Chapter M: T. M (18)

HAWKWOOD, SIR JOHN (d. 1394), an English adventurer who attained great wealth and renown as a condottiere in the Italian wars of the 14th century. His name is variously spelt as Haccoude, Aucud, Aguto, &c., by contemporaries. It is said that he was the son of a tanner of Hedingham Sibil in Essex, and was apprenticed in London, whence he went, in the English army, to France under Edward III. and the Black Prince. It is said also that he obtained the favour of the Black Prince, and received knighthood from King Edward III., but though it is certain that he was of knightly rank, there is no evidence as to the time or place at which he won it. On the peace of Bretigny in 1360, he collected a band of men-at-arms, and moved southward to Italy, where we find the White Company, as his men were called, assisting the marquis of Monferrato against Milan in 1362-63, and the Pisans against Florence in 1364. After several campaigns in various parts of central Italy, Hawkwood in 1368 entered the service of Bernabo Visconti. In 1369 he fought for Perugia against the pope, and in 1370 for the Visconti against Pisa, Florence and other enemies. In 1372 he defeated the marquis of Monferrato, but soon afterwards, resenting the interference of a council of war with his plans, Hawkwood resigned his command, and the White Company passed into the papal service, in which he fought against the Visconti in 1373-1375. In 1375 the Florentines entered into an agreement with him, by which they were to pay him and his companion 130,000 gold florins in three months on condition that he undertook no engagement against them; and in the same year the priors of the arts and the gonfalonier decided to give him a pension of 1200 florins per annum for as long as he should remain in Italy. In 1377, under the orders of the cardinal Robert of Geneva, legate of Bologna, he massacred the inhabitants of Cesena, but in May of the same year, disliking the executioner's work put upon him by the legate, he joined the anti-papal league, and married, at Milan, Donnina, an illegitimate daughter of Bernabo Visconti. In 1378 and 1379 Hawkwood was constantly in the field; he quarrelled with Bernabo in 1378, and entered the service of Florence, receiving, as in 1375, 130,000 gold florins. He rendered good service to the republic up to 1382, when for a time he was one of the English ambassadors at the papal court. He engaged in a brief campaign in Naples in 1383, fought for the marquis of Padua against Verona in 1386, and in 1388 made an unsuccessful effort against Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who had murdered Bernabo. In 1390 the Florentines took up the war against Gian Galeazzo in earnest, and appointed Hawkwood commander-in-chief. His campaign against the Milanese army in the Veronese and the Bergamask was reckoned a triumph of generalship, and in 1392 Florence exacted a satisfactory peace from Gian Galeazzo. His latter years were spent in a villa in the neighbourhood of Florence. On his death in 1394 the republic gave him a public funeral of great magnificence, and decreed the erection of a marble monument in the cathedral. This, however, was never executed; but Paolo Uccelli painted his portrait in terre-verte on the inner facade of the building, where it still remains, though damaged by removal from the plaster to canvas. Richard II. of England, probably at the instigation of Hawkwood's sons, who returned to their native country, requested the Florentines to let him remove the good knight's bones, and the Florentine government signified its consent.

Of his children by Donnina Visconti, who appears to have been his second wife, the eldest daughter married Count Brezaglia of Porciglia, podesta of Ferrara, who succeeded him as Florentine commander-in-chief, and another a German condottiere named Conrad Prospergh. His son, John, returned to England and settled at Hedingham Sibil, where, it is supposed, Sir John Hawkwood was buried. The children of the first marriage were two sons and three daughters, and of the latter the youngest married John Shelley, an ancestor of the poet.

AUTHORITIES.--Muratori, _Rerum Italicarum scriptores_, and supplement
by Tartinius and Manni; _Archivio storico italiano_; Temple-Leader and
Marcotti, _Giovanni Acuto_ (Florence, 1889; Eng. transl., Leader
Scott, London, 1889); Nichol, _Bibliotheca topographica Britannica_,
vol. vi.; J. G. Alger in _Register and Magazine of Biography_, v. 1.;
and article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._

HAWLEY, HENRY (c. 1679-1759), British lieut.-general, entered the army, it is said, in 1694. He saw service in the War of Spanish Succession as a captain of Erle's (the 19th) foot. After Almanza he returned to England, and a few years later had become lieut.-colonel of the 19th. With this regiment he served at Sheriffmuir in 1715, where he was wounded. After this for some years he served in the United Kingdom, obtaining promotion in the usual course, and in 1739 he arrived at the grade of major general. Four years later he accompanied George II. and Stair to Germany, and, as a general officer of cavalry under Sir John Cope, was present at Dettingen. Becoming lieut.-general somewhat later, he was second-in-command of the cavalry at Fontenoy, and on the 20th of December 1745 became commander-in-chief in Scotland. Less than a month later Hawley suffered a severe defeat at Falkirk at the hands of the Highland insurgents. This, however, did not cost him his command, for the duke of Cumberland, who was soon afterwards sent north, was captain-general. Under Cumberland's orders Hawley led the cavalry in the campaign of Culloden, and at that battle his dragoons distinguished themselves by their ruthless butchery of the fugitive rebels. After the end of the "Forty-Five" he accompanied Cumberland to the Low Countries and led the allied cavalry at Lauffeld (Val). He ended his career as governor of Portsmouth and died at that place in 1759. James Wolfe, his brigade-major, wrote of General Hawley in no flattering terms. "The troops dread his severity, hate the man and hold his military knowledge in contempt," he wrote. But, whether it be true or false that he was the natural son of George II., Hawley was always treated with the greatest favour by that king and by his son the duke of Cumberland.

HAWLEY, JOSEPH ROSWELL (1826-1905), American political leader, was born on the 31st of October at Stewartsville, Richmond county, North Carolina, where his father, a native of Connecticut, was pastor of a Baptist church. The father returned to Connecticut in 1837 and the son graduated at Hamilton College (Clinton, N.Y.) in 1847. He was admitted to the bar in 1850, and practised at Hartford, Conn., for six years. An ardent opponent of slavery, he became a Free Soiler, was a delegate to the National Convention which nominated John P. Hale for the presidency in 1852, and subsequently served as chairman of the State Committee, having at the same time editorial control of the _Charter Oak_, the party organ. In 1856 he took a leading part in organizing the Republican party in Connecticut, and in 1857 became editor of the Hartford _Evening Press_, a newly established Republican newspaper. He served in the Federal army throughout the Civil War, rising from the rank of captain (April 22, 1861) to that of brigadier-general of volunteers (Sept. 1864); took part in the Port Royal Expedition, in the capture of Fort Pulaski (April 1862), in the siege of Charleston and the capture of Fort Wagner (Sept. 1863), in the battle of Olustee (Feb. 20, 1864), in the siege operations about Petersburg, and in General W. T. Sherman's campaign in the Carolinas; and in September 1865 received the brevet of major-general of volunteers. From April 1866 to April 1867 he was governor of Connecticut, and in 1867 he bought the Hartford _Courant_, with which he combined the _Press_, and which became under his editorship the most influential newspaper in Connecticut and one of the leading Republican papers in the country. He was the permanent chairman of the Republican National Convention in 1868, was a delegate to the conventions of 1872, 1876 and 1880, was a member of Congress from December 1872 until March 1875 and again in 1879-1881, and was a United States senator from 1881 until the 3rd of March 1905, being one of the Republican leaders both in the House and the Senate. From 1873 to 1876 he was president of the United States Centennial Commission, the great success of the Centennial Exhibition being largely due to him. He died at Washington, D.C., on the 17th of March 1905.

HAWORTH, an urban district in the Keighley parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 10 m. N.W. of Bradford, on a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901), 7492. It is picturesquely situated on a steep slope, lying high, and surrounded by moorland. The Rev. Patrick Bronte (d. 1861) was incumbent here for forty-one years, and a memorial near the west window of St Michael's church bears his name and the names of his gifted daughters upon it. The grave of Charlotte and Emily Bronte is also marked by a brass. In 1895 a museum was opened by the Bronte society. There is a large worsted industry.

HAWSER (in sense and form as if from "hawse," which, from the 16th-century form _halse_, is derived from Teutonic _hals_, neck, of which there is a Scandinavian use in the sense of the forepart of a ship; the two words are not etymologically connected; "hawser" is from an O. Fr. _haucier_, _hausser_, to raise, tow, hoist, from the Late Lat. _altiare_, to lift, _altus_, high), a small cable or thick rope used at sea for the purposes of mooring or warping, in the case of large vessels made of steel. When a cable or tow line is made of three or more small ropes it is said to be "hawser-laid." The "hawse" of a ship is that part of the bows where the "hawse-holes" are made. These are two holes cut in the bows of a vessel for the cables to pass through, having small cast-iron pipes, called "hawse-pipes," fitted into them to prevent abrasion. In bad weather at sea these holes are plugged up with "hawse-plugs" to prevent the water entering. The phrase to enter the service by the "hawse-holes" is used of those who have risen from before the mast to commissioned rank in the navy. When the ship is at anchor the space between her head and the anchor is called "hawse," as in the phrase "athwart the hawse." The term also applies to the position of the ship's anchors when moored; when they are laid out in a line at right angles to the wind it is said to be moored with an "open hawse"; when both cables are laid out straight to their anchors without crossing, it is a "clear hawse."

HAWTHORN, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 4(1/2) m. by rail E. of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 21,339. It is the seat of the important Methodist Ladies' College. The majority of the inhabitants are professional and business men engaged in Melbourne and their residences are numerous at Hawthorn.

HAWTHORN (O. Eng. _haga_-, _haeg_-, or _hege-thorn_, i.e. "hedge-thorn"), the common name for _Crataegus_, in botany, a genus of shrubs or small trees belonging to the natural order Rosaceae, native of the north temperate regions, especially America. It is represented in the British Isles by the hawthorn, white-thorn or may (Ger. _Hagedorn_ and _Christdorn_; Fr. _aubepine_), C. _Oxyacantha_, a small, round-headed, much-branched tree, 10 to 20 ft. high, the branches often ending in single sharp spines. The leaves, which are deeply cut, are 1 to 2 in. long and very variable in shape. The flowers are sweet-scented, in flat-topped clusters, and 1/2 to 3/4 in. in diameter, with five spreading white petals alternating with five persistent green sepals, a large number of stamens with pinkish-brown anthers, and one to three carpels sunk in the cup-shaped floral axis. The fruit, or haw, as in the apple, consists of the swollen floral axis, which is usually scarlet, and forms a fleshy envelope surrounding the hard stone.

The common hawthorn is a native of Europe as far north as 60(1/2) deg. in Sweden, and of North Africa, western Asia and Siberia, and has been naturalized in North America and Australia. It thrives best in dry soils, and in height varies from 4 or 5 to 12, 15 or, in exceptional cases, as much as between 20 and 30 ft. It may be propagated from seed or from cuttings. The seeds must be from ripe fruit, and if fresh gathered should be freed from pulp by maceration in water. They germinate only in the second year after sowing; in the course of their first year the seedlings attain a height of 6 to 12 in. Hawthorn has been for many centuries a favourite park and hedge plant in Europe, and numerous varieties have been developed by cultivation; these differ in the form of the leaf, the white, pink or red, single or double flowers, and the yellow, orange or red fruit. In England the hawthorn, owing to its hardiness and closeness of growth, has been employed for enclosure of land since the Roman occupation, but for ordinary field hedges it is believed it was generally in use till about the end of the 17th century. James I. of Scotland, in his _Quair_, ii. 14 (early 15th century), mentions the "hawthorn hedges knet" of Windsor Castle. The first hawthorn hedges in Scotland are said to have been planted by soldiers of Cromwell at Inch Buckling Brae in East Lothian and Finlarig in Perthshire. Annual pruning, to which the hawthorn is particularly amenable, is necessary if the hedge is to maintain its compactness and sturdiness. When the lower part shows a tendency to go bare the strong stems may be "plashed," i.e. split, bent over and pegged to the ground so that new growths may start. The wood of the hawthorn is white in colour, with a yellowish tinge. Fresh cut it weighs 68 lb. 12 oz. per cubic foot, and dry 57 lb. 3 oz. It can seldom be obtained in large portions, and has the disadvantage of being apt to warp; its great hardness, however, renders it valuable for the manufacture of various articles, such as the cogs of mill-wheels, flails and mallets, and handles of hammers. Both green and dry it forms excellent fuel. The bark possesses tanning properties, and in Scotland in past times yielded with ferrous sulphate a black dye for wool. The leaves are eaten by cattle, and have been employed as a substitute for tea. Birds and deer feed upon the haws, which are used in the preparation of a fermented and highly intoxicating liquor. The hawthorn serves as a stock for grafting other trees. As an ornamental feature in landscapes, it is worthy of notice; and the pleasing shelter it affords and the beauty of its blossoms have frequently been alluded to by poets. The custom of employing the flowering branches for decorative purposes on the 1st of May is of very early origin; but since the alteration in the calendar the tree has rarely been in full bloom in England before the second week of that month. In the Scottish Highlands the flowers may be seen as late as the middle of June. The hawthorn has been regarded as the emblem of hope, and its branches are stated to have been carried by the ancient Greeks in wedding processions, and to have been used by them to deck the altar of Hymen. The supposition that the tree was the source of Christ's crown of thorns gave rise doubtless to the tradition current among the French peasantry that it utters groans and cries on Good Friday, and probably also to the old popular superstition in Great Britain and Ireland that ill-luck attended the uprooting of hawthorns. Branches of the Glastonbury thorn, _C. Oxyacantha_, var. _praecox_, which flowers both in December and in spring, were formerly highly valued in England, on account of the legend that the tree was originally the staff of Joseph of Arimathea.

The number of species in the genus is from fifty to seventy, according to the view taken as to whether or not some of the forms, especially of those occurring in the United States, represent distinct species. _C. coccinea_, a native of Canada and the eastern United States, with bright scarlet fruits, was introduced into English gardens towards the end of the 17th century. _C. Crus-Galli_, with a somewhat similar distribution and introduced about the same time, is a very decorative species with showy, bright red fruit, often remaining on the branches till spring, and leaves assuming a brilliant scarlet and orange in the autumn; numerous varieties are in cultivation. _C. Pyracantha_, known in gardens as pyracantha, is evergreen and has white flowers, appearing in May, and fine scarlet fruits of the size of a pea which remain on the tree nearly all the winter. It is a native of south Europe and was introduced into Britain early in the 17th century.

HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL (1804-1864), American writer, son of Nathaniel Hathorne (1776-1808), was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th of July 1804. The head of the American branch of the family, William Hathorne of Wilton, Wiltshire, England, emigrated with Winthrop and his company, and arrived at Salem Bay, Mass., on the 12th of June 1630. He had grants of land at Dorchester, where he resided for upwards of six years, when he was persuaded to remove to Salem by the tender of further grants of land there, it being considered a public benefit that he should become an inhabitant of that town. He represented his fellow-townsmen in the legislature, and served them in a military capacity as a captain in the first regular troop organized in Salem, which he led to victory through an Indian campaign in Maine. Originally a determined "Separatist," and opposed to compulsion for conscience, he signalized himself when a magistrate by the active part which he took in the Quaker persecutions of the time (1657-1662), going so far on one occasion as to order the whipping of Anne Coleman and four other Friends through Salem, Boston and Dedham. He died, an old man, in the odour of sanctity, and left a good property to his son John, who inherited his father's capacity and intolerance, and was in turn a legislator, a magistrate, a soldier and a bitter persecutor of witches. Before the death of Justice Hathorne in 1717, the destiny of the family suffered a sea-change, and they began to be noted as mariners. One of these seafaring Hathornes figured in the Revolution as a privateer, who had the good fortune to escape from a British prison-ship; and another, Captain Daniel Hathorne, has left his mark on early American ballad-lore. He too was a privateer, commander of the brig "Fair American," which, cruising off the coast of Portugal, fell in with a British scow laden with troops for General Howe, which scow the bold Hathorne and his valiant crew at once engaged and fought for over an hour, until the vanquished enemy was glad to cut the Yankee grapplings and quickly bear away. The last of the Hathornes with whom we are concerned was a son of this sturdy old privateer, Nathaniel Hathorne. He was born in 1776, and about the beginning of the 19th century married Miss Elizabeth Clarke Manning, a daughter of Richard Manning of Salem, whose ancestors emigrated to America about fifty years after the arrival of William Hathorne. Young Nathaniel took his hereditary place before the mast, passed from the forecastle to the cabin, made voyages to the East and West Indies, Brazil and Africa, and finally died of fever at Surinam, in the spring of 1808. He was the father of three children, the second of whom was the subject of this article. The form of the family name was changed by the latter to "Hawthorne" in his early manhood.

After the death of her husband Mrs Hawthorne removed to the house of her father with her little family of children. Of the boyhood of Nathaniel no particulars have reached us, except that he was fond of taking long walks alone, and that he used to declare to his mother that he would go to sea some time and would never return. Among the books that he is known to have read as a child were Shakespeare, Milton, Pope and Thomson, _The Castle of Indolence_ being an especial favourite. In the autumn of 1818 bis mother removed to Raymond, a town in Cumberland county, Maine, where his uncle, Richard Manning, had built a large and ambitious dwelling. Here the lad resumed his solitary walks, exchanging the narrow streets of Salem for the boundless, primeval wilderness, and its sluggish harbour for the fresh bright waters of Sebago lake. He roamed the woods by day, with his gun and rod, and in the moonlight nights of winter skated upon the lake alone till midnight. When he found himself away from home, and wearied with his exercise, he took refuge in a log cabin where half a tree would be burning upon the hearth. He had by this time acquired a taste for writing, that showed itself in a little blank-book, in which he jotted down his woodland adventures and feelings, and which was remarkable for minute observation and nice perception of nature.

After a year's residence at Raymond, Nathaniel returned to Salem in order to prepare for college. He amused himself by publishing a manuscript periodical, which he called the _Spectator_, and which displayed considerable vivacity and talent. He speculated upon the profession that he would follow, with a sort of prophetic insight into his future. "I do not want to be a doctor and live by men's diseases," he wrote to his mother, "nor a minister to live by their sins, nor a lawyer and live by their quarrels. So I don't see that there is anything left for me but to be an author. How would you like some day to see a whole shelf full of books, written by your son, with 'Hawthorne's Works' printed on their backs?"

Nathaniel entered Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in the autumn of 1821, where he became acquainted with two students who were destined to distinction--Henry W. Longfellow and Franklin Pierce. He was an excellent classical scholar, his Latin compositions, even in his freshman year, being remarkable for their elegance, while his Greek (which was less) was good. He made graceful translations from the Roman poets, and wrote several English poems which were creditable to him. After graduation three years later (1825) he returned to Salem, and to a life of isolation. He devoted his mornings to study, his afternoons to writing, and his evenings to long walks along the rocky coast. He was scarcely known by sight to his townsmen, and he held so little communication with the members of his own family that his meals were frequently left at his locked door. He wrote largely, but destroyed many of his manuscripts, his taste was so difficult to please. He thought well enough, however, of one of his compositions to print it anonymously in 1828. A crude melodramatic story, entitled _Fanshawe_, it was unworthy even of his immature powers, and should never have been rescued from the oblivion which speedily overtook it. The name of Nathaniel Hawthorne finally became known to his countrymen as a writer in _The Token_, a holiday annual which was commenced in 1828 by Mr S. G. Goodrich (better known as "Peter Parley"), by whom it was conducted for fourteen years. This forgotten publication numbered among its contributors most of the prominent American writers of the time, none of whom appear to have added to their reputation in its pages, except the least popular of all--Hawthorne, who was for years the obscurest man of letters in America, though he gradually made admirers in a quiet way. His first public recognition came from England, where his genius was discovered in 1835 by Henry F. Chorley, one of the editors of the _Athenaeum_, in which he copied three of Hawthorne's most characteristic papers from _The Token_. He had but little encouragement to continue in literature, for Mr Goodrich was so much more a publisher than an author that he paid him wretchedly for his contributions, and still more wretchedly for his work upon an _American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge_, which he persuaded him to edit. This author-publisher consented, however, at a later period (1837) to bring out a collection of Hawthorne's writings under the title of _Twice-told Tales_. A moderate edition was got rid of, but the great body of the reading public ignored the book altogether. It was generously reviewed in the _North American Review_ by his college friend Longfellow, who said it came from the hand of a man of genius, and praised it for the exceeding beauty of its style, which was as clear as running waters.

The want of pecuniary success which had so far attended his authorship led Hawthorne to accept a situation which was tendered him by George Bancroft, the historian, collector of the port of Boston under the Democratic rule of President Van Buren. He was appointed a weigher in the custom-house at a salary of about $1200 a year, and entered upon the duties of his office, which consisted for the most part in measuring coal, salt and other bulky commodities on foreign vessels. It was irksome employment, but faithfully performed for two years, when he was superseded through a change in the national administration. Master of himself once more, he returned to Salem, where he remained until the spring of 1841, when he wrote a collection of children's stories entitled _Grandfather's Chair_, and joined an industrial association at West Roxbury, Mass. Brook Farm, as it was called, was a social Utopia, composed of a number of advanced thinkers, whose object was so to distribute manual labour as to give its members time for intellectual culture. The scheme worked admirably--on paper; but it was suited neither to the temperament nor the taste of Hawthorne, and after trying it patiently for nearly a year he returned to the everyday life of mankind.

One of Hawthorne's earliest admirers was Miss Sophia Peabody, a lady of Salem, whom he married in the summer of 1842. He made himself a new home in an old manse, at Concord, Mass., situated on historic ground, in sight of an old revolutionary battlefield, and devoted himself diligently to literature. He was known to the few by his _Twice-told Tales_, and to the many by his papers in the _Democratic Review_. He published in 1842 a further portion of _Grandfather's Chair_, and also a second volume of _Twice-told Tales_. He also edited, during 1845, the _African Journals_ of Horatio Bridge, an officer of the navy, who had been at college with him; and in the following year he published in two volumes a collection of his later writings, under the title of _Mosses from an Old Manse_.

After a residence of nearly four years at Concord, Hawthorne returned to Salem, having been appointed surveyor of the custom-house of that port by a new Democratic administration. He filled the duties of this position until the incoming of the Whig administration again led to his retirement. He seems to have written little during his official term, but, as he had leisure enough and to spare, he read much, and pondered over subjects for future stories. His next work, _The Scarlet Letter_, which was begun after his removal from the custom-house, was published in 1850. If there had been any doubt of his genius before, it was settled for ever by this powerful romance.

Shortly after the publication of _The Scarlet Letter_ Hawthorne removed from Salem to Lenox, Berkshire, Mass., where he wrote _The House of the Seven Gables_ (1851) and _The Wonder-Book_ (1851). From Lenox he removed to West Newton, near Boston, Mass., where he wrote _The Blithedale Romance_ (1852) and _The Snow Image and other Twice-told Tales_ (1852). In the spring of 1852 he removed back to Concord, where he purchased an old house which he called The Wayside, and where he wrote a _Life of Franklin Pierce_ (1852) and _Tanglewood Tales_ (1853). Mr Pierce was the Democratic candidate for the presidency, and it was only at his urgent solicitation that Hawthorne consented to become his biographer. He declared that he would accept no office in case he were elected, lest it might compromise him; but his friends gave him such weighty reasons for reconsidering his decision that he accepted the consulate at Liverpool, which was understood to be one of the best gifts at the disposal of the president.

Hawthorne departed for Europe in the summer of 1853, and returned to the United States in the summer of 1860. Of the seven years which he passed in Europe five were spent in attending to the duties of his consulate at Liverpool, and in little journeys to Scotland, the Lakes and elsewhere, and the remaining two in France and Italy. They were quiet and uneventful, coloured by observation and reflection, as his note-books show, but productive of only one elaborate work, _Transformation, or The Marble Faun_, which he sketched out during his residence in Italy, and prepared for the press at Leamington, England, whence it was despatched to America and published in 1860.

Hawthorne took up his abode at The Wayside, not much richer than when he left it, and sat down at his desk once more with a heavy heart. He was surrounded by the throes of a great civil war, and the political party with which he had always acted was under a cloud. His friend ex-President Pierce was stigmatized as a traitor, and when Hawthorne dedicated his next book to him--a volume of English impressions entitled _Our Old Home_ (1863)--it was at the risk of his own popularity. His pen was soon to be laid aside for ever; for, with the exception of the unfinished story of _Septimius Felton_, which was published after his death by his daughter Una (1872), and the fragment of _The Dolliver Romance_, the beginning of which was published in the _Atlantic Monthly_ in July 1864, he wrote no more. His health gradually declined, his hair grew white as snow, and the once stalwart figure that in early manhood flashed along the airy cliffs and glittering sands sauntered idly on the little hill behind his house. In the beginning of April 1864 he made a short southern tour with his publisher Mr William D. Ticknor, and was benefited by the change of scene until he reached Philadelphia, where he was shocked by the sudden death of Mr Ticknor. He returned to The Wayside, and after a short season of rest joined his friend ex-President Pierce. He died at Plymouth, New Hampshire, on the 19th of May 1864, and five days later was buried at Sleepy Hollow, a beautiful cemetery at Concord, where he used to walk under the pines when he was living at the Old Manse, and where his ashes moulder under a simple stone, inscribed with the single word "Hawthorne."

The writings of Hawthorne are marked by subtle imagination, curious power of analysis and exquisite purity of diction. He studied exceptional developments of character, and was fond of exploring secret crypts of emotion. His shorter stories are remarkable for originality and suggestiveness, and his larger ones are as absolute creations as _Hamlet_ or _Undine_. Lacking the accomplishment of verse, he was in the highest sense a poet. His work is pervaded by a manly personality, and by an almost feminine delicacy and gentleness. He inherited the gravity of his Puritan ancestors without their superstition, and learned in his solitary meditations a knowledge of the night-side of life which would have filled them with suspicion. A profound anatomist of the heart, he was singularly free from morbidness, and in his darkest speculations concerning evil was robustly right-minded. He worshipped conscience with his intellectual as well as his moral nature; it is supreme in all he wrote. Besides these mental traits, he possessed the literary quality of style--a grace, a charm, a perfection of language which no other American writer ever possessed in the same degree, and which places him among the great masters of English prose.

His _Complete Writings_ (22 vols., Boston, 1901) were edited, with
introduction, including a bibliography, by H. S. Scudder. The standard
authority for Hawthorne's biography is _Nathaniel Hawthorne and his
Wife_ (2 vols., Boston, 1884), by his son Julian Hawthorne (b. 1846),
himself a novelist and critic of distinction. See also Henry James,
_Hawthorne_ (London, 1879), in the "English Men of Letters" series;
Julian Hawthorne, _Hawthorne and his Circle_ (New York, 1903); a paper
in R. H. Hutton's _Essays Theological and Literary_ (London, 1871);
George B. Smith, _Poets and Novelists_ (London, 1875); Moncure D.
Conway, _Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne_ (London, 1890, in the "Great
Writers" series); Horatio Bridge, _Personal Recollections of Nathaniel
Hawthorne_ (New York, 1893); Rose Hawthorne Lathrop, _Memories of
Hawthorne_ (Boston, 1897); W. C. Lawton, _The New England Poets_ (New
York, 1898); Sir L. Stephen, _Hours in a Library_ (1874); Annie
Fields, _Nathaniel Hawthorne_ (Boston, 1899); G. E. Woodberry, _Life
of Hawthorne_ (1902); and bibliography by N. E. Browne (1905).
(R. H. S.)

HAWTREY, CHARLES HENRY (1858- ), English actor, was born at Eton, where his father was master of the lower school, and educated at Rugby and Oxford. He took to the stage in 1881, and in 1883 adapted von Moser's _Bibliothekar_ as _The Private Secretary_, which had an enormous success. He then appeared in London in a number of modern plays, in which he was conspicuous as a comedian. He was unapproachable for parts in which cool imperturbable lying constituted the leading characteristic. Among his later successes _A Message from Mars_ was particularly popular in London and in America.

HAWTREY, EDWARD CRAVEN (1789-1862), English educationalist, was born at Burnham on the 7th of May 1789, the son of the vicar of the parish. He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, and in 1814 was appointed assistant master at Eton under Dr Keate. In 1834 he became headmaster of the college, and his administration was a vigorous one. New buildings were erected, including the school library and the sanatorium, the college chapel was restored, the Old Christopher Inn was closed, and the custom of "Montem," the collection by street begging of funds for the university expenses of the captain of the school, was suppressed. He is supposed to have suggested the prince consort's modern language prizes, while the prize for English essay he founded himself. In 1852 he became provost of Eton, and in 1854 vicar of Mapledurham. He died on the 27th of January 1862, and was buried in the Eton College chapel. On account of his command of languages ancient and modern, he was known in London as "the English Mezzofanti," and he was a book collector of the finest taste. Among his own books are some excellent translations from the English into Italian, German and Greek. He had a considerable reputation as a writer of English hexameters and as a judge of Homeric translation.

HAXO, FRANCOIS NICOLAS BENOIT, Baron (1774-1838), French general and military engineer, was born at Luneville on the 24th of June 1774, and entered the Engineers in 1793. He remained unknown, doing duty as a regimental officer for many years, until, as major, he had his first chance of distinction in the second siege of Saragossa in 1809, after which Napoleon made him a colonel. Haxo took part in the campaign of Wagram, and then returned to the Peninsula to direct the siege operations of Suchet's army in Catalonia and Valencia. In 1810 he was made general of brigade, in 1811 a baron, and in the same year he was employed in preparing the occupied fortresses of Germany against a possible Russian invasion. In 1812 he was chief engineer of Davout's I. corps, and after the retreat from Moscow he was made general of division. In 1813 he constructed the works around Hamburg which made possible the famous defence of that fortress by Davout, and commanded the Guard Engineers until he fell into the enemy's hands at Kulm. After the Restoration Louis XVIII. wished to give Haxo a command in the Royal Guards, but the general remained faithful to Napoleon, and in the Hundred Days laid out the provisional fortifications of Paris and fought at Waterloo. It was, however, after the second Restoration that the best work of his career as a military engineer was done. As inspector-general he managed, though not without meeting considerable opposition, to reconstruct in accordance with the requirements of the time, and the designs which he had evolved to meet them, the old Vauban and Cormontaigne fortresses which had failed to check the invasions of 1814 and 1815. For his services he was made a peer of France by Louis Philippe (1832). Soon after this came the French intervention in Belgium and the famous scientific siege of Antwerp citadel. Under Marshal Gerard Haxo directed the besiegers and completely outmatched the opposing engineers, the fortress being reduced to surrender after a siege of a little more than three weeks (December 23, 1832). He was after this regarded as the first engineer in Europe, and his latter years were spent in urging upon the government and the French people the fortification of Paris and Lyons, a project which was partly realized in his time and after his death fully carried out. General Haxo died at Paris on the 25th of June 1838. He wrote _Memoire sur le figure du terrain dans les cartes topographiques_ (Paris, N.D.), and a memoir of General Dejean (1824).

HAXTHAUSEN, AUGUST FRANZ LUDWIG MARIA, FREIHERR VON (1792-1866), German political economist, was born near Paderborn in Westphalia on the 3rd of February 1792. Having studied at the school of mining at Klausthal, and having served in the Hanoverian army, he entered the university of Gottingen in 1815. Finishing his course there in 1818 he was engaged in managing his estates and in studying the land laws. The result of his studies appeared in 1829 when he published _Uber die Agrarverfassung in den Furstentumern Paderborn und Corvey_, a work which attracted much attention and which procured for its author a commission to investigate and report upon the land laws of the Prussian provinces with a view to a new code. After nine years of labour he published in 1839 an exhaustive treatise, _Die landliche Verfassung in der Provinz Preussen_, and in 1843, at the request of the emperor Nicholas, he undertook a similar work for Russia, the fruits of his investigations in that country being contained in his _Studien uber die innern Zustande des Volkslebens, und insbesondere die landlichen Einrichtungen Russlands_ (Hanover, 1847-1852). He received various honours, was a member of the combined diet in Berlin in 1847 and 1848, and afterwards of the Prussian upper house. Haxthausen died at Hanover on the 31st of December 1866.

In addition to the works already mentioned he wrote _Die landliche
Verfassung Russlands_ (Leipzig, 1866). His _Studien_ has been
translated into French and into English by R. Farie as _The Russian
Empire_ (1856). Other works of his which have appeared in English are:
_Transcaucasia; Sketches of the Nations and Races between the Black
Sea and the Caspian_ (1854), and _The Tribes of the Caucasus_ (1855).
Haxthausen edited _Das konstitutionelle Prinzip_ (Leipzig, 1864), a
collection of political writings by various authors, which has been
translated into French (1865).

HAY, GEORGE (1729-1811), Scottish Roman Catholic divine, was born at Edinburgh on the 24th of August 1729. He was accused of sympathizing with the rebellion of 1745 and served a term of imprisonment 1746-1747. He then entered the Roman Catholic Church, studied in the Scots College at Rome, and in 1759 accompanied John Geddes (1735-1799), afterwards bishop of Morocco, on a Scottish mission. Ten years later he was appointed bishop of Daulis _in partibus_ and coadjutor to Bishop James Grant (1706-1778). In 1778 he became vicar apostolic of the lowland district. During the Protestant riots in Edinburgh in 1779 his furniture and library were destroyed by fire. From 1788 to 1793 he was in charge of the Scalan seminary; in 1802 he retired to that of Aquhorties near Inverury which he had founded in 1799. He died there on the 15th of October 1811.

His theological works, including _The Sincere Christian, The Devout
Christian, The Pious Christian_ and _The Scripture Doctrine of
Miracles_, were edited by Bishop Strain in 1871-1873.

HAY, GILBERT, or "SIR GILBERT THE HAYE" (fl. 1450), Scottish poet and translator, was perhaps a kinsman of the house of Errol. If he be the student named in the registers of the university of St Andrews in 1418-1419, his birth may be fixed about 1403. He was in France in 1432, perhaps some years earlier, for a "Gilbert de la Haye" is mentioned as present at Reims, in July 1430, at the coronation of Charles VII. He has left it on record, in the Prologue to his _Buke of the Law of Armys_, that he was "chaumerlayn umquhyle to the maist worthy King Charles of France." In 1456 he was back in Scotland, in the service of the chancellor, William, earl of Orkney and Caithness, "in his castell of Rosselyn," south of Edinburgh. The date of his death is unknown.

Hay is named by Dunbar (q.v.) in his _Lament for the Makaris_, and by Sir David Lyndsay (q.v.) in his _Testament and Complaynt of the Papyngo_. His only political work is _The Buik of Alexander the Conquerour_, of which a portion, in copy, remains at Taymouth Castle. He has left three translations, extant in one volume (in old binding) in the collection of Abbotsford: (_a_) _The Buke of the Law of Armys_ or _The Buke of Bataillis_, a translation of Honore Bonet's _Arbre des batailles_; (_b_) _The Buke of the Order of Knichthood_ from the _Livre de l'ordre de chevalerie_; and (_c_) _The Buke of the Governaunce of Princes_, from a French version of the pseudo-Aristotelian _Secreta secretorum_. The second of these precedes Caxton's independent translation by at least ten years.

For the _Buik of Alexander_ see Albert Herrmann's _The Taymouth Castle
MS. of Sir Gilbert Hay's Buik, &c._ (Berlin, 1898). The complete
Abbotsford MS. has been reprinted by the Scottish Text Society (ed. J.
H. Stevenson). The first volume, containing _The Buke of the Law of
Armys_, appeared in 1901. _The Order of Knichthood_ was printed by
David Laing for the Abbotsford Club (1847). See also S.T.S. edition
(u.s.) "Introduction" and Gregory Smith's _Specimens of Middle Scots_,
in which annotated extracts are given from the Abbotsford MS., the
oldest known example of literary Scots prose.

HAY, JOHN (1838-1905), American statesman and author, was born at Salem, Indiana, on the 8th of October 1838. He graduated from Brown University in 1858, studied law in the office of Abraham Lincoln, was admitted to the bar in Springfield, Illinois, in 1861, and soon afterwards was selected by President Lincoln as assistant private secretary, in which capacity he served till the president's death, being associated with John George Nicolay (1832-1901). Hay was secretary of the U.S. legation at Paris in 1865-1867, at Vienna in 1867-1869 and at Madrid in 1869-1870. After his return he was for five years an editorial writer on the New York _Tribune_; in 1879-1881 he was first assistant secretary of state to W. M. Evarts; and in 1881 was a delegate to the International Sanitary Conference, which met in Washington, D.C., and of which he was chosen president. Upon the inauguration of President McKinley in 1897 Hay was appointed ambassador to Great Britain, from which post he was transferred in 1898 to that of secretary of state, succeeding W. R. Day, who was sent to Paris as a member of the Peace Conference. He remained in this office until his death at Newburg, New Hampshire, on the 1st of July 1905. He directed the peace negotiations with Spain after the war of 1898, and not only secured American interests in the imbroglio caused by the Boxers in China, but grasped the opportunity to insist on "the administrative entity" of China; influenced the powers to declare publicly for the "open door" in China; challenged Russia as to her intentions in Manchuria, securing a promise to evacuate the country on the 8th of October 1903; and in 1904 again urged "the administrative entity" of China and took the initiative in inducing Russia and Japan to "localize and limit" the area of hostilities. It was largely due to his tact and good management, in concert with Lord Pauncefote, the British ambassador, that negotiations for abrogating the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and for making a new treaty with Great Britain regarding the Isthmian Canal were successfully concluded at the end of 1901; subsequently he negotiated treaties with Colombia and with Panama, looking towards the construction by the United States of a trans-isthmian canal. He also arranged the settlement of difficulties with Germany over Samoa in December 1899, and the settlement, by joint commission, of the question concerning the disputed Alaskan boundary in 1903. John Hay was a man of quiet and unassuming disposition, whose training in diplomacy gave a cool and judicious character to his statesmanship. As secretary of state under Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt his guidance was invaluable during a rather critical period in foreign affairs, and no man of his time did more to create confidence in the increased interest taken by the United States in international matters. He also represented, in another capacity, the best American traditions--namely in literature. He published _Pike County Ballads_ (1871)--the most famous being "Little Breeches"--a volume worthy to rank with Bret Harte, if not with the Lowell of the _Biglow Papers; Castilian Days_ (1871), recording his observations in Spain; and a volume of _Poems_ (1890); with John G. Nicolay he wrote _Abraham Lincoln: A History_ (10 vols., 1890), a monumental work indispensable to the student of the Civil War period in America, and published an edition of Lincoln's _Complete Works_ (2 vols., 1894). The authorship of the brilliant novel _The Breadwinners_ (1883) is now certainly attributed to him. Hay was an excellent public speaker: some of his best addresses are _In Praise of Omar; On the Unveiling of the Bust of Sir Walter Scott in Westminster Abbey_, May 21, 1897; and a memorial address in honour of President McKinley.

The best of his previously unpublished speeches appeared in _Addresses
of John Hay_ (1906).

HAY, a town of Waradgery county, New South Wales, Australia, on the Murrumbidgee river, 454 m. by rail W.S.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901), 3012. It is the cathedral town of the Anglican diocese of Riverina, the terminus of the South Western railway, and the principal depot for the wool produced at the numerous stations on the banks of the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan rivers.

HAY, a market town and urban district of Breconshire, south Wales, on the Hereford and Brecon section of the Midland railway, 164(1/2) m. from London, 20 m. W. of Hereford and 17 m. N.E. of Brecon by rail. Pop. (1901), 1680. The Golden Valley railway to Pontrilas (18(3/4) m.), now a branch of the Great Western, also starts from Hay. The town occupies rising ground on the south (right) bank of the Wye, which here separates the counties of Brecknock and Radnor but immediately below enters Herefordshire, from which the town is separated on the E. by the river Dulas.

Leland and Camden ascribe a Roman origin to the town, and the former states that quantities of Roman coin (called by the country people "Jews' money") and some pottery had been found near by, but of this no other record is known. The Wye valley in this district served as the gate between the present counties of Brecknock and Hereford, and, though Welsh continued for two or three centuries after the Norman Conquest to be the spoken language of the adjoining part of Herefordshire south of the Wye (known as Archenfield), there must have been a "burh" serving as a Mercian outpost at Glasbury, 4 m. W. of Hay, which was itself several miles west of Offa's Dyke. But the earliest settlement at Hay probably dates from the Norman conquest of the district by Bernard Newmarch about 1088 (in which year he granted Glasbury, probably as the first fruits of his invasion, to St Peter's, Gloucester). The manor of Hay, which probably corresponded to some existing Welsh division, he gave to Sir Philip Walwyn, but it soon reverted to the donor, and its subsequent devolution down to its forfeiture to the crown as part of the duke of Buckingham's estate in 1521, was identical with that of the lordship of Brecknock (see BRECONSHIRE). The castle, which was probably built in Newmarch's time and rebuilt by his great-grandson William de Breos, passed on the latter's attainder to the crown, but was again seized by de Breos's second son, Giles, bishop of Hereford, in 1215, and retaken by King John in the following year. In 1231 it was burnt by Llewelyn ab Iorwerth, and in the Barons' War it was taken in 1263 by Prince Edward, but in the following year was burnt by Simon Montfort and the last Llewelyn. From the 16th century the castle has been used as a private residence.

The Welsh name of the town is Y Gelli ("the wood"), or formerly in full (Y) Gelli ganddryll (literally "the wood all to pieces"), which roughly corresponds to _Sepes Inscissa_, by which name Walter Map (a native of the district) designates it. Its Norman name, La Haia (from the Fr. _haie_, cf. English "hedge"), was probably intended as a translation of Gelli. The same word is found in Urishay and Oldhay, both between Hay and the Golden Valley. The town is still locally called _the_ Hay, as it also is by Leland.

Even down to Leland's time Hay was surrounded by a "right strong wall," which had three gates and a postern, but the town within the wall has "wonderfully decayed," its ruin being ascribed to Owen Glendower, while to the west of it was a flourishing suburb with the church of St Mary on a precipitous eminence overlooking the river. This was rebuilt in 1834. The old parish church of St John within the walls, used as a school-house in the 17th century, has entirely disappeared. The Baptists, Calvinistic Methodists, Congregationalists and Primitive Methodists have a chapel each. The other public buildings are the market house (1833); a masonic hall, formerly the town hall, its basement still serving as a cheese market; a clock tower (1884); parish hall (1890); and a drill hall. The Wye is here crossed by an iron bridge built in 1864. There are also eighteen almshouses for poor women, built and endowed by Miss Frances Harley in 1832-1836, and Gwyn's almshouses for six aged persons, founded in 1702 and rebuilt in 1878.

Scarcely anything but provisions are sold in the weekly market, the farmers of the district now resorting to the markets of Brecon and Hereford. There are good monthly stock fairs and a hiring fair in May. There is rich agricultural land in the district.

Hay was reputed to be a borough by prescription, but it never had any municipal institutions. Its manor, like that of Talgarth, consisted of an Englishry and a Welshery, the latter, known as Haya Wallensis, comprising the parish of Llanigon with the hamlet of Glynfach, and in this Welsh tenures and customs prevailed. The manor is specially mentioned in the act of Henry VIII. (1535) as one of those which were then taken to constitute the new county of Brecknock. (D. Ll. T.)

HAY (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Heu_, Dutch _hooi;_ the root from which it is derived, meaning "to cut," is also seen in "to hew"; cf. "hoe"), grass mown and dried in the sun and used as fodder for cattle. It is properly applied only to the grass when cut, but is often also used of the standing crop. (See _Haymaking_ below). Another word "hay," meaning a fence, must be distinguished; the root from which it is derived is seen in its doublet "hedge," cf. "haw-thorn," i.e. "hedge thorn." In this sense it survives in legal history in "hay bote," _i.e._ hedge-bote, the right of a tenant, copyholder, &c. to take wood to repair fences, hedges, &c. (see ESTOVERS), and also in "hayward," an official of a manor whose duty was to protect the enclosed lands from cattle breaking out of the common land.

_Haymaking._--The term "haymaking" signifies the process of drying and curing grass or other herbage so as to fit it for storage in stacks or sheds for future use. As a regular part of farm work it was unknown in ancient times. Before its introduction into Great Britain the animals intended for beef and mutton were slaughtered in autumn and salted down; the others were turned out to fend for themselves, and often lost all the fat in winter they had gained the previous summer. The introduction of haymaking gave unlimited scope for the production of winter food, and improved treatment of live stock became possible.

Though every country has its own methods of haymaking, the principal stages in the process everywhere are: (1) mowing, (2) drying or "making," (3) "carrying" and storage in stacks or sheds.