselves_."

Examples.--_Li razis sin_ = He shaved himself. _Petro razis sin_ = Peter shaved himself (_Petro razis lin_ would mean Peter shaved _him_, viz., some other man referred to in the sentence). _Ŝi diris al si_ = She said to herself (_Ŝi diris al ŝi_ would mean "She said to her," viz., some other woman). _Ĝi vundis sin_ = It wounded itself (_Ĝi vundis ĝin_ would mean "It wounded it," viz., some other animal). _Ili mortigis sin_ = They killed themselves. _Li pensis en si mem, ke ..._ = He thought to (in) himself that ... _La du fratoj renkontas la rabistojn: la fratoj atakas kaj vundas ilin, sed, tiel farante, ili vundas sin_ (or, _sin mem_) = The two brothers meet the robbers: the brothers attack and wound them, but, in so doing, they wound themselves. _Mia fratino havas amikinon, kiu faras ĉion por si, kaj nenion por ŝi_ = My sister has a friend, who does everything for herself, and nothing for her. _Oni kelkfoje tro laŭdas sin_ = One (_or_ people) sometimes praises oneself (_or_ praise themselves) too much (see conjugation of a reflexive verb, par. 170).

Footnote:

[16] The reason for the use of si is the avoidance of ambiguity. Si is not used with the 1st and 2nd persons, because there is no possibility of ambiguity in these cases.

129. The pronoun "it" is not expressed with impersonal verbs (see par. 164).

Examples.--_Kiu estas tie? Estas mi_ = Who is there? It is I. _Neĝas_ = It snows. _Pluvis_ = It rained. _Necesas, ke oni manĝu_ = It is necessary to eat.

Possessive Pronouns (_Pronomoj posedaj_).

130. Possessive Pronouns are formed by adding the adjectival _A_ to the personal pronouns. They are essentially adjectives, and follow the adjectival rules as to the formation of the plural and the accusative.

131. They are mia = _my_, _mine_, via = _your_, _yours_, _thy_, _thine_ (cia = _thy_, _thine_, like its personal pronoun, ci, is rarely used), lia = _his_, ŝia = _her_, _hers_, ĝia = _its_, nia = _our_, _ours_, ilia = _their_, _theirs_, sia = _his_ (_own_), _her_ (_own_), _hers_, _its_ (_own_), _their_ (_own_), _theirs_, _one's_ (_own_).

Examples.--_Mia patro, via frato, lia fratino, ŝia onklo, kaj iliaj onklinoj, estas en la domo_ = My father, your brother, his sister, her uncle, and their aunts are in the house. _Mi vidis vian libron, lian bastonon, ŝian ombrelon, kaj ilian keston en la stacidomo_ = I saw your book, his stick, her umbrella, and their box in the station. _Mi havas viajn librojn_ = I have your books. _Ĝia koloro estas ruĝa_ = Its colour is red. _Mia fratino renkontis vian fraton kaj viajn amikojn_ = My sister met your brother and your friends.

132. When a possessive pronoun stands alone, as in sentences like the following, it may or may not be preceded by the article la, at the writer's option, but many authors prefer to omit the article on the ground that it is superfluous.

Examples.--_Ĉar ni ĉiuj havas_ (or, _ĉar ĉiu el ni havas_) _unu vortaron, prenu (la) vian kaj lasu (la) mian_ = Since we have each a dictionary, take yours and leave mine. _Ŝiaj infanoj estas pli grandaj, ol (la) viaj_ = Her children are bigger than yours.

Note in the first example that _ĉiuj_ is in the plural because it is in apposition to _ni_ (see par. 69 (_c_)).

133. Mia is sometimes placed after a noun to denote affection.

Examples.--_Patrino mia_ = Mother mine, or Mother dear. _Fratino mia_ = Sister dear.

134. When a possessive pronoun refers to two or more nouns, it may, as in English, be repeated or not, but if it is not repeated the possessive pronoun is usually put in the plural.

Example.--_Lia patro, lia patrino, kaj lia fratino_, or, _liaj patro, patrino, kaj fratino, estis en la domo_ = His father, his mother, and his sister were in the house.

134 (_a_). Personal pronouns, preceded by the preposition al, are sometimes used in a possessive sense.

Examples.--_Mi kovris al mi la orelojn_ = I covered my (to myself the) ears. _Li fermis al si la okulojn_ = He closed his (to himself the) eyes (see also par. 100).

135. Sia, Lia, etc.--Great care must be taken not to use sia, when the sense requires one of the other possessives of the 3rd person, or _vice versâ_. Sia can _only_ refer to the _subject_ of the sentence or proposition in which it occurs, and _being reflexive_, it can never form _part_ of the _subject_ of a sentence, as:--_Li diris al ni, ke_ lia (not, sia) _hundo ĵus mortis_ = He told us that his dog had just died. Like its root si, it is used for the 3rd person, singular or plural, and may represent "his (own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, or one's (own)."

Since sia, being reflexive, can never form _part_ of the _subject_ of a sentence, we cannot say _Li_ kaj sia _edzino iris Parizon_, because _li_ and _edzino_ are equally subjects of the _same_ clause. But if we substitute kun for kaj, then li becomes the _sole_ subject, and we can correctly say, _Li_ kun sia _edzino iris Parizon_, or, _Li iris Parizon_ kun sia _edzino_ = He went to Paris _with_ his wife. If we use kaj we must say, _Li_ kaj lia _edzino iris Parizon_ = He _and_ his wife went to Paris.

136. In the four following examples sia _refers to the subject_ of the sentence:--

_Mia patrino forgesis sian libron_ = My mother forgot (_or_, has forgotten) her book. _Tiuj infanoj perdis siajn gepatrojn_ = Those children have lost their parents. _La hundo amas sian mastron_ = The dog loves its master. _Oni devas ami sian najbaron, kiel sin mem_ = One must love one's neighbour as oneself. N.B.--_Sin_ is here in the accusative owing to ellipsis, the words _oni amas_ after _kiel_ being understood (see par. 105).

137. In the following three sentences the possessive pronoun _does not refer to the subject_ of the sentence, and therefore we use lia, ŝia, ĝia, or ilia, as the case may be:--

_Li vidis mian amikon kaj lian edzinon_ = He saw my friend and his (his friend's) wife. _Ŝi venis al mi hieraŭ, por ke mi redonu ŝiajn leterojn al ŝi_ = She came to me yesterday in order that I might return her letters to her. _La reĝo amas Johanon kaj lian filon_ = The king loves John and his son.

N.B.--Here the English does not show whether it is John's son or his own son whom the king loves, but in Esperanto it is clear it is John's son, otherwise it would be _sian filon_; _lian filon_ is in the accusative here, because the conjunction _kaj_ connects like cases (see par. 266).

(_a_). Note in the following examples how the possessive varies in accordance with the construction of the sentence.

_El ĉiuj siaj amikinoj, ŝi plej amas Marion_ = Of all her friends (female), she loves Mary best. (Here _siaj_ refers to _ŝi_).

_El ĉiuj ŝiaj amikinoj, Mario estas le plej amata_ = Of all her friends, Mary is the most loved. (Here _ŝiaj_ refers to some woman not mentioned.)

_Leginte sian libron, li ekdormis_ = After reading (having read) his book, he fell asleep. (Here _sian_ refers to _li_, understood in _leginte_ = When _he_ had read his book, _he_ ...). _Leginte lian libron, li ekdormis_ = After reading his book, he fell asleep. (Here _lian_ refers to some man not mentioned, who might have lent him the book.)