Chapter M: T. M (16)

The pressing demand for labour created by the Reciprocity Treaty of
1875 with the United States led to great changes in the population of
the Hawaiian Islands. It became the policy of the government to assist
immigrants from different countries. In 1877 arrangements were made
for the importation of Portuguese families from the Azores and
Madeira, and during the next ten years about 7000 of these people were
brought to the islands; in 1906-1907 there was a second immigration
from the Azores and Madeira of 1325 people. In 1900 the total number
of Portuguese in the islands, including those born there, was not far
from 16,000, about 2400 of whom were employed in sugar plantations.
They have shown themselves to be industrious, thrifty and law-abiding.
In 1907 2201 Spanish immigrants from the sugar district about Malaga
arrived in Hawaii, and about the same number of Portuguese immigrated
in the same year. The Board of Immigration, using funds contributed by
planters, was very active in its efforts to encourage the immigration
of suitable labourers, but the general immigration law of 1907
prohibited the securing of such immigration through contributions from
corporations. Persistent efforts have also been made to introduce
Polynesian islanders, as being of a cognate race with the Hawaiians,
but the results have been wholly unsatisfactory. About 2000, mainly
from the Gilbert Islands, were brought in at the expense of the
government between 1878 and 1884; but they did not give satisfaction
either as labourers or as citizens, and most of them have been
returned to their homes. There never existed any treaty or labour
convention between Hawaii and China. In early days a limited number of
Chinese settled in the islands, intermarried with the natives and by
their industry and economy generally prospered. About 750 of them were
naturalized under the monarchy. The first importation of Chinese
labourers was in 1852. In 1878 the number of Chinese had risen to
5916. During the next few years there was such a steady influx of
Chinese free immigrants that in the spring of 1881 the Hawaiian
government sent a despatch to the governor of Hong Kong to stop this
invasion. Again, in April 1883, it was suddenly renewed, and within
twenty days five steamers arrived from Hong Kong bringing 2253 Chinese
passengers, followed the next month by 1100 more, with the news that
several thousand more were ready to embark. Accordingly, the Hawaiian
government sent another despatch to the governor of Hong Kong,
refusing to permit any further immigration of male Chinese from that
port. Various regulations restricting Chinese immigration were enacted
from time to time, until in 1886 the landing of any Chinese passenger
without a passport was prohibited. The number of Chinese in the
islands had then risen to 21,000. The consent of the Japanese
government to the immigration of its subjects to Hawaii was obtained
with difficulty in 1884, and in 1886 a labour convention was ratified.
Subsequently the increase of the Japanese element in the population
was rapid. It rose from 116 in 1884 to 12,360 in 1890 and 24,400 in
1896. Most of these were recruited from the lowest classes in Japan.
Unlike the Chinese, they show no inclination to intermarry with the
Hawaiians. The effect of making Hawaii a Territory of the United
States was to put an end to all assisted immigration, of whatever
race, and to exclude all Chinese labourers. No Chinese labourer is
allowed to enter any other Territory of the Union from Hawaii; and the
act of Congress of the 26th of February 1885, "to prohibit the
importation and migration of foreigners and aliens under contract or
agreement to perform labour in the United States, its Territories and
the District of Columbia," and the amending and supplementary acts,
are extended to it. But in the treaty of 1894 between the United
States and Japan there is nothing to limit the free immigration of
Japanese; and several companies have been formed to promote it. The
system of contract labour, which was abolished by the act of Congress
in 1900, and under which labourers had been restrained from leaving
their work before the end of the contract term, concerned few
labourers except the Japanese. Various methods of co-operation or
profit-sharing are in successful operation on some plantations.

An interesting sociological problem is raised by the presence of the
large Asiatic element in the population. The Japanese and Koreans, and
in less measure the Chinese, act as domestic servants, work under
white contractors on irrigating ditches and reservoirs, do most of the
plantation labour and compete successfully with whites and native
islanders in all save skilled urban occupations, such as printing and
the manufacture, of machinery. The "Yellow Peril" is considered less
dangerous in Hawaii than formerly, although it was used as a political
cry in the campaign for American annexation. No success met the
apparently well-meaning efforts of the Central Japanese League which
was organized in November and December 1903 to promote the observance
of law and order by the Japanese in the islands, who assumed a too
independent attitude and felt themselves free from governmental
control whether Japanese or American; indeed, after the League had
been in operation for a year or more, it almost seemed that it
contributed to industrial disorders among the Japanese. At about the
same time Japanese immigration to Hawaii fell off upon the opening of
new fields for colonization by the Russo-Japanese War, and Korean
immigration was promoted by employers on the islands. From the first
of January 1903 to the 30th of June 1905 Japanese immigrants numbered
18,027; Koreans 7388 (four Koreans to every ten Japanese); but in the
last twelve months of this same period there were 4733 Koreans to 5941
Japanese (eight Koreans to every ten Japanese). Another fact which is
possibly contributing to the solution of the problem is that the
Japanese are leaving the islands in large numbers as compared with the
Koreans. The Japanese leaving Hawaii between the 14th of June 1900 and
the 31st of December 1905 numbered 42,313, or 4284 more than the
number of Japanese immigrants arriving during the same period. The
corresponding figures for Koreans during the same period are as
follows: number leaving between the 14th of June 1900 and the 31st of
December 1905, 721, or 6673 less than the Korean immigrants for the
same period. The acceleration of the departure of the Japanese is
shown by the fact that in the eighteen months (July 1904 to January
1906) occurred 19,114 of the 42,313 departures in the sixty-six months
from July 1900 to January 1906.[7] After 1906, owing to restrictions
by the Japanese government, immigration to Hawaii greatly decreased.
At the same time the number of departures was decreasing rapidly. The
change in the character of the immigration of Japanese is shown by the
fact that in the fiscal year 1906-1907 the ratio of female immigrants
to males was as 1 to 8, in the fiscal year 1907-1908 it was as 1 to 2,
and in the latter year, of 4593 births in the Territory, 2445 were
Japanese.

_Administration._--The Hawaiian Islands are governed under an Act of Congress, signed by the president on the 30th of April 1900, which first organized them as a Territory of the United States. The legislature, which meets biennially at Honolulu, consists of a Senate of 15 members holding office for four years, and a House of Representatives of 30 members holding office for two years. In order to vote for Representatives or Senators, the elector must be a male citizen of the United States who has attained the age of twenty-one years, has lived in the Territory not less than one year preceding, and is able to speak, read and write the English or Hawaiian language. No person is allowed to vote by reason of being in or attached to the army or navy. The executive power is vested in a governor, appointed by the president and holding office for four years. He must not be less than thirty-five years of age and must be a citizen of the Territory. The secretary of the Territory is appointed in like manner for a term of the same length. The governor appoints, by and with the consent of the Senate of the Territory, an attorney-general, treasurer, commissioner of public lands, commissioner of agriculture and forestry, superintendent of public works, superintendent of public instruction, commissioners of public instruction, auditor and deputy-auditor, surveyor, high sheriff, members of the board of health, board of prison inspectors, board of registration, inspectors of election, &c. All such officers are appointed for four years except the commissioners of public instruction and the members of the said boards, whose terms are as provided by the laws of the Territory; all must be citizens of the Territory. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, 5 circuit courts, and 29 district courts, each having a jurisdiction corresponding to similar courts in each state in the Union; and, entirely distinct from these territorial courts, Hawaii has a United States district court. A Supplementary Act of the 3rd of March 1905 provides that writs of error and appeals may be taken from the Supreme Court of Hawaii to the Supreme Court of the United States "in all cases where the amount involved exclusive of costs or value exceeds the sum of five thousand dollars." The Territory was without the forms of local government common to the United States until 1905, when the Territorial legislature divided it into five counties[8] without, however, giving to them the usual powers of taxation. Each county has the following officers: a board of supervisors, a clerk, a treasurer, an auditor, an assessor and tax-collector, a sheriff and coroner, and an attorney. The members (from five to nine) of the board of supervisors are elected by districts into which the county is divided, usually only one from each. All county officers are elected for a term of two years. The act of 1900 provides for the election of a delegate to Congress, and prescribes that the delegate shall have the qualifications necessary for membership in the Hawaiian Senate, and shall be elected by voters qualified to vote for members of the House of Representatives of Hawaii. As usual, the delegate has a right to take part in the debates in the national House of Representatives, but may not vote.

_Charities._--The principal public charity of the Territory is the
leper asylum on a peninsula almost 10 sq. m. in area on the N. side of
the island of Molokai. A steep precipice forms a natural wall between
it and the rest of the island. The place became an asylum for lepers
and the caring for them began to be a charity under government charge
in 1866; but conditions here were at first unspeakably unhygienic,
their improvement being largely due to Father Damien, who devoted
himself to this work in 1873. The patients are almost exclusively
native Hawaiians, and their number is slowly but steadily decreasing;
in 1908 they numbered 791, and there were at Molokai 46 non-leprous
helpers and 27 officers and assistants, including the Roman Catholic
brothers and sisters in charge of the homes. In 1905 the United States
government appropriated $100,000 for a hospital station and laboratory
"for the study of the methods of transmission, cause and treatment of
leprosy," and $50,000 a year for their maintenance; the station and
laboratory to be established when the territorial government should
have ceded to the United States a tract of 1 sq. m. on the leper
reservation. The cession was made soon afterward by the territorial
government. In 1907-1908 a home for non-leprous boys of leprous
parents was established at Honolulu. Another public charity of Hawaii
is the general free dispensary maintained by the territorial
government at Honolulu.

_Education._--Education is universal, compulsory and free. Every child
between the ages of six and fifteen must attend either a public school
or a duly authorized private school. Consequently the percentage of
illiteracy is extremely low. The school system is essentially American
in its text-books and in its methods, thanks to the foundations laid
by American missionaries. Between 1820 and 1824 the missionaries
taught about 2000 natives to read. Several important schools were
founded before 1840, when the first written laws were published. Among
these was a law providing for compulsory education, and decreeing that
no illiterate born after the beginning of Liholiho's reign should hold
office, and that no illiterate man or woman, born after the same date,
could marry. The first Hawaiian minister of public instruction was the
Rev. William Richards (1792-1847), who held office from 1843 to 1847,
and was followed by Richard Armstrong (1805-1860), an American
Presbyterian missionary, the father of General S. C. Armstrong. He
laid stress on the importance of manual and industrial training during
his term of office (1847-1855), and was succeeded by a board of
education (1855-1865), of which he was first president; then an
inspector-general of schools was appointed, Judge Abraham Fornander
being the first inspector; in 1896 an executive department was created
under a minister of public instruction and six commissioners; in 1900
a superintendent of public instruction was first appointed. English is
by law the medium of instruction in all schools, both public and
private, although other languages may be taught in addition. Formal
instruction in Hawaiian ceased in 1898. The schools are in session
forty weeks during the year. In 1908 there were 154 public schools
with 18,564 pupils (27.06% of whom were Japanese, 20.89% Hawaiian,
13.54% part Hawaiian, 18.72% Portuguese and 10.63% Chinese) and 51
private schools with 4881 pupils. A normal school has been established
at Honolulu, with a practice school attached to it. The territorial
legislature of 1907 established the College of Agriculture and
Mechanic Arts of the Territory of Hawaii, and also founded a public
library. The Honolulu high school does excellent work and has
beautiful buildings and grounds. The Lahainaluna Seminary on west
Maui, founded in 1831 as a training school for teachers, furnishes
instruction to Hawaiian boys in agriculture, carpentry, printing and
mechanical drawing. The boys in the industrial school (1902) at
Waialee, on the island of Oahu, are taught useful trades. The teaching
of sewing in the public schools has met with great success, and a
simple form of the Swedish sloid was introduced into many of the
schools in 1894. Lace work was introduced into the public schools in
1903. But the best industrial instruction is furnished by the
independent schools, among which the Kamehameha schools take the first
place. They were founded by Mrs Bernice Pauahi Bishop (1831-1884), the
last lineal descendant of Kamehameha I., who left her extensive landed
estates in the hands of trustees for their support. They furnish a
good manual and technical training to Hawaiian boys and girls, in
addition to a primary and grammar school course of study, and exert a
strong religious influence. There are six boarding schools for
Hawaiian girls, supported by private resources. The most advanced
courses of study are offered by Oahu College, which occupies a
beautiful site near the beach just E. of Honolulu; it was founded in
1841 as the Punahou School for missionaries' children, and was
chartered as Oahu College in 1852. It is well equipped with buildings
and apparatus, and has an endowment of about $300,000.

_Finance_.--The revenue of the Territory for the fiscal year ending
the 30th of June 1908 amounted to $2,669,748.32, of which $640,051.42
was the proceeds of the tax on real estate, $635,265.81 was the
proceeds of the tax on personal property; and among the larger of the
remaining items were the income tax ($266,241.74), waterworks
($141,898.04), public lands (sales, $37,585.75; revenue, $122,541.71)
and licences ($206,374.28). On the 30th of June 1908 the bonded debt
of the Territory was $3,979,000; there was on hand net cash, without
floating debt, $677,648.48.

_History_.--The history of the islands before their discovery by Captain James Cook, in 1778, is obscure.[9] This famous navigator, who named the islands in honour of the earl of Sandwich, was received by the natives with many demonstrations of astonishment and delight; and offerings and prayers were presented to him by their priest in one of the temples; and though in the following year he was killed by a native when he landed in Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii, his bones were preserved by the priests and continued to receive offerings and homage from the people until the abolition of idolatry. At the time of Cook's visit the archipelago seems to have been divided into three distinct kingdoms: Hawaii; Oahu and Maui; and Lanai and Molokai. On the death of the chief who ruled Hawaii at that time there succeeded one named Kamehameha (1736-1819), who appears to have been a man of quick perception and great force of character. When Vancouver visited the islands in 1792, he left sheep and neat cattle,[10] protected by a ten years' taboo, and laid down the keel of a European ship for Kamehameha. Ten or twelve years later Kamehameha had 20 vessels (of 25 to 50 tons), which traded among the islands. He afterwards purchased others from foreigners. Having encouraged a warlike spirit in his people and having introduced firearms, Kamehameha attacked and overcame the chiefs of the other kingdoms one after another, until (in 1795) he became undisputed master of the whole group. He made John Young (c. 1775-1835) and Isaac Davis, Americans from one of the ships of Captain Metcalf which visited the island in 1789, his advisers, encouraged trade with foreigners, and derived from its profits a large increase of revenue as well as the means of consolidating his power. He died in 1819, and was succeeded by his son, Lilohilo, or Kamehameha II., a mild and well-disposed prince, but destitute of his father's energy. One of the first acts of Kamehameha II. was, for vicious and selfish reasons, to abolish taboo and idolatry throughout the islands. Some disturbances were caused thereby, but the insurgents were defeated.

On the 31st of March 1820 missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions--two clergymen, two teachers, a physician, a farmer, and a printer, each with his wife--and three Hawaiians educated in the Cornwall (Connecticut) Foreign Missionary School, arrived from America and began their labours at Honolulu. A short time afterwards the British government presented a small schooner to the king, and this afforded an opportunity for the Rev. William Ellis, the well-known missionary, to visit Honolulu with a number of Christian natives from the Society Islands. Finding the language of the two groups nearly the same, Mr Ellis, who had spent several years in the southern islands, was able to assist the American missionaries in reducing the Hawaiian language to a written form. In 1825 the ten commandments were recognized by the king as the basis of a code of laws. In the years 1830-1845 the educational work of the American missionaries was so successful that hardly a native was unable to read and write. A law prohibiting drunkenness (1835) was followed in 1838 by a licence law and in 1839 by a law prohibiting the importation of spirits and taxing wines fifty cents a gallon; in 1840 another prohibitory law was enacted; but licence laws soon made the sale of liquor common. Missionary effort was particularly fruitful in Hilo, where Titus Coan (1801-1882), sent out in 1835 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, worked in repeated revivals, induced most of his church members to give up tobacco even, and received prior to 1880 more than 12,000 members into a church which became self-supporting and sent missions to the Gilbert Islands and the Marquesas. In 1823 Keopuolani, the king's mother, was baptized; and on a single Sunday in 1838 Coan baptized 1705 converts at Hilo. In 1864 the American Board withdrew its control of evangelical work.

In 1824 the king and queen of the Hawaiian Islands paid a visit to England, and both died there of measles. His successor, Kamehameha III. ruled from 1825 to 1854. In 1839 Kamehameha III. signed a Bill of Rights and in 1840 he promulgated the first constitution of the realm; in 1842 a code of laws was proclaimed; by 1848 the feudal system of land tenure was completely abolished; the first legislature met in 1845 and full suffrage was granted in 1852, but in 1864 suffrage was restricted. Progress was at times interrupted by the conduct of the officers of foreign powers. On one occasion (July 1839) French officers abrogated the laws (particularly against the importation of liquor), dictated treaties, extorted $20,000 and by force of arms procured privileges for Roman Catholic[11] priests in the country; and at another time (February 1843) a British officer, Captain Paulet of the "Carysfort," went so far as to take possession of Oahu and establish a commission for its government. The act of the British officer was disavowed by his superiors as soon as known.

These incidents led to a representation on the part of the native sovereign to the governments of Great Britain, France and the United States, and the independence of the islands (recognized by the United States in 1842) was recognized in 1844 by France and Great Britain. In 1844 John Ricord, an American lawyer, became the first minister of foreign affairs. A new constitution came into effect in 1852. It was the aim of Kamehameha III. and his advisers to combine the native and the foreign elements under one government; to make the king the sovereign not of one race or class, but of all; and to extend equal and impartial laws over all inhabitants of the country. Kamehameha IV. and his queen, Emma, ruled from 1855 to 1863 and were succeeded by his brother, Kamehameha V., who died in 1872, and in whose reign a third (and a reactionary) constitution went into effect in 1864, by mere royal proclamation. Lunalilo, a grandson of Kamehameha I., was king for two years, and in 1874, backed by American influence, Kalakaua was elected his successor, in preference to Queen Emma, a member of the Anglican Church and the candidate of the pro-British party. Kalakaua considered residents of European or American descent as alien invaders, and he aimed to restore largely the ancient system of personal government, under which he should have control of the public treasury. On the 2nd of July 1878, and again on the 14th of August 1880, he dismissed a ministry without assigning any reason, after it had been triumphantly sustained by a test vote of the legislature. On the latter occasion he appointed C. C. Moreno, who had come to Honolulu in the interest of a Chinese steamship company, as Premier and minister of foreign affairs. This called forth the protest of the representatives of Great Britain, France and the United States, and aroused such opposition on the part of both the foreigners and the better class of natives that the king was obliged, after four days of popular excitement, to remove the obnoxious minister. During the king's absence on a tour round the world in 1881, his sister, Mrs Lydia Dominis (b. 1838), also styled Liliuokalani, acted as regent. After his return the contest was renewed between the so-called National party, which favoured absolution, and the Reform party, which sought to establish parliamentary government. The king took an active part in the elections, and used his patronage to the utmost to influence legislation. For three successive sessions a majority of the legislature was composed of office-holders, dependent on the favour of the executive. Among the measures urged by the king and opposed by the Reform party were the project of a ten-million dollar loan, chiefly for military purposes; the removal of the prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquor to Hawaiians, which was carried in 1882; the licensing of the sale of opium; the chartering of a lottery company; the licensing of kahunas, or medicine men, &c. Systematic efforts were made to turn the constitutional question into a race issue, and the party cry was raised of "Hawaii for Hawaiians." Adroit politicians flattered the king's vanity, defended his follies and taught him how to violate the spirit of the constitution while keeping the letter of the law. From 1882 till 1887 his prime minister was Walter Murray Gibson (1823-1888), a singular and romantic genius, a visionary adventurer and a shrewd politician, who had been imprisoned by the Dutch government in Batavia in 1852 on a charge of inciting insurrection in Sumatra, and had arrived at Honolulu in 1861 with the intention of leading a Mormon colony to the East Indies. To exalt his royal dignity, which was lowered, he thought, by his being only an elected king, Kalakaua caused himself to be crowned with imposing ceremonies on the ninth anniversary of his election (Feb. 12, 1883).

Kalakaua was now no longer satisfied with being merely king of Hawaii, but aspired to what was termed the "Primacy of the Pacific." Accordingly Mr Gibson addressed a protest to the great powers, deprecating any further annexation of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and claiming for Hawaii the exclusive right "to assist them in improving their political and social condition." In pursuance of this policy, two commissioners were sent to the Gilbert Islands in 1883 to prepare the way for a Hawaiian protectorate. On the 23rd of December 1886 Mr J. E. Bush was commissioned as minister plenipotentiary to the king of Samoa, the king of Tonga and the other independent chiefs of Polynesia. He arrived in Samoa on the 3rd of January 1887, and remained there six months, during which time he concluded a treaty of alliance with Malietoa, which was ratified by his government. The "Explorer," a steamer of 170 tons, which had been employed in the copra trade, was purchased for $20,000, and refitted as a man-of-war, to form the "nest-egg" of the future Hawaiian navy. She was renamed the "Kaimiloa," and was despatched to Samoa on the 17th of May 1887 to strengthen the hands of the embassy. As R. L. Stevenson wrote: "The history of the 'Kaimiloa' is a story of debauchery, mutiny and waste of government property." At length the intrigues of the Hawaiian embassy gave umbrage to the German government, and it was deemed prudent to recall it to Honolulu in July 1887. Meanwhile a reform league had been formed to stop the prevailing misrule and extravagance; it was supported by a volunteer military force, the "Honolulu Rifles." The king carried through the legislature of 1886 a bill for an opium licence, as well as a Loan Act, under which a million dollars were borrowed in London. Under his influence the Hale Naua Society was organized in 1886 for the spread of idolatry and king-worship; and in the same year a "Board of Health" was formed which revived the vicious practices of the _kahunas_ or medicine-men.

The king's acceptance of two bribes--one of $75,000 and another of $80,000 for the assignment of an opium licence--precipitated the revolution of 1887. An immense mass meeting was held on the 30th of June, which sent a committee to the king with specific demands for radical reforms. Finding himself without support, he yielded without a struggle, dismissed his ministry and signed a constitution on the 7th of July 1887, revising that of 1864, and intended to put an end to personal government and to make the cabinet responsible only to the legislature; this was called the "bayonet constitution," because it was so largely the result of the show of force made by the Honolulu Rifles. By its terms office-holders were made ineligible for seats in the legislature, and no member of the legislature could be appointed to any civil office under the government during the term for which he had been elected. The members of the Upper House, instead of being appointed by the king for life, were henceforth to be elected for terms of six years by electors possessing a moderate property qualification. The remainder of Kalakaua's reign teemed with intrigues and conspiracies to restore autocratic rule. One of these came to a head on the 30th of July 1889, but this "Wilcox rebellion," led by R. W. Wilcox, a half-breed, educated in Italy, and a friend of the king and of his sister, was promptly suppressed. Seven of the insurgents were killed and a large number wounded. For his health the king visited California in the United States cruiser "Charleston" in November 1890, and died on the 20th of January 1891 in San Francisco. On the 29th of January at noon his sister, the regent, took the oath to maintain the constitution of 1887, and was proclaimed queen, under the title of Liliuokalani.

The history of her reign shows that it was her constant purpose to restore autocratic government. The legislative session of 1892, during which four changes of ministry took place, was protracted to eight months chiefly by her determination to carry through the opium and lottery bills and to have a pliable cabinet. She had a new constitution drawn up, practically providing for an absolute monarchy, and disfranchising a large class of citizens who had voted since 1887; this constitution (drawn up, so the royal party declared, in reply to a petition signed by thousands of natives) she undertook to force on the country after proroguing the legislature on the 14th of January 1893, but her ministers shrank from the responsibility of so revolutionary an act, and with difficulty prevailed upon her to postpone the execution of her design. An uprising similar to that of 1887 declared the monarchy forfeited by its own act. A third party proposed a regency during the minority of the heir-apparent, Princess Kaiulani, but in her absence this scheme found few supporters. A Committee of Safety was appointed at a public meeting, which formed a provisional government and reorganized the volunteer military companies, which had been disbanded in 1890. Its leading spirits were the "Sons of Missionaries" (as E. L. Godkin styled them), who were accused of using their knowledge of local affairs and their inherited prestige among the natives for private ends--of founding a "Gospel Republic" which was actually a business enterprise. The provisional government called a mass meeting of citizens, which met on the afternoon of the 6th and ratified its action. The United States steamer "Boston," which had unexpectedly arrived from Hilo on the 14th, landed a small force on the evening of the 16th, at the request of the United States minister, Mr J. L. Stevens, and a committee of residents, to protect the lives and property of American citizens in case of riot or incendiarism. On the 17th the Committee of Safety took possession of the government building, and issued a proclamation declaring a monarchy to be abrogated, and establishing a provisional government, to exist "until terms of union with the United States of America shall have been negotiated and agreed upon." Meanwhile two companies of volunteer troops arrived and occupied the grounds. By the advice of her ministers, and to avoid bloodshed, the queen surrendered under protest, in view of the landing of United States troops, appealing to the government of the United States to reinstate her in authority. A treaty of annexation was negotiated with the United States during the next month, just before the close of President Benjamin Harrison's administration, but it was withdrawn on the 9th of March 1893 by President Harrison's successor, President Cleveland, who then despatched James H. Blount (1837-1903) of Macon, Georgia, as commissioner paramount, to investigate the situation in the Hawaiian Islands. On receiving Blount's report to the effect that the revolution had been accomplished by the aid of the United States minister and by the landing of troops from the "Boston," President Cleveland sent Albert Sydney Willis (1843-1897) of Kentucky to Honolulu with secret instructions as United States minister. Willis with much difficulty and delay obtained the queen's promise to grant an amnesty, and made a formal demand on the provisional government for her reinstatement on the 19th of December 1893. On the 23rd President Sanford B. Dole sent a reply to Willis, declining to surrender the authority of the provisional government to the deposed queen. The United States Congress declared against any further intervention by adopting on the 31st of May 1894 the Turpie Resolution. On the 30th of May 1894 a convention was held to frame a constitution for the republic of Hawaii, which was proclaimed on the 4th of July following, with S. B. Dole as its first president. Toward the end of the same year a plot was formed to overthrow the republic and to restore the monarchy. A cargo of arms and ammunition from San Francisco was secretly landed at a point near Honolulu, where a company of native royalists were collected on the 6th of January 1895, intending to capture the government buildings by surprise that night, with the aid of their allies in the city. A premature encounter with a squad of police alarmed the town and broke up their plans. There were several other skirmishes during the following week, resulting in the capture of the leading conspirators, with most of their followers. The ex-queen, on whose premises arms and ammunition and a number of incriminating documents were found, was arrested and was imprisoned for nine months in the former palace. On the 24th of January 1895 she formally renounced all claim to the throne and took the oath of allegiance to the republic. The ex-queen and forty-eight others were granted conditional pardon on the 7th of September, and on the following New Year's Day the remaining prisoners were set at liberty.

On the inauguration of President McKinley, in March 1897, negotiations with the United States were resumed, and on the 16th of June a new treaty of annexation was signed at Washington. As its ratification by the Senate had appeared to be uncertain, extreme measures were taken: the Newlands joint resolution, by which the cession was "accepted, ratified and confirmed," was passed by the Senate by a vote of 42 to 21 and by the House of Representatives by a vote of 209 to 91, and was signed by the president on the 7th of July 1898. The formal transfer of sovereignty took place on the 12th of August 1898, when the flag of the United States (the same flag hauled down by order of Commissioner Blount) was raised over the Executive Building with impressive ceremonies.

The sovereigns of the monarchy, the president of the republic and the governors of the Territory up to 1910 were as follows: Sovereigns: Kamehameha I., 1795-1819; Kamehameha II., 1819-1824; Kaahumanu (regent), 1824-1832; Kamehameha III., 1832-1854; Kamehameha IV., 1855-1863; Kamehameha V., 1863-1872; Lunalilo, 1873-1874; Kalakaua, 1874-1891; Liliuokalani, 1891-1893. President: Sanford B. Dole, 1893-1898. Governors: S. B. Dole, 1898-1904; George R. Carter, 1904-1907; W. F. Frear, 1907.

AUTHORITIES.--Consult the bibliography in Adolf Marcuse, _Die
hawaiischen Inseln_ (Berlin, 1894); A. P. C. Griffen, _List of Books
relating to Hawaii_ (Washington, 1898); C. E. Dutton, _Hawaiian
Volcanoes_, in the fourth annual report of the United States
Geological Survey (Washington, 1884); J. D. Dana, _Characteristics of
Volcanoes with Contribution of Facts and Principles from the Hawaiian
Islands_ (New York, 1890); W. H. Pickering, _Lunar and Hawaiian
Physical Features compared_ (1906); C. H. Hitchcock, _Hawaii and its
Volcanoes_ (Honolulu, 1909); Augustin Kramer, _Hawaii, Ostmikronesien
und Samoa_ (Stuttgart, 1906); Sharp, _Fauna_ (London, 1899); Walter
Maxwell, _Lavas and Soils of the Hawaiian Islands_ (Honolulu, 1898);
W. Hillebrand, _Flora of the Hawaiian Islands_ (London, 1888); G. P.
Wilder, _Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands_ (3 vols., Honolulu, 1907); H.
W. Henshaw, _Birds of the Hawaiian Islands_ (Washington, 1902); A.
Fornander, _Account of the Polynesian Race and the Ancient History of
the Hawaiian People to the Times of Kamehameha I._ (3 vols., London,
1878-1885); W. D. Alexander, _A Brief History of the Hawaiian People_
(New York, 1899); C. H. Forbes-Lindsay, _American Insular Possessions_
(Philadelphia, 1906); Jose de Olivares, _Our Islands and their People_
(New York, 1899); J. A. Owen, _Story of Hawaii_ (London, 1898); E. J.
Carpenter, _America in Hawaii_ (Boston, 1899); W. F. Blackman, _The
Making of Hawaii, a Study in Social Evolution_ (New York, 1899), with
bibliography; T. G. Thrum, _Hawaiian Almanac and Annual_ (Honolulu);
Lucien Young, _The Real Hawaii_ (New York, 1899), written by a
lieutenant of the "Boston," an ardent defender of Stevens;
Liliuokalani, _Hawaii's Story_ (Boston, 1898); C. T. Rodgers,
_Education in the Hawaiian Islands_ (Honolulu, 1897); Henry E.
Chambers, _Constitutional History of Hawaii_ (Baltimore, 1896), in
_Johns Hopkins University Studies_; W. Ellis, _Tour Around Hawaii_
(London, 1829); J. J. Jarves, _History of the Sandwich Islands_
(Honolulu, 1847); H. Bingham, _A Residence of Twenty-one Years in the
Sandwich Islands_ (Hartford, 1848); Isabella Bird, _Six Months in the
Sandwich Islands_ (New York, 1881); Adolf Bastian, _Zur Kenntnis
Hawaiis_ (Berlin, 1883); the annual _Reports_ of the governor of
Hawaii, of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, of the Hawaiian
Sugar Planters' Experiment Station, of the Board of Commissioners on
Agriculture and Forestry, and of the Hawaii Promotion Committee; and
the _Papers of the Hawaiian Historical Society_.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Among the minor phenomena of Hawaiian volcanoes are the delicate
glassy fibres called Pele's hair by the Hawaiians, which are spun by
the wind from the rising and falling drops of liquid lava, and blown
over the edge or into the crevices of the crater. Pele in idolatrous
times was the dreaded goddess of Kilauea.

[2] The Chinese name for the Hawaiian Islands means "Sandalwood
Islands."

[3] Partly described by T. S. Streets, _Contributions to the Natural
History of the Hawaiian and Fanning Islands_, Bulletin 7 of U.S.
National Museum (Washington, 1877). Several new species are described
in U.S. Bureau of Fisheries Document, No. 623 (Washington, 1907).

[4] So Lesson called the family from the native name in 1831; Cabanis
(1847) suggested _Acrulocercus_.

[5] The entomological department of the Hawaii Experiment Station
undertakes "mosquito control," and in 1905-1906 imported top-minnows
(_Poeciliidae_) to destroy mosquito larvae.

[6] These and other title-holders received corresponding rights to
the use of irrigation ditches, and to fish in certain sea areas
adjacent to their holdings.

[7] Large numbers of Japanese immigrants have used the Hawaiian
Islands merely as a means of gaining admission at the mainland ports
of the United States. For, as the Japanese government would issue
only a limited number of passports to the mainland but would quite
readily grant passports to Honolulu, the latter were accepted, and
after a short stay on some one of the islands the immigrants would
depart on a "coastwise" voyage to some mainland port. The increasing
numbers arriving by this means, however, provoked serious hostility
in the Pacific coast states, especially in San Francisco, and to
remedy the difficulty Congress inserted a clause in the general
immigration act of the 20th of February 1907 which provides that
whenever the president is satisfied that passports issued by any
foreign government to any other country than the United States, or to
any of its insular possessions, or to the Canal Zone, "are being used
for the purpose of enabling the holders to come to the continental
territory of the United States to the detriment of labour conditions
therein," he may refuse to admit them. This provision has been
successful in reducing the number of Japanese coming to the mainland
from Hawaii.

[8] These are: the county of Hawaii, consisting of the island of the
same name; the county of Maui, including the islands of Maui, Lanai
and Kahoolawe, and the greater part of Molokai; the county of
Kalawao, being the leper settlement on Molokai; the city and county
of Honolulu (created from the former county of Oahu by an act of
1907, which came into effect in 1909), consisting of the island of
Oahu and various small islands, of which the only ones of any
importance are the Midway Islands, 1232 m. from Honolulu, a Pacific
cable relay station and a post of the U.S. navy marines; and the
county of Kauai, including Kauai and Niihau islands.

[9] Their discovery in the 16th century (in 1542 or 1555 by Juan
Gaetan, or in 1528 when two of the vessels of Alvaro de Saavedra were
shipwrecked here and the captain of one, with his sister, survived
and intermarried with the natives) seems probable, because there are
traces of Spanish customs in the islands; and they are marked in
their correct latitude on an English chart of 1687, which is
apparently based on Spanish maps; a later Spanish chart (1743) gives
a group of islands 10 deg. E. of the true position of the Hawaiian
Islands.

[10] The first horses were left by Captain R. J. Cleveland in 1803.

[11] The first Roman Catholic priests came in 1827 and were banished
in 1831, but returned in 1837. An edict of toleration in 1839 shortly
preceded the visit of the "Artemise."

HAWARDEN (pronounced Harden, Welsh _Penarlag_), a market-town of Flintshire, North Wales, 6 m. W. of Chester, on a height commanding an extensive prospect, connected by a branch with the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 5372. It lies in a coal district, with clay beds near. Coarse earthenware, draining tiles and fire-clay bricks are the chief manufactures. The Maudes take the title of viscount from the town. Hawarden castle--built in 1752, added to and altered in the Gothic style in 1814--stands in a fine wooded park near the old castle of the same name, which William the Conqueror gave to his nephew, Hugh Lupus. It was taken in 1282 by Dafydd, brother of Llewelyn, prince of Wales, destroyed by the Parliamentarians in the Civil War, and came into the possession of Sergeant Glynne, lord chief justice of England under Cromwell. The last baronet, Sir Stephen R. Glynne, dying in 1874, Castell Penarlag passed to his brother-in-law, William Ewart Gladstone. St Deiniol church, early English, was restored in 1857 and 1878. There are also a grammar school (1606), a Gladstone golden-wedding fountain (1889), and St Deiniol's Hostel (with accommodation for students and an Anglican clerical warden); west of the church, on Truman's hill, is an old British camp.

HAWAWIR (HAUHAUIN), an African tribe of Semitic origin, dwelling in the Bayuda desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. They are found along the road from Debba to Khartum as far as Bir Ganir, and from Ambigol to Wadi Bishara. They have adopted none of the negro customs, such as gashing the cheeks or elaborate hairdressing. They own large herds of oxen, sheep and camels.

HAWEIS, HUGH REGINALD (1838-1901), English preacher and writer, was born at Egham, Surrey, on the 3rd of April 1838. On leaving Trinity College, Cambridge, he travelled in Italy and served under Garibaldi in 1860. On his return to England he was ordained and held various curacies in London, becoming in 1866 incumbent of St James's, Marylebone. His unconventional methods of conducting the service, combined with his dwarfish figure and lively manner, soon attracted crowded congregations. He married Miss M. E. Joy in 1866, and both he and Mrs Haweis (d. 1898) contributed largely to periodical literature and travelled a good deal abroad. Haweis was Lowell lecturer at Boston, U.S.A., in 1885, and represented the Anglican Church at the Chicago Parliament of Religions in 1893. He was much interested in music, and wrote books on violins and church bells, besides contributing an article to the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ on bell-ringing. His best-known book was _Music and Morals_ (3rd ed., 1873); and for a time he was editor of _Cassell's Magazine_. He also wrote five volumes on _Christ and Christianity_ (a popular church history, 1886-1887). Other writings include _Travel and Talk_ (1896), and similar chatty and entertaining books. He died on the 29th of January 1901.

HAWES, STEPHEN (fl. 1502-1521), English poet, was probably a native of Suffolk, and, if his own statement of his age may be trusted, was born about 1474. He was educated at Oxford, and travelled in England, Scotland and France. On his return his various accomplishments, especially his "most excellent vein" in poetry, procured him a place at court. He was groom of the chamber to Henry VII. as early as 1502. He could repeat by heart the works of most of the English poets, especially the poems of John Lydgate, whom he called his master. He was still living in 1521, when it is stated in Henry VIII.'s household accounts that L6. 13s. 4d. was paid "to Mr Hawes for his play," and he died before 1530, when Thomas Field, in his "Conversation between a Lover and a Jay," wrote "Yong Steven Hawse, whose soule God pardon, Treated of love so clerkly and well." His capital work is _The Passetyme of Pleasure, or the History of Graunde Amour and la Bel Pucel, conteining the knowledge of the Seven Sciences and the Course of Man's Life in this Worlde_, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, 1509, but finished three years earlier. It was also printed with slightly varying titles by the same printer in 1517, by J. Wayland in 1554, by Richard Tottel and by John Waley in 1555. Tottel's edition was edited by T. Wright and reprinted by the Percy Society in 1845. The poem is a long allegory in seven-lined stanzas of man's life in this world. It is divided into sections after the manner of the Morte Arthur and borrows the machinery of romance. Its main motive is the education of the knight, Graunde Amour, based, according to Mr W. J. Courthope (_Hist. of Eng. Poetry_, vol. i. 382), on the _Marriage of Mercury and Philology_, by Martianus Capella, and the details of the description prove Hawes to have been well acquainted with medieval systems of philosophy. At the suggestion of Fame, and accompanied by her two greyhounds, Grace and Governance, Graunde Amour starts out in quest of La Bel Pucel. He first visits the Tower of Doctrine or Science where he acquaints himself with the arts of grammar, logic, rhetoric and arithmetic. After a long disputation with the lady in the Tower of Music he returns to his studies, and after sojourns at the Tower of Geometry, the Tower of Doctrine, the Castle of Chivalry, &c., he arrives at the Castle of La Bel Pucel, where he is met by Peace, Mercy, Justice, Reason and Memory. His happy marriage does not end the story, which goes on to tell of the oncoming of Age, with the concomitant evils of Avarice and Cunning. The admonition of Death brings Contrition and Conscience, and it is only when Remembraunce has delivered an epitaph chiefly dealing with the Seven Deadly Sins, and Fame has enrolled Graunde Amour's name with the knights of antiquity, that we are allowed to part with the hero. This long imaginative poem was widely read and esteemed, and certainly exercised an influence on the genius of Spenser.

The remaining works of Hawes are all of them bibliographical rarities.
_The Conversyon of Swerers_ (1509) and _A Joyfull Medytacyon to all
Englonde_, a coronation poem (1509), was edited by David Laing for the
Abbotsford Club (Edinburgh, 1865). A _Compendyous Story ... called
the Example of Vertu_ (pr. 1512) and the _Comfort of Lovers_ (not
dated) complete the list of his extant work.

See also G. Saintsbury, _The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of
Allegory_ (Edin. and Lond., 1897); the same writer's _Hist. of English
Prosody_ (vol. i. 1906); and an article by W. Murison in the
_Cambridge History of English Literature_ (vol. ii. 1908).

HAWES, WILLIAM (1785-1846), English musician, was born in London in 1785, and was for eight years (1793-1801) a chorister of the Chapel Royal, where he studied music chiefly under Dr Ayrton. He subsequently held various musical posts, being in 1817 appointed master of the children of the Chapel Royal. He also carried on the business of a music publisher, and was for many years musical director of the Lyceum theatre, then devoted to English opera. In the last-named capacity (July 23rd, 1824), he introduced Weber's _Der Freischutz_ for the first time in England, at first slightly curtailed, but soon afterwards in its entirety. Winter's _Interrupted Sacrifice_, Mozart's _Cosi fan tutte_, Marschner's _Vampyre_ and other important works were also brought out under his auspices. Hawes also wrote or compiled the music for numerous pieces. Better were his glees and madrigals, of which he published several collections. He also superintended a new edition of the celebrated _Triumph of Oriana_. He died on the 18th of February 1846.

HAWFINCH, a bird so called from the belief that the fruit of the hawthorn (_Crataegus Oxyacantha_) forms its chief food, the _Loxia coccothraustes_ of Linnaeus, and the _Coccothraustes vulgaris_ of modern ornithologists, one of the largest of the finch family (_Fringillidae_), and found over nearly the whole of Europe, in Africa north of the Atlas and in Asia from Palestine to Japan. It was formerly thought to be only an autumnal or winter-visitor to Britain, but later experience has proved that, though there may very likely be an immigration in the fall of the year, it breeds in nearly all the English counties to Yorkshire, and abundantly in those nearest to London. In coloration it bears some resemblance to a chaffinch, but its much larger size and enormous beak make it easily recognizable, while on closer inspection the singular bull-hook form of some of its wing-feathers will be found to be very remarkable. Though not uncommonly frequenting gardens and orchards, in which as well as in woods it builds its nest, it is exceedingly shy in its habits, so as seldom to afford opportunities for observation. (A. N.)

HAWICK, a municipal and police burgh of Roxburghshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891), 19,204; (1901), 17,303. It is situated at the confluence of the Slitrig (which flows through the town) with the Teviot, 10 m. S.W. of Jedburgh by road and 52(3/4) m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. The name has been derived from the O. Eng. _heaih-wic_, "the village on the flat meadow," or _haga-wic_, "the fenced-in dwelling," the Gadeni being supposed to have had a settlement at this spot. Hawick is a substantial and flourishing town, the prosperity of which dates from the beginning of the 19th century, its enterprise having won for it the designation of "The Glasgow of the Borders." The municipal buildings, which contain the free library and reading-room, stand on the site of the old town hall. The Buccleuch memorial hall, commemorating the 5th duke of Buccleuch, contains the Science and Art Institute and a museum rich in exhibits illustrating Border history. The Academy furnishes both secondary and technical education. The only church of historical interest is that of St Mary's, the third of the name, built in 1763. The first church, believed to have been founded by St Cuthbert (d. 687), was succeeded by one dedicated in 1214, which was the scene of the seizure of Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie in 1342 by Sir William Douglas. The modern Episcopal church of St Cuthbert was designed by Sir Gilbert Scott. The Moat or Moot hill at the south end of the town--an earthen mound 30 ft. high and 300 ft. in circumference--is conjectured to have been the place where formerly the court of the manor met; though some authorities think it was a primitive form of fortification. The Baron's Tower, founded in 1155 by the Lovels, lords of Branxholm and Hawick, and afterwards the residence of the Douglases of Drumlanrig, is said to have been the only building that was not burned down during the raid of Thomas Radcliffe, 3rd earl of Sussex, in April 1570. At a later date it was the abode of Anne, duchess of Buccleuch and Monmouth, after the execution of her husband, James, duke of Monmouth in 1585, and finally became the Tower Hotel. Bridges across the Teviot connect Hawick with the suburb of Wilton, in which a public park has been laid out, and St Leonard's Park and race-course are situated on the Common, 2 m. S.W. The town is governed by a provost, bailies and council, and unites with Selkirk and Galashiels (together known as the Border burghs) to send a member to parliament. The leading industries are the manufacture of hosiery, established in 1771, and woollens, dating from 1830, including blankets, shepherd's plaiding and tweeds. There are, besides, tanneries, dye works, oil-works, saw-mills, iron-founding and engineering works, quarries and nursery gardens. The markets for live stock and grain are also important.

In 1537 Hawick received from Sir James Douglas of Drumlanrig a charter which was confirmed by the infant Queen Mary in 1545, and remained in force until 1861, when the corporation was reconstituted by act of parliament. Owing to its situation Hawick was often imperilled by Border warfare and marauding freebooters. Sir Robert Umfraville (d. 1436), governor of Berwick, burned it about 1417, and in 1562 the regent Moray had to suppress the lawless with a strong hand. Neither of the Jacobite risings aroused enthusiasm. In 1715 the discontented Highlanders mutinied on the Common, 500 of them abandoning their cause, and in 1745 Prince Charles Edward's cavalry passed southward through the town. In 1514, the year after the battle of Flodden, in which the burghers had suffered severely, a number of young men surprised an English force at Hornshole, a spot on the Teviot 2 m. below the town, routed them and bore away their flag. This event is celebrated every June in the ceremony of "Riding the Common"--in which a facsimile of the captured pennon is carried in procession to the accompaniment of a chorus "Teribus, ye Teri Odin," supposed to be an invocation to Thor and Odin--a survival of Northumbrian paganism. Two of the most eminent natives of the burgh were Dr Thomas Somerville (1741-1830), the historian, and James Wilson (1805-1860), founder of the _Economist_ newspaper and the first financial member of the council for India.