Chapter M: T. M (6)

HART, ERNEST ABRAHAM (1835-1898), English medical journalist, was born in London on the 26th of June 1835, the son of a Jewish dentist. He was educated at the City of London school, and became a student at St George's hospital. In 1856 he became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, making a specialty of diseases of the eye. He was appointed ophthalmic surgeon at St Mary's hospital at the age of 28, and occupied various other posts, introducing into ophthalmic practice some modifications since widely adopted. His name, too, is associated with a method of treating popliteal aneurism, which he was the first to use in Great Britain. His real life-work, however, was as a medical journalist, beginning with the _Lancet_ in 1857. He was appointed editor of the _British Medical Journal_ in 1866. He took a leading part in the exposures which led to the inquiry into the state of London workhouse infirmaries, and to the reform of the treatment of sick poor throughout England, and the Infant Life Protection Act of 1872, aimed at the evils of baby-farming, was largely due to his efforts. The record of his public work covers nearly the whole field of sanitary legislation during the last thirty years of his life. He had a hand in the amendments of the Public Health and of the Medical Acts; in the measures relating to notification of infectious disease, to vaccination, to the registration of plumbers; in the improvement of factory legislation; in the remedy of legitimate grievances of Army and Navy medical officers; in the removal of abuses and deficiencies in crowded barrack schools; in denouncing the sanitary shortcomings of the Indian government, particularly in regard to the prevention of cholera. His work on behalf of the British Medical Association is shown by the increase from 2000 to 19,000 in the number of members, and the growth of the _British Medical Journal_ from 20 to 64 pages, during his editorship. From 1872 to 1897 he was chairman of the Association's Parliamentary Bill Committee. He died on the 7th of January 1898. For his second wife he married Alice Marion Rowland, who had herself studied medicine in London and Paris, and was no less interested than her husband in philanthropic reform. She was most active in her encouragement of Irish cottage industries, and was the founder of the Donegal Industrial Fund.

HART, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1835- ), Anglo-Chinese statesman, was born at Milltown, Co. Armagh, on the 20th of February 1835. He was educated at Taunton, Dublin and Belfast, and graduated at Queen's College, Belfast, in 1853. In the following year he received an appointment as student-interpreter in the China consular service, and after serving for a short time at the Ningpo vice-consulate, he was transferred to Canton, where after acting as secretary to the allied commissioners governing the city, he was appointed the local inspector of customs. There he first gained an insight into custom-house work. One effect of the Taiping rebellion was to close the native custom-house at Shanghai; and as the corrupt alternatives proposed by the Chinese were worse than useless, it was arranged by Sir Rutherford Alcock, the British consul, with his French and American colleagues, that they should undertake to collect the duties on goods owned by foreigners entering and leaving the port. Sir T. Wade was appointed to the post of collector in the first instance, and after a short tenure of office was succeeded by Mr H. N. Lay, who held the post until 1863, when he resigned owing to a disagreement with the Chinese government in connexion with the Lay-Osborn fleet. During his tenancy of office the system adopted at Shanghai was applied to the other treaty ports, so that when on Mr Lay's resignation Mr Hart was appointed inspector-general of foreign customs, he found himself at the head of an organization which collected a revenue of upwards of eight million taels per annum at fourteen treaty ports. From the date when Mr Hart took up his duties at Peking, in 1863, he unceasingly devoted the whole of his energies to the work of the department, with the result that the revenue grew from upwards of eight million taels to nearly twenty-seven million, collected at the thirty-two treaty ports, and the customs staff, which in 1864 numbered 200, reached in 1901 a total of 5704. From the first Mr Hart gained the entire confidence of the members of the Chinese government, who were wise enough to recognize his loyal and able assistance. Of all their numerous sources of revenue, the money furnished by Mr Hart was the only certain asset which could be offered as security for Chinese loans. For many years, moreover, it was customary for the British minister, as well as the ministers of other powers, to consult him in every difficulty; and such complete confidence had Lord Granville in his ability and loyalty, that on the retirement of Sir T. Wade he appointed him minister plenipotentiary at Peking (1885). Sir Robert Hart, however--who was made a K.C.M.G. in 1882--recognized the anomalous position in which he would have been placed had he accepted the proposal, and declined the proffered honour. On all disputed points, whether commercial, religious or political, his advice was invariably sought by the foreign ministers and the Chinese alike. Thrice only did he visit Europe between 1863 and 1902, the result of this long comparative isolation, and of his constant intercourse with the Peking officials, being that he learnt to look at events through Chinese spectacles; and his work, _These from the Land of Sinim_, shows how far this affected his outlook. The faith which he put in the Chinese made him turn a deaf ear to the warnings which he received of the threatening Boxer movement in 1900. To the last he believed that the attacking force would at least have spared his house, which contained official records of priceless value, but he was doomed to see his faith falsified. The building was burnt to the ground with all that it contained, including his private diary for forty years. When the stress came, and he retreated to the British legation, he took an active part in the defence, and spared neither risk nor toil in his exertions. In addition to the administration of the foreign customs service, the establishment of a postal service in the provinces devolved upon him, and after the signing of the protocol of 1901 he was called upon to organize a native customs service at the treaty ports.

The appointment of Sir Robert Hart as inspector-general of the imperial maritime customs secured the interests of European investors in Chinese securities, and helped to place Chinese finance generally on a solid footing. When, therefore, in May 1906 the Chinese government appointed a Chinese administrator and assistant administrator of the entire customs of China, who would control Sir Robert Hart and his staff, great anxiety was aroused. The Chinese government had bound itself in 1896 and 1898 that the imperial maritime customs services should remain as then constituted during the currency of the loan. The British government obtained no satisfactory answer to its remonstrances, and Sir Robert Hart, finding himself placed in a subordinate position after his long service, retired in July 1907. He received formal leave of absence in January 1908, when he received the title of president of the board of customs. Both the Chinese and the British governments from time to time conferred honours upon Sir Robert Hart. By giving him a Red Button, or button of the highest rank, a Peacock's Feather, the order of the Double Dragon, a patent of nobility to his ancestors for three generations, and the title of Junior Guardian of the heir apparent, the Chinese showed their appreciation of his manifold and great services; while under the seal of the British government there were bestowed upon him the orders of C.M.G.(1880), K.C.M.G.(1882), G.C.M.G. (1889), and a baronetcy (1893). He has also been the recipient of many foreign orders. Sir Robert Hart married in 1886 Hester, the daughter of Alexander Bredon, Esq., M.D., of Portadown.

See his life by Julia Bredon (_Sir Robert Hart_, 1909).

HART, WILLIAM (1823-1894), American landscape and cattle painter, was born in Paisley, Scotland, on the 31st of March 1823, and was taken to America in early youth. He was apprenticed to a carriage painter at Albany, New York, and his first efforts in art were in making landscape decorations for the panels of coaches. Subsequently he returned to Scotland, where he studied for three years. He opened a studio in New York in 1853, and was elected an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1857 and an academician in the following year. He was also a member of the American Water Colour Society, and was its president from 1870 to 1873. As one of the group of the Hudson River School he enjoyed considerable popularity, his pictures being in many well-known American collections. He died at Mount Vernon, New York, on the 17th of June 1894.

His brother, JAMES MCDOUGAL HART (1828-1901), born in Kilmarnock, Scotland, was also a landscape and cattle painter. He was a pupil of Schirmer in Dusseldorf, and became an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1857 and a full member in 1859. He was survived by two daughters, both figure painters, Letitia B. Hart (b. 1867) and Mary Theresa Hart (b. 1872).

HARTE, FRANCIS BRET (1839-1902), American author, was born at Albany, New York, on the 25th of August 1839. His father, a professor of Greek at the Albany College, died during his boyhood. After a common-school education he went with his mother to California at the age of seventeen, afterwards working in that state as a teacher, miner, printer, express-messenger, secretary of the San Francisco mint, and editor. His first literary venture was a series of _Condensed Novels_ (travesties of well-known works of fiction, somewhat in the style of Thackeray), published weekly in _The Californian_, of which he was editor, and reissued in book form in 1867. _The Overland Monthly_, the earliest considerable literary magazine on the Pacific coast, was established in 1868, with Harte as editor. His sketches and poems, which appeared in its pages during the next few years, attracted wide attention in the eastern states and in Europe.

Bret Harte was an early master of the short story, and his Californian tales were regarded as introducing a new _genre_ into fiction. "The Luck of Roaring Camp" (1868), "The Outcasts of Poker Flat" (1869), the later sketch "How Santa Claus came to Simpson's Bar," and the verses entitled "Plain Language from Truthful James," combined humour, pathos and power of character portrayal in a manner that indicated that the new land of mining-gulches, gamblers, unassimilated Asiatics, and picturesque and varied landscape had found its best delineator; so that Harte became, in his pioneer pictures, a sort of later Fenimore Cooper. Forty-four volumes were published by him between 1867 and 1898. After a year as professor in the university of California, Harte lived in New York, 1871-1878; was United States consul at Crefeld, Germany, 1878-1880; consul at Glasgow, 1880-1885; and after 1885 resided in London, engaged in literary work. He died at Camberley, England, on the 5th of May 1902.

A library edition of his _Writings_ (16 vols.) was issued in 1900, and
increased to 19 vols. in 1904. See also H. W. Boynton, _Bret Harte_
(1905) in the Contemporary Men of Letters series; T. E. Pemberton,
_Life of Bret Harte_ (1903), which contains a list of his poems,
tales, &c.

HARTEBEEST, the Boer name for a large South African antelope (also known as caama) characterized by its red colour, long face with naked muzzle and sharply angulated lyrate horns, which are present in both sexes. This antelope is the _Bubalis cama_ or _Alcelaphus cama_ of naturalists; but the name hartebeest has been extended to include all the numerous members of the same genus, some of which are to be found in every part of Africa, while one or two extend into Syria. Some of the species of the allied genus _Damaliscus_, such as Hunter's antelope (_D. hunteri_), are also often called hartebeests. (See ANTELOPE).

HARTFORD, a city and the capital of Connecticut, U.S.A., the county-seat of Hartford county, and a port of entry, coterminous with the township of Hartford, in the west central part of the state, on the W. bank of the Connecticut river, and about 35 m. from Long Island Sound. Pop. (1890), 53,230; (1900), 79,850, of whom 23,758 were foreign-born (including 8076 Irish, 2700 Germans, 2260 Russians, 1952 Italians, 1714 Swedes, 1634 English and 1309 English Canadians); (1910 census) 98,915. Of the total population in 1900, 43,872 were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), and of these 18,410 were of Irish parentage. Hartford is served by two divisions of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, by the Central New England railway, by the several electric lines of the Connecticut Company which radiate to the surrounding towns, and by the steamboats of the Hartford & New York Transportation Co., all of which are controlled by the N.Y., N.H. & H. The river, which is navigable to this point, is usually closed from the middle of December to the middle of March.

The city covers an area of 17.7 sq. m.; it is well laid out and compactly built, and streets, parks, &c., are under a city-plan commission authorized in 1907. It is intersected by the sluggish Park river, which is spanned by ten bridges. A stone arch bridge, with nine arches, built of granite at a cost of $1,700,000 and dedicated in 1908, spans the Connecticut (replacing the old Connecticut river bridge built in 1818 and burned in 1895), and connects Hartford with the village of East Hartford in the township of East Hartford (pop. 1900, 6406), which has important paper-manufacturing and tobacco-growing interests. The park system of Hartford is the largest in any city of the United States in proportion to the city's population. In 1908 there were 21 public parks, aggregating more than 1335 acres. In the extreme S. of the city is Goodwin Park (about 200 acres); in the S.E. is Colt Park (106 acres), the gift of Mrs Elizabeth Colt, the widow of Samuel Colt, inventor of the Colt revolver; in the S.W. is Pope Park (about 90 acres); in the W. is Elizabeth (100 acres); in the E., along the Connecticut river front, is Riverside (about 80 acres); and in the extreme N. is Keney Park (680 acres), the gift of Henry Keney, and, next to the Metropolitan Reservations near Boston, the largest park in the New England states. Near the centre of the city are the Capitol Grounds (27 acres; until 1872 the campus of Trinity College) and Bushnell Park (41 acres), adjoining Capitol Park. Bushnell Park, named in honour of Horace Bushnell, contains the Corning Memorial Fountain, erected in 1899 and designed by J. Massey Rhind, and three bronze statues, one, by J. Q. A. Ward, of General Israel Putnam; one, by Truman H. Bartlett, of Dr Horace Wells (1815-1848), the discoverer of anaesthesia; and one, by E. S. Woods, of Colonel Thomas Knowlton (1749-1776), a patriot soldier of the War of Independence, killed at the battle of Harlem Heights. On the Capitol Grounds is the state capitol (Richard M. Upjohn, architect), a magnificent white marble building, which was completed in 1880 at a cost of $2,534,000. Its exterior is adorned with statues and busts of Connecticut statesmen and carvings of scenes in the history of the state. Within the building are regimental flags of the Civil War, a bronze statue by Olin L. Warner of Governor William A. Buckingham, a bronze statue by Karl Gerhardt of Nathan Hale, a bronze tablet (also by Karl Gerhardt) in memory of John Fitch (1743-1798), the inventor; a portrait of Washington, purchased by the state in 1800 from the artist, Gilbert Stuart; and a series of oil portraits of the colonial and state governors. The elaborately carved chair of the lieutenant-governor in the senate chamber, made of wood from the historic Charter Oak, and the original charter of 1662 (or its duplicate of the same date) are preserved in a special vault in the Connecticut state library. A new state library and supreme court building and a new state armoury and arsenal, both of granite, have been (1910) erected upon lands recently added to the Capitol Grounds, thus forming a group of state buildings with the Capitol as the centre. Near the Capitol, at the approach of the memorial bridge across the Park river, is the Soldiers' and Sailors' memorial arch, designed by George Keller and erected by the city in 1885 in memory of the Hartford soldiers and sailors who served in the American Civil War.

Near the centre of the city is the old town square (now known as the City Hall Square), laid off in 1637. Here, facing Main Street, stands the city hall, a beautiful example of Colonial architecture, which was designed by Charles Bulfinch, completed in 1796, and until 1879 used as a state capitol; it has subsequently been restored. In Main Street is the present edifice of the First Church of Christ, known as the Centre Congregational Church, which was organized in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1632, and removed to Hartford, under the leadership of Thomas Hooker and Samuel Stone, in 1636. In the adjoining cemetery are the graves of Thomas Hooker, Governor William Leete (1603-1683), and Governor John Haynes, and a monument in memory of 100 early residents of Hartford. In the same thoroughfare is the Wadsworth Atheneum (built in 1842; enlarged in 1892-1893 and 1907) and its companion buildings, the Colt memorial (built in 1908 to accommodate the Elizabeth Colt art collection) and the Morgan art gallery (built in 1908 by J. Pierpont Morgan in memory of his father, Junius Morgan, a native of Hartford). In this group of buildings are the Hartford public library (containing 90,000 volumes in 1908), the Watkinson library of reference (70,000 volumes in 1908), the library of the Connecticut historical society (25,000 volumes in 1908) and a public art gallery. Other institutions of importance in Hartford are the American school for the deaf (formerly the American asylum for the deaf and dumb), founded in 1816 by Thomas H. Gallaudet; the retreat for the insane (opened for patients in 1824); the Hartford hospital; St Francis hospital; St Thomas's seminary (Roman Catholic); La Salette Missionary college (R.C.; 1898); Trinity college (founded by members of the Protestant Episcopal church, and now non-sectarian), which was chartered as Washington College in 1823, opened in 1824, renamed Trinity College in 1845, and in 1907-1908 had 27 instructors and 208 students; the Hartford Theological seminary, a Congregational institution, which was founded at East Windsor Hill in 1834 as the Theological Institute of Connecticut, was removed to Hartford in 1865, and adopted its present name in 1885; and, affiliated with the last mentioned institution, the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy. The Hartford grammar school, founded in 1638, long managed by the town and in 1847 merged with the classical department of the Hartford public high school, is the oldest educational institution in the state. In Farmington Avenue is St Joseph's cathedral (Roman Catholic), the city being the seat of the diocese of Hartford.

During the 18th century Hartford enjoyed a large and lucrative commerce, but the railway development of the 19th century centralized commerce in New York and Boston, and consequently the principal source of the city's wealth has come to be manufacturing and insurance. In 1905 the total value of the "factory" product was $25,975,651. The principal industries are the manufacture of small arms (by the Colt's Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing Co., makers of the Colt revolver and the Gatling gun), typewriters (Royal and Underwood), automobiles, bicycles, cyclometers, carriages and wagons, belting, cigars, harness, machinists' tools and instruments of precision, coil-piping, church organs, horse-shoe nails, electric equipment, machine screws, drop forgings, hydrants and valves, and engines and boilers. In 1788 the first woollen mill in New England was opened in Hartford; and here, too, about 1846, the Rogers process of electro-silver plating was invented. The city is one of the most important insurance centres in the United States. As early as 1794 policies were issued by the Hartford Fire Insurance Company (chartered in 1810). In 1909 Hartford was the home city of six fire insurance and six life insurance companies, the principal ones being the Aetna (fire), Aetna Life, Phoenix Mutual Life, Phoenix Fire, Travelers (Life and Accident), Hartford Fire, Hartford Life, National Fire, Connecticut Fire, Connecticut General Life and Connecticut Mutual Life. In 1906 the six fire insurance companies had an aggregate capital of more than $10,000,000; on the 1st January 1906 they reported assets of about $59,000,000 and an aggregate surplus of $30,000,000. In the San Francisco disaster of that year they paid more than $15,000,000 of losses. Since the fire insurance business began in Hartford, the companies of that city now doing business there have paid about $340,000,000 in losses. Several large and successful foreign companies have made Hartford their American headquarters. The life insurance companies have assets to the value of about $225,000,000. The Aetna (fire), Aetna Life, Connecticut Fire, Connecticut Mutual Life, Connecticut General Life, Hartford Fire, Hartford Life, Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co., National Fire, Orient Fire, Phoenix Mutual Life and Travelers companies have their own homes, some of these being among the finest buildings in Hartford. The city has also large banking interests.

The first settlement on the site of Hartford was made by the Dutch from New Amsterdam, who in 1633 established on the bank of the Connecticut river, at the mouth of the Park river, a fort which they held until 1654. The township of Hartford was one of the first three original townships of Connecticut. The first English settlement was made in 1635 by sixty immigrants, mostly from New Town (now Cambridge), Massachusetts; but the main immigration was in 1636, when practically all the New Town congregation led by Thomas Hooker and Samuel Stone joined those who had preceded them. Their settlement was called Newtown until 1637, when the present name was adopted from Hertford, England, the birthplace of Stone. In 1636 Hartford was the meeting-place of the first general court of the Connecticut colony; the Fundamental Orders, the first written constitution, were adopted at Hartford in 1639; and after the union of the colonies of New Haven and Connecticut, accomplished by the charter of 1662, Hartford became the sole capital: but from 1701 until 1873 that honour was shared with New Haven. At Hartford occurred in 1687 the meeting of Edmund Andros and the Connecticut officials (see CONNECTICUT). Hartford was first chartered in 1784, was rechartered in 1856 (the charter of that date has been subsequently revised), and in 1881 was made coterminous with the township of Hartford. The city was the literary centre of Federalist ideas in the latter part of the 18th century, being the home of Lemuel Hopkins, John Trumbull, Joel Barlow and David Humphreys, the leading members of a group of authors known as the "Hartford Wits"; and in 1814-1815 the city was the meeting-place of the famous Hartford Convention, an event of great importance in the history of the Federalist party. The War of 1812, with the Embargo Acts (1807-1813), which were so destructive of New England's commerce, thoroughly aroused the Federalist leaders in this part of the country against the National government as administered by the Democrats, and in 1814, when the British were not only threatening a general invasion of their territory but had actually occupied a part of the Maine coast, and the National government promised no protection, the legislature of Massachusetts invited the other New England states to join with her in sending delegates to a convention which should meet at Hartford to consider their grievances, means of preserving their resources, measures of protection against the British, and the advisability of taking measures to bring about a convention of delegates from all the United States for the purpose of revising the Federal constitution. The legislatures of Connecticut and Rhode Island, and town meetings in Cheshire and Grafton counties (New Hampshire) and in Windham county (Vermont) accepted the invitation, and the convention, composed of 12 delegates from Massachusetts, 7 from Connecticut, 4 from Rhode Island, 2 from New Hampshire and 1 from Vermont, all Federalists, met on the 15th of December 1814, chose George Cabot of Massachusetts president and Theodore Dwight of Connecticut secretary, and remained in secret session until the 5th of January 1815, when it adjourned _sine die_. At the conclusion of its work it recommended greater military control for each of the several states and that the Federal constitution be so amended that representatives and direct taxes should be apportioned among the several states "according to their respective numbers of free persons," that no new state should be admitted to the Union without the concurrence of two-thirds of both Houses of Congress, that Congress should not have the power to lay an embargo for more than sixty days, that the concurrence of two-thirds of the members of both Houses of Congress should be necessary to pass an act "to interdict the commercial intercourse between the United States and any foreign nation or the dependencies thereof" or to declare war against any foreign nation except in case of actual invasion, that "no person who shall hereafter be naturalized shall be eligible as a member of the Senate or House of Representatives of the United States, nor capable of holding any civil office under the authority of the United States," and that "the same person shall not be elected president of the United States a second time; nor shall the president be elected from the same state two terms in succession." After making these recommendations concerning amendments the Convention resolved: "That if the application of these states to the government of the United States, recommended in a foregoing resolution, should be unsuccessful, and peace should not be concluded, and the defence of these states should be neglected, as it has been since the commencement of the war, it will, in the opinion of this convention, be expedient for the legislatures of the several states to appoint delegates to another convention, to meet at Boston in the state of Massachusetts on the third Thursday of June next, with such powers and instructions as the exigency of a crisis so momentous may require." The legislatures of Massachusetts and Connecticut approved of these proposed amendments and sent commissioners to Washington to urge their adoption, but before their arrival the war had closed, and not only did the amendments fail to receive the approval of any other state, but the legislatures of nine states expressed their disapproval of the Hartford Convention itself, some charging it with sowing "seeds of dissension and disunion." The cessation of the war brought increased popularity to the Democratic administration, and the Hartford Convention was vigorously attacked throughout the country.

Hartford was the birthplace of Noah Webster, who here published his _Grammatical Institute of the English Language_ (1783-1785), and of Henry Barnard, John Fiske and Frederick Law Olmsted, and has been the home of Samuel P. Goodrich (Peter Parley), George D. Prentice, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Charles Dudley Warner, Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain) and Horace Bushnell. More than 100 periodicals have been established in Hartford, of which the oldest is the _Hartford Courant_ (1764), the oldest newspaper in the United States. This paper was very influential in shaping public opinion in the years preceding the War of Independence; after the war it was successively Federalist, Whig and Republican. _The Times_ (semi-weekly 1817; daily 1841) was one of the most powerful Democratic organs in the period before the middle of the 19th century, and had Gideon Wells for editor 1826-1836. The _Congregationalist_ (afterwards published in Boston) and the _Churchman_ (afterwards published in New York) were also founded at Hartford.

See _Scaeva, Hartford in the Olden Times: Its First Thirty Years_
(Hartford, 1853), edited by W. M. B. Hartley; and J. H. Trumbull,
_Memorial History of Hartford County_ (Boston, 1886). For the Hartford
Convention see _History of the Hartford Convention_ (Boston, 1833),
published by its secretary, Theodore Dwight; H. C. Lodge, _Life and
Letters of George Cabot_ (Boston, 1877); and Henry Adams, _Documents
Relating to New England Federalism_ (Boston, 1877).

HARTFORD CITY, a city and the county-seat of Blackford county, Indiana, U.S.A., 62 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 2287; (1900) 5912 (572 foreign-born); (1910) 6187. The city is served by the Fort Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and the Indiana Union Traction line (electric). There are oil and natural gas wells in the vicinity, and the city has pulp and paper mills, glass and tile works, and manufactories of woodenware, and nitro-glycerine and powder. The municipality owns and operates its water-works system. The first settlement in the vicinity was made in 1832. Hartford City became the county-seat of Blackford county when that county was erected in 1837; it was laid out in 1839 and was first incorporated as a town in 1867.

HARTIG, GEORG LUDWIG (1764-1837), German agriculturist and writer on forestry, was born at Gladenbach, near Marburg, on the 2nd of September 1764. After obtaining a practical knowledge of forestry at Harzburg, he studied from 1781 to 1783 at the university of Giessen. In 1786 he became manager of forests to the prince of Solms-Braunfels at Hungen in the Wetterau, where he founded a school for the teaching of forestry. After obtaining in 1797 the appointment of inspector of forests to the prince of Orange-Nassau, he continued his school of forestry at Dillenburg, where the attendance thereat increased considerably. On the dissolution of the principality by Napoleon I. in 1805 he lost his position, but in 1806 he went as chief inspector of forests to Stuttgart, whence in 1811 he was called to Berlin in a like capacity. There he continued his school of forestry, and succeeded in connecting it with the university of Berlin, where in 1830 he was appointed an honorary professor. He died at Berlin on the 2nd of February 1837. His son Theodor (1805-1880), and grandson Robert (1839-1901), were also distinguished for their contributions to the study of forestry.

G. L. Hartig was the author of a number of valuable works: _Lehrbuch
fur Jager_ (Stuttgart, 1810); _Lehrbuch fur Forster_ (3 vols.,
Stuttgart, 1808); _Kubiktabellen fur geschnittene, beschlagene, und
runde Holzer_ (1815, 10th ed. Berlin, 1871); and _Lexikon fur Jager
und Jagdfreunde_ (1836, 2nd ed. Berlin, 1859-1861). Theodor Hartig and
his son Robert also published numerous works dealing with forestry,
one of the latter's books being translated into English by W.
Somerville and H. Marshall Ward as _Diseases of Trees_ (1894).

HARTLEPOOL, a parliamentary borough of Durham, England, embracing the municipal borough of Hartlepool or East Hartlepool and the municipal and county borough of West Hartlepool. Pop. (1901) of Hartlepool, 22,723; of West Hartlepool, 62,627. The towns are on the coast of the North Sea separated by Hartlepool Bay, with a harbour, and both have stations on branches of the North Eastern railway, 247 m. N. by W. from London. The surrounding country is bleak, and the coast is low. Caves occur in the slight cliffs, and protection against the attacks of the waves has been found necessary. The ancient market town of Hartlepool lies on a peninsula which forms the termination of a south-eastward sweep of the coast and embraces the bay. Its naturally strong position was formerly fortified, and part of the walls, serving as a promenade, remain. The parish church of St Hilda, standing on an eminence above the sea, is late Norman and Early English, with a massive tower, heavily buttressed. There is a handsome borough hall in Italian style. West Hartlepool, a wholly modern town, has several handsome modern churches, municipal buildings, exchange, market hall, Athenaeum and public library. The municipal area embraces the three townships of Seaton Carew, a seaside resort with good bathing, and golf links; Stranton, with its church of All Saints, of the 14th century, on a very early site; and Throston.

The two Hartlepools are officially considered as one port. The harbour, which embraces two tidal basins and six docks aggregating 83(1/2) acres, in addition to timber docks of 57 acres, covers altogether 350 acres. There are five graving docks, admitting vessels of 550 ft. length and 10 to 21 ft. draught. The depth of water on the dock sills varies from 17(1/2) ft. at neap tides to 25 ft. at spring tides. A breakwater three-quarters of a mile long protects the entrance to the harbour. An important trade is carried on in the export of coal, ships, machinery, iron and other metallic ores, woollens and cottons, and in the import of timber, sugar, iron and copper ores, and eggs. Timber makes up 59% of the imports, and coal and ships each about 30% of the exports. The principal industries are shipbuilding (iron), boiler and engineering works, iron and brass foundries, steam saw and planing mills, flour-mills, paper and paint factories, and soapworks.

The parliamentary borough (falling within the south-east county division) returns one member. The municipal borough of Hartlepool is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors, and has an area of 972 acres. The municipal borough of West Hartlepool is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors, and has an area of 2684 acres.

Built on the horns of a sheltered bay, Hartlepool (Hertepull, Hertipol), grew up round the monastery founded there in 640, but was destroyed by the Danes in 800 and rebuilt by Ecgred, bishop of Lindisfarne. In 1173 Bishop Hugh de Puiset allowed French and Flemish troops to land at Hartlepool to aid the Scots. It is not mentioned in Boldon Book as, being part of the royal manor of Sadberg held at this time by the family of Bruce, it did not become the property of the see of Durham until the purchase of that manor in 1189. The bishops did not obtain possession until the reign of John, who during the interval in 1201 gave Hartlepool a charter granting the burgesses the same privileges that the burgesses of Newcastle enjoyed; in 1230 Bishop Richard Poor granted further liberties, including a gild merchant. Edward II. seized the borough as a possession of Robert Bruce, but he could control it very slightly owing to the bishop's powers. In 1328 Edward III. granted the borough 100 marks towards the town-wall and Richard II. granted murage for seven years, the term being extended in 1400. In 1383 Bishop Fordham gave the burgesses licence to receive tolls within the borough for the maintenance of the walls, while Bishop Neville granted a commission for the construction of a pier or mole. In the 16th century Hartlepool was less prosperous; in 1523 the haven was said to be ruined, the fortifications decayed. An act of 1535 declared Hartlepool to be in Yorkshire, but in 1554 it was reinstated in the county of Durham. It fell into the hands of the northern earls in 1563, and a garrison was maintained there after the rebellion was crushed. In 1593 Elizabeth incorporated it, and gave the burgesses a town hall and court of pie powder. During the civil wars Hartlepool, which a few years before was said to be the only port town in the country, was taken by the Scots, who maintained a garrison there until 1647. As a borough of the Palatinate Hartlepool was not represented in parliament until the 19th century, though strong arguments in its favour were advanced in the Commons in 1614. The markets of Hartlepool were important throughout the middle ages. In 1216 John confirmed to Robert Bruce the market on Wednesday granted to his father and the fair on the feast of St Lawrence; this fair was extended to fifteen days by the grant of 1230, while the charter of 1595 also granted a fair and market. During the 14th century trade was carried on with Germany, Spain and Holland, and in 1346 Hartlepool provided five ships for the French war, being considered one of the chief seaports in the kingdom. The markets were still considerable in Camden's day, but declined during the 18th century, when Hartlepool became fashionable as a watering-place.

HARTLEY, SIR CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1825- ), English engineer, was born in 1825 at Heworth, Durham. Like most engineers of his generation he was engaged in railway work in the early part of his career, but subsequently he devoted himself to hydraulic engineering and the improvement of estuaries and harbours for the purposes of navigation. He was employed in connexion with some of the largest and most important waterways of the world. After serving in the Crimea as a captain of engineers in the Anglo-Turkish contingent, he was in 1856 appointed engineer-in-chief for the works carried out by the European Commission of the Danube for improving the navigation at the mouths of that river, and that position he retained till 1872, when he became consulting engineer to the Commission (see Danube). In 1875 he was one of the committee appointed by the authority of the U.S.A. Congress to report on the works necessary to form and maintain a deep channel through the south pass of the Mississippi delta; and in 1884 the British government nominated him a member of the international technical commission for widening the Suez Canal. In addition he was consulted by the British and other governments in connexion with many other river and harbour works, including the improvement of the navigation of the Scheldt, Hugli, Don and Dnieper, and of the ports of Odessa, Trieste, Kustendjie, Burgas, Varna and Durban. He was knighted in 1862, and became K.C.M.G. in 1884.

HARTLEY, DAVID (1705-1757), English philosopher, and founder of the Associationist school of psychologists, was born on the 30th of August 1705. He was educated at Bradford grammar school and Jesus College, Cambridge, of which society he became a fellow in 1727. Originally intended for the Church, he was deterred from taking orders by certain scruples as to signing the Thirty-nine Articles, and took up the study of medicine. Nevertheless, he remained in the communion of the English Church, living on intimate terms with the most distinguished churchmen of his day. Indeed he asserted it to be a duty to obey ecclesiastical as well as civil authorities. The doctrine to which he most strongly objected was that of eternal punishment. Hartley practised as a physician at Newark, Bury St Edmunds, London, and lastly at Bath, where he died on the 28th of August 1757. His _Observations on Man_ was published in 1749, three years after Condillac's _Essai sur l'origine des connaissances humaines_, in which theories essentially similar to his were expounded. It is in two parts--the first dealing with the frame of the human body and mind, and their mutual connexions and influences, the second with the duty and expectations of mankind. His two main theories are the doctrine of vibrations and the doctrine of associations. His physical theory, he tells us, was drawn from certain speculations as to nervous action which Newton had published in his _Principia_. His psychological theory was suggested by the _Dissertation concerning the Fundamental Principles of Virtue or Morality_, which was written by a clergyman named John Gay (1699-1745), and prefixed by Bishop Law to his translation[1] of Archbishop King's Latin work on the _Origin of Evil_, its chief object being to show that sympathy and conscience are developments by means of association from the selfish feelings.

The outlines of Hartley's theory are as follows. With Locke he
asserted that, prior to sensation, the human mind is a blank. By a
growth from simple sensations those states of consciousness which
appear most remote from sensation come into being. And the one law of
growth of which Hartley took account was the law of contiguity,
synchronous and successive. By this law he sought to explain, not only
the phenomena of memory, which others had similarly explained before
him, but also the phenomena of emotion, of reasoning, and of voluntary
and involuntary action (see ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS).

By his physical theory Hartley gave the first strong impulse to the
modern study of the intimate connexion of physiological and psychical
facts which has proved so fruitful, though his physical theory in
itself is inadequate, and has not been largely adopted. He held that
sensation is the result of a vibration of the minute particles of the
medullary substance of the nerves, to account for which he postulated,
with Newton, a subtle elastic ether, rare in the interstices of solid
bodies and in their close neighbourhood, and denser as it recedes from
them. Pleasure is the result of moderate vibrations, pain of
vibrations so violent as to break the continuity of the nerves. These
vibrations leave behind them in the brain a tendency to fainter
vibrations or "vibratiuncles" of a similar kind, which correspond to
"ideas of sensation." Thus memory is accounted for. The course of
reminiscence and of the thoughts generally, when not immediately
dependent upon external sensation, is accounted for on the ground that
there are always vibrations in the brain on account of its heat and
the pulsation of its arteries. What these vibrations shall be is
determined by the nature of each man's past experience, and by the
influence of the circumstances of the moment, which causes now one now
another tendency to prevail over the rest. Sensations which are often
associated together become each associated with the ideas
corresponding to the others; and the ideas corresponding to the
associated sensations become associated together, sometimes so
intimately that they form what appears to be a new simple idea, not
without careful analysis resolvable into its component parts.

Starting, like the modern Associationists, from a detailed account of
the phenomena of the senses, Hartley tries to show how, by the above
laws, all the emotions, which he analyses with considerable skill, may
be explained. Locke's phrase "association of ideas" is employed
throughout, "idea" being taken as including every mental state but
sensation. He emphatically asserts the existence of pure disinterested
sentiment, while declaring it to be a growth from the self-regarding
feelings. Voluntary action is explained as the result of a firm
connexion between a motion and a sensation or "idea," and, on the
physical side, between an "ideal" and a motory vibration. Therefore in
the Freewill controversy Hartley took his place as a determinist. It
is singular that, as he tells us, it was only with reluctance, and
when his speculations were nearly complete, that he came to a
conclusion on this subject in accordance with his theory.

See life of Hartley by his son in the 1801 edition of the
_Observations_, which also contains notes and additions translated
from the German of H. A. Pistorius; Sir Leslie Stephen, _History of
English Thought in the Eighteenth Century_ (3rd ed., 1902), and
article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_; G. S. Bower,
_Hartley and James Mill_ (1881); B. Schonlank, _Hartley und Priestley
die Begrunder des Assoziationismus in England_ (1882). See also the
histories of philosophy and bibliography in J. M. Baldwin's
_Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_ (1905), vol. iii.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Anonymously in the 1731 ed., with acknowledgment in the 1758 ed.

HARTLEY, JONATHAN SCOTT (1845- ), American sculptor, was born at Albany, New York, on the 23rd of September 1845. He was a pupil of E. D. Palmer, New York, and of the schools of the Royal Academy, London; he later studied for a year in Berlin and for a year in Paris. His first important work (1882) was a statue of Miles Morgan, the Puritan, for Springfield, Mass. Among his other works are the Daguerre monument in Washington; "Thomas K. Beecher," Elmira, New York, and "Alfred the Great," Appellate Court House, New York. He devoted himself particularly to the making of portrait busts, in which he attained high rank. In 1891 he became a member of the National Academy of Design.

HARTLIB, SAMUEL (c. 1599-c. 1670), English writer on education and agriculturist, was born towards the close of the 16th century at Elbing in Prussia, his father being a refugee merchant from Poland. His mother was the daughter of a rich English merchant at Danzig. About 1628 Hartlib went to England, where he carried on a mercantile agency, and at the same time found leisure to enter with interest into the public questions of the day. An enthusiastic admirer of Comenius, he published in 1637 his _Conatuum Comenianorum praeludia_, and in 1639 _Comenii pansophiae prodromus et didactica dissertatio_. In 1641 appeared his _Relation of that which hath been lately attempted to procure Ecclesiastical Peace among Protestants_, and _A Description of Macaria_, containing his ideas of what a model state should be. During the civil war Hartlib occupied himself with the peaceful study of agriculture, publishing various works by himself, and printing at his own expense several treatises by others on the subject. In 1652 he issued a second edition of the _Discourse of Flanders Husbandry_ by Sir Richard Weston (1645); and in 1651 _Samuel Hartlib, his Legacy, or an Enlargement of the Discourse of Husbandry used in Brabant and Flanders_, by Robert Child. For his various labours Hartlib received from Cromwell a pension of L100, afterwards increased to L300, as he had spent all his fortune on his experiments. He planned a school for the sons of gentlemen, to be conducted on new principles, and this probably was the occasion of his friend Milton's _Tractate on Education_, addressed to him in 1644, and of Sir William Petty's _Two Letters_ on the same subject, in 1647 and 1648. At the Restoration Hartlib lost his pension, which had already fallen into arrears; he petitioned parliament for a new grant of it, but what success he met with is unknown, as his latter years and death are wrapped in obscurity. A letter from him is known to have been written in February 1661-1662, and apparently he is referred to by Andrew Marvell as alive in 1670 and fleeing to Holland from his creditors.

_A Biographical Memoir of Samuel Hartlib_, by H. Dircks, appeared in
1865.

HARTMANN, KARL ROBERT EDUARD VON (1842-1906), German philosopher, was born in Berlin on the 23rd of February 1842. He was educated for the army, and entered the artillery of the Guards as an officer in 1860, but a malady of the knee, which crippled him, forced him to quit the service in 1865. After some hesitation between music and philosophy, he decided to make the latter the serious work of his life, and in 1867 the university of Rostock conferred on him the degree of doctor of philosophy. He subsequently returned to Berlin, and died at Grosslichterfelde on the 5th of June 1906. His reputation as a philosopher was established by his first book, _The Philosophy of the Unconscious_ (1869; 10th ed. 1890). This success was largely due to the originality of its title, the diversity of its contents (von Hartmann professing to obtain his speculative results by the methods of inductive science, and making plentiful use of concrete illustrations), the fashionableness of its pessimism and the vigour and lucidity of its style. The conception of the Unconscious, by which von Hartmann describes his ultimate metaphysical principle, is not at bottom as paradoxical as it sounds, being merely a new and mysterious designation for the Absolute of German metaphysicians. The Unconscious appears as a combination of the metaphysic of Hegel with that of Schopenhauer. The Unconscious is both Will and Reason and the absolute all-embracing ground of all existence. Von Hartmann thus combines "pantheism" with "panlogism" in a manner adumbrated by Schelling in his "positive philosophy." Nevertheless Will and not Reason is the primary aspect of the Unconscious, whose melancholy career is determined by the primacy of the Will and the subservience of the Reason. Precosmically the Will is potential and the Reason latent, and the Will is void of reason when it passes from potentiality to actual willing. This latter is absolute misery, and to cure it the Unconscious evokes its Reason and with its aid creates the best of all possible worlds, which contains the promise of its redemption from actual existence by the emancipation of the Reason from its subjugation to the Will in the conscious reason of the enlightened pessimist. When the greater part of the Will in existence is so far enlightened by reason as to perceive the inevitable misery of existence, a collective effort to will non-existence will be made, and the world will relapse into nothingness, the Unconscious into quiescence. Although von Hartmann is a pessimist, his pessimism is by no means unmitigated. The individual's happiness is indeed unattainable either here and now or hereafter and in the future, but he does not despair of ultimately releasing the Unconscious from its sufferings. He differs from Schopenhauer in making salvation by the "negation of the Will-to-live" depend on a collective social effort and not on individualistic asceticism. The conception of a redemption of the Unconscious also supplies the ultimate basis of von Hartmann's ethics. We must provisionally affirm life and devote ourselves to social evolution, instead of striving after a happiness which is impossible; in so doing we shall find that morality renders life less unhappy than it would otherwise be. Suicide, and all other forms of selfishness, are highly reprehensible. Epistemologically von Hartmann is a transcendental realist, who ably defends his views and acutely criticizes those of his opponents. His realism enables him to maintain the reality of Time, and so of the process of the world's redemption.

Von Hartmann's numerous works extend to more than 12,000 pages. They
may be classified into--A. Systematical, including _Grundprobleme der
Erkenntnistheorie_; _Kategorienlehre_; _Das sittliche Bewusstsein_;
_Die Philosophie des Schonen_; _Die Religion des Geistes_; _Die
Philosophie des Unbewussten_ (3 vols., which now include his,
originally anonymous, self-criticism, _Das Unbewusste vom Standpunkte
der Physiologie und Descendenztheorie_, and its refutation, Eng. trs.
by W. C. Coupland, 1884); _System der Philosophie im Grundriss_, i.;
_Grundriss der Erkenntnislehre_. B. Historical and critical--_Das
religiose Bewusstsein der Menschheit_; _Geschichte der Metaphysik_ (2
vols.); _Kant's Erkenntnistheorie_; _Kritische Grundlegung des
transcendentalen Realismus_; _Uber die dialektische Methode_; studies
of Schelling, Lotze, von Kirchmann; _Zur Geschichte des Pessimismus_;
_Neukantianismus, Schopenhauerismus, Hegelianismus_; _Geschichte der
deutschen Asthetik seit Kant_; _Die Krisis des Christentums in der
modernen Theologie_; _Philosophische Fragen der Gegenwart_; _Ethische
Studien_; _Moderne Psychologie_; _Das Christentum des neuen
Testaments_; _Die Weltanschauung der modernen Physik_, C.
Popular--_Soziale Kernfragen_; _Moderne Probleme_; _Tagesfragen_;
_Zwei Jahrzehnte deutscher Politik_; _Das Judentum in Gegenwart und
Zukunft_; _Die Selbstzersetzung des Christentums_; _Gesammelte
Studien_; _Der Spiritismus_ and _Die Geisterhypothese des
Spiritismus_; _Zur Zeitgeschichte_. His select works have been
published in 10 volumes (2nd ed., 1885-1896). On his philosophy see R.
Kober, _Das philosophische System Eduard von Hartmanns_ (1884); O.
Plumacher, _Der Kampf ums Unbewusste_ (2nd ed., 1890), with a
chronological table of the Hartmann literature from 1868 to 1890; A.
Drews, _E. von Hartmanns Philosophie und der Materialismus in der
modernen Kultur_ (1890) and _E. von Hartmanns philosophisches System
im Grundriss_ (1902), with biographical introduction; and for further
authorities, J. M. Baldwin, _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_
(1901-1905).

HARTMANN, MORITZ (1821-1872), German poet and author, was born of Jewish parentage at Duschnik in Bohemia on the 15th of October 1821. Having studied philosophy at Prague and Vienna, he travelled in south Germany, Switzerland and Italy, and became tutor in a family at Vienna. In 1845 he proceeded to Leipzig and there published a volume of patriotic poems, _Kelch und Schwert_ (1845). Fearing in consequence prosecution at the hands of the authorities, he abided events in France and Belgium, and after issuing in Leipzig _Neuere Gedichte_ (1846) returned home, suffered a short term of imprisonment, and in 1848 was elected member for Leitmeritz in the short-lived German parliament at Frankfort-on-Main, in which he sided with the extreme Radical party. He took part with Robert Blum (1807-1848) in the revolution of that year in Vienna, but contrived to escape to London and Paris. In 1849 he published _Reimchronik des Pfaffen Mauritius_, a satirical political poem in the style of Heine. During the Crimean War (1854-56) Hartmann was correspondent of the _Kolnische Zeitung_, settled in 1860 in Geneva as a teacher of German literature and history, became in 1865 editor of the _Freya_ in Stuttgart and in 1868 a member of the staff of the _Neue Freie Presse_ in Vienna. He died at Oberdobling near Vienna on the 13th of May 1872.

Among Hartmann's numerous works may be especially mentioned _Der Krieg um den Wald_ (1850), a novel, the scene of which is laid in Bohemia; _Tagebuch aus Languedoc und Provence_ (1852); _Erzahlungen eines Unsteten_ (1858); and _Die letzten Tage eines Konigs_ (1867). His idyll, _Adam und Eva_ (1851), and his collection of poetical tales, _Schatten_ (1851), show that the author possessed but little talent for epic narrative. Hartmann's poems are often lacking in genuine poetical feeling, but the love of liberty which inspired them, and the fervour, ease and clearness of their style compensated for these shortcomings and gained for him a wide circle of admirers.

His _Gesammelte Werke_ were published in 10 vols, in 1873-1874, and a
selection of his _Gedichte_ in the latter year. The first two volumes
of a new edition of his works contain a biography of Hartmann by O.
Wittner. See also E. Ziel, "Moritz Hartmann" (in _Unsere Zeit_, 1872);
A. Marchand, _Les Poetes lyriques de l'Autriche_ (1892); Brandes, _Das
junge Deutschland_ (Charlottenburg, 1899).