Chapter M: T. M (12)

HAUGHTON, WILLIAM (fl. 1598), English playwright. He collaborated in many plays with Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker, John Day and Richard Hathway. The only certain biographical information about him is derived from Philip Henslowe, who on the 10th of March 1600 lent him ten shillings "to release him out of the Clink." Mr Fleay credits him with a considerable share in _The Patient Grissill_ (1599), and a merry comedy entitled _English-Men for my Money, or A Woman will have her Will_ (1598) is ascribed to his sole authorship. _The Devil and his Dame_, mentioned as a forthcoming play by Henslowe in March 1600, is identified by Mr Fleay as _Grim, the Collier of Croydon_, which was printed in 1662. In this play an emissary is sent from the infernal regions to report on the conditions of married life on earth.

_Grim_ is reprinted in vol. viii., and _English-Men for my Money_ in
vol. x., of W. C. Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley's _Old Plays_.

HAUGWITZ, CHRISTIAN AUGUST HEINRICH KURT, COUNT VON, FREIHERR VON KRAPPITZ (1752-1831), Prussian statesman, was born on the 11th of June 1752, at Peucke near Ols. He belonged to the Silesian (Protestant) branch of the ancient family of Haugwitz, of which the Catholic branch is established in Moravia. He studied law, spent some time in Italy, returned to settle on his estates in Silesia, and in 1791 was elected by the Silesian estates general director of the province. At the urgent instance of King Frederick William II. he entered the Prussian service, became ambassador at Vienna in 1792 and at the end of the same year a member of the cabinet at Berlin.

Haugwitz, who had attended the young emperor Francis II. at his coronation and been present at the conferences held at Mainz to consider the attitude of the German powers towards the Revolution, was opposed to the exaggerated attitude of the French _emigres_ and to any interference in the internal affairs of France. After the war broke out, however, the defiant temper of the Committee of Public Safety made an honourable peace impossible, while the strained relations between Austria and Prussia on the question of territorial "compensations" crippled the power of the Allies to carry the war to a successful conclusion. It was in these circumstances that Haugwitz entered on the negotiations that resulted in the subsidy treaty between Great Britain and Prussia, and Great Britain and Holland, signed at the Hague on the 19th of April 1794. Haugwitz, however, was not the man to direct a strong and aggressive policy; the failure of Prussia to make any effective use of the money supplied broke the patience of Pitt, and in October the denunciation by Great Britain of the Hague treaty broke the last tie that bound Prussia to the Coalition. The separate treaty with France, signed at Basel on the 5th of April 1795, was mainly due to the influence of Haugwitz.

His object was now to save the provinces on the left bank of the Rhine from being lost to the Empire. No guarantee of their maintenance had been inserted in the Basel treaty; but Haugwitz and the king hoped to preserve them by establishing the armed neutrality of North Germany and securing its recognition by the French Republic. This policy was rendered futile by the victories of Napoleon Bonaparte and the virtual conquest of South Germany by the French. Haugwitz, who had continued to enjoy the confidence of the new king, Frederick William III., recognized this fact, and urged his master to join the new Coalition in 1798. But the king clung blindly to the illusion of neutrality, and Haugwitz allowed himself to be made the instrument of a policy of which he increasingly disapproved. It was not till 1803, when the king refused his urgent advice to demand the evacuation of Hanover by the French, that he tendered his resignation. In August 1804 he was definitely replaced by Hardenberg, and retired to his estates.

In his retirement Haugwitz was still consulted, and he used all his influence against Hardenberg's policy of a _rapprochement_ with France. His representations had little weight, however, until Napoleon's high-handed action in violating Prussian territory by marching troops through Ansbach, roused the anger of the king. Haugwitz was now once more appointed foreign minister, as Hardenberg's colleague, and it was he who was charged to carry to Napoleon the Prussian ultimatum which was the outcome of the visit of the tsar Alexander I. to Berlin in November. But in this crisis his courage failed him; his nature was one that ever let "I dare not wait upon I will"; he delayed his journey pending some turn in events and to give time for the mobilization of the duke of Brunswick's army; he was frightened by reports of separate negotiations between Austria and Napoleon, not realizing that a bold declaration by Prussia would nip them in the bud. Napoleon, when at last they met, read him like a book and humoured his diplomatic weakness until the whole issue was decided at Austerlitz. On the 15th of December, instead of delivering an ultimatum, Haugwitz signed at Schonbrunn the treaty which gave Hanover to Prussia in return for Ansbach, Cleves and Neuchatel.

The humiliation of Prussia and her minister was, however, not yet complete. In February 1806 Haugwitz went to Paris to ratify the treaty of Schonbrunn and to attempt to secure some modifications in favour of Prussia. He was received with a storm of abuse by Napoleon, who insisted on tearing up the treaty and drawing up a fresh one, which doubled the amount of territory to be ceded by Prussia and forced her to a breach with Great Britain by binding her to close the Hanoverian ports to British commerce. The treaty, signed on the 15th of February, left Prussia wholly isolated in Europe. What followed belongs to the history of Europe rather than to the biography of Haugwitz. He remained, indeed, at the head of the Prussian ministry of foreign affairs, but the course of Prussian policy it was beyond his power to control. The Prussian ultimatum to Napoleon was forced upon him by overwhelming circumstances, and with the battle of Jena, on the 14th of October, his political career came to an end. He accompanied the flight of the king into East Prussia, there took leave of him and retired to his Silesian estates. In 1811 he was appointed _Curator_ of the university of Breslau; in 1820, owing to failing health, he went to live in Italy, where he remained till his death at Venice in 1831.

Haugwitz was a man of great intellectual gifts, of dignified presence and a charming address which endeared him to his sovereigns and his colleagues; but as a statesman he failed, not through want of perspicacity, but through lack of will power and a fatal habit of procrastination. During his retirement in Italy he wrote memoirs in justification of his policy, a fragment of which dealing with the episode of the treaty of Schonbrunn was published at Jena in 1837.

See J. von Minutoli, _Der Graf von Haugwitz und Job von Witzleben_
(Berlin, 1844); L. von Ranke, _Hardenberg u. d. Gesch. des preuss.
Staates_ (Leipzig, 1879-1881), note on Haugwitz's memoirs in vol. ii.;
_Denkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fursten von Hardenberg_, ed.
Ranke (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); A. Sorel, _L'Europe et la Revol.
Franc., passim_.

HAUNTINGS (from "to haunt," Fr. _hanter_, of uncertain origin, but possibly from Lat. _ambitare_, _ambire_, to go about, frequent), the supposed manifestations of existence by spirits of the dead in houses or places familiar to them in life. The savage practice of tying up the corpse before burying it is clearly intended to prevent the dead from "walking"; and cremation, whether in savage lands or in classical times, may have originally had the same motive. The "spirit" manifests himself, as a rule, either in his bodily form, as when he lived, or in the shape of some animal, or by disturbing noises, as in the case of the poltergeist (q.v.). Classical examples occur in Plautus (_Mostellaria_), Lucian (_Philopseudes_), Pliny, Suetonius, St Augustine, St Gregory, Plutarch and elsewhere, while Lucretius has his theory of apparitions of the dead. He does not deny the fact; he explains it by "films" diffused from the living body and persisting in the atmosphere.

A somewhat similar hypothesis, to account for certain alleged phenomena, was invented by Mr Edmund Gurney. Some visionary appearances in haunted houses do not suggest the idea of an ambulatory spirit, but rather of the photograph of a past event, impressed we know not how on we know not what. In this theory there is no room for the agency of spirits of the dead. The belief in hauntings was naturally persistent through the middle ages, and example and theory abound in the _Loca infesta_ (Cologne, 1598) of Petrus Thyraeus, S.J.; Wierius (c. 1560), in _De praestigiis daemonum_, is in the same tale. According to Thyraeus, hauntings appeal to the senses of sight, hearing and touch. The auditory phenomena are mainly thumping noises, sounds of footsteps, laughing and moaning. Rackets in general are caused by _lares domestici_ ("brownies") or the Poltergeist. In the tactile way ghosts _push_ the living; "I have been thrice pushed by an invisible power," writes the Rev. Samuel Wesley, in 1717, in his narrative of the disturbances at his rectory at Epworth. Once he was pushed against the corner of his desk in the study; once up against the door of the matted chamber; and thirdly, "against the right-hand side of the frame of my study door, as I was going in." We have thus Protestant corroboration of the statement of the learned Jesuit.

Thyraeus raises the question, Are the experiences hallucinatory? Did Mr Wesley (to take his case) receive a mere hallucinatory set of pushes? Was the hair of a friend of the writer's, who occupied a haunted house, only pulled in a subjective way? Thyraeus remarks that, in cases of noisy phenomena, not all persons present hear them; and, rather curiously, Mr Wesley records the same experience; he sometimes did not hear sounds that seemed violently loud to his wife and family, who were with him at prayers. Thyraeus says that, as collective hallucinations of sight are rare--all present not usually seeing the apparition--so audible phenomena are not always experienced by all persons present. In such cases, he thinks that the sights and sounds have no external cause, he regards the sights and sounds as delusions--caused by spirits. This is a difficult question. He mentions that we hear all the furniture being tossed about (as Sir Walter and Lady Scott heard it at Abbotsford; see Lockhart's _Life_, v. 311-315). Yet, on inspection, we find all the furniture in its proper place. There is abundant evidence to experience of this phenomenon, which remains as inexplicable as it was in the days of Thyraeus. When the sounds are heard, has the atmosphere vibrated, or has the impression only been made on "the inner ear"? In reply, Mr. Procter, who for sixteen years (1831-1847) endured the unexplained disturbances at Willington Mill, avers that the material objects on which the knocks appeared to be struck did certainly vibrate (see POLTERGEIST). Is then the felt vibration part of the hallucination?

As for visual phenomena, "ghosts," Thyraeus does not regard them as space-filling entities, but as hallucinations imposed by spirits on the human senses; the spirit, in each case, not being necessarily the soul of the dead man or woman whom the phantasm represents.

In the matter of alleged hauntings, the symptoms, the phenomena, to-day, are exactly the same as those recorded by Thyraeus. The belief in them is so far a living thing that it greatly lowers the letting value of a house when it is reported to be haunted. (An action for libelling a house as haunted was reported in the London newspapers of the 7th of March 1907). It is true that ancient family legends of haunts are gloried in by the inheritors of stately homes in England, or castles in Scotland, and to discredit the traditional ghost--in the days of Sir Walter Scott--was to come within measurable distance of a duel. But the time-honoured phantasms of old houses usually survive only in the memory of "the oldest aunt telling the saddest tale." Their historical basis can no more endure criticism than does the family portrait of Queen Mary,--signed by Medina about 1750-1770, and described by the family as "given to our ancestor by the Queen herself." After many years' experience of a baronial dwelling credited with seven distinct and separate phantasms, not one of which was ever seen by hosts, guests or domestics, scepticism as regards traditional ghosts is excusable. Legend reports that they punctually appear on the anniversaries of their misfortunes, but no evidence of such punctuality has been produced.

The Society for Psychical Research has investigated hundreds of cases of the alleged haunting of houses, and the reports are in the archives of the society. But, as the mere rumour of a haunt greatly lowers the value of a house, it is seldom possible to publish the names of the witnesses, and hardly ever permitted to publish the name of the house. From the point of view of science this is unfortunate (see _Proceedings S.P.R._ vol. viii. pp. 311-332 and _Proceedings_ of 1882-1883, 1883-1884). As far as inquiry had any results, they were to the following effect. The spectres were of the most shy and fugitive kind, seen now by one person, now by another, crossing a room, walking along a corridor, and entering chambers in which, on inspection, they were not found. There was almost never any story to account for the appearances, as in magazine ghost-stories, and, if story there were, it lacked evidence. Recognitions of known dead persons were infrequent; occasionally there was recognition of a portrait in the house. The apparitions spoke in only one or two recorded cases, and, as a rule, seemed to have no motive for appearing. The "ghost" resembles nothing so much as a somnambulist, or the dream-walk of one living person made visible, telepathically, to another living person. Almost the only sign of consciousness given by the appearances is their shyness; on being spoken to or approached they generally vanish. Not infrequently they are taken, at first sight, for living human beings. In darkness they are often luminous, otherwise they would be invisible! Unexplained noises often, but not always, occur in houses where these phenomena are perceived. Evidence is only good, approximately, when a series of persons, in the same house, behold the same appearance, without being aware that it has previously been seen by others. Naturally it is almost impossible to prove this ignorance.

When inquirers believe that the appearances are due to the agency of spirits of the dead, they usually suppose the method to be a telepathic impact on the mind of the living by some "mere automatic projection from a consciousness which has its centre elsewhere" (Myers, _Proceedings S.P.R._ vol. xv. p. 64). Myers, in _Human Personality_, fell back on "palaeolithic psychology," and a theory of a phantasmogenetic agency producing a phantasm which had some actual relation to space. But space forbids us to give examples of modern experiences in haunted houses, endured by persons sane, healthy and well educated. The cases, abundantly offered in _Proceedings S.P.R._, suggest that certain localities, more than others, are "centres of permanent possibilities of being hallucinated in a manner more or less uniform." The causes of this fact (if causes there be, beyond a casual hallucination or illusion of A, which, when reported, begets by suggestion, or, when not reported, by telepathy, hallucinations in B, C, D and E), remain unknown (_Proceedings S.P.R._ vol. viii. p. 133 et seq.). Mr Podmore proposed this hypothesis of causation, which was not accepted by Myers; he thought that the theory laid too heavy a burden on telepathy and suggestion. Neither cause, nor any other cause of similar results, ever affects members of the S.P.R. who may be sent to dwell in haunted houses. They have no weird experiences, except when they are visionaries who see phantoms wherever they go. (A. L.)

HAUPT, MORITZ (1808-1874), German philologist, was born at Zittau, in Lusatia, on the 27th of July 1808. His early education was mainly conducted by his father, Ernst Friedrich Haupt, burgomaster of Zittau, a man of good scholarly attainment, who used to take pleasure in turning German hymns or Goethe's poems into Latin, and whose memoranda were employed by G. Freytag in the 4th volume of his _Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit_. From the Zittau gymnasium, where he spent the five years 1821-1826, Haupt removed to the university of Leipzig with the intention of studying theology; but the natural bent of his mind and the influence of Professor G. Hermann soon turned all his energies in the direction of philosophy. On the close of his university course (1830) he returned to his father's house, and the next seven years were devoted to quiet work, not only at Greek, Latin and German, but at Old French, Provencal and Bohemian. He formed with Lachmann at Berlin a friendship which had great effect on his intellectual development. In September 1837 he "habilitated" at Leipzig as _Privatdozent_, and his first lectures, dealing with such diverse subjects as Catullus and the _Nibelungenlied_, indicated the twofold direction of his labours. A new chair of German language and literature being founded for his benefit, he became professor extraordinarius (1841) and then professor ordinarius (1843); and in 1842 he married Louise Hermann, the daughter of his master and colleague. But the peaceful and prosperous course opening out before him at the university of Leipzig was brought to a sudden close. Having taken part in 1849 with Otto Jahn and Theodor Mommsen in a political agitation for the maintenance of the imperial constitution, Haupt was deprived of his professorship by a decree of the 22nd of April 1851. Two years later, however, he was called to succeed Lachmann at the university of Berlin; and at the same time the Berlin academy, which had made him a corresponding member in 1841, elected him an ordinary member. For twenty-one years he continued to hold a prominent place among the scholars of the Prussian capital, making his presence felt, not only by the prestige of his erudition and the clearness of his intellect, but by the tirelessness of his energy and the ardent fearlessness of his temperament. He died, of heart disease, on the 5th of February 1874.

Haupt's critical work is distinguished by a happy union of the most
painstaking investigation with intrepidity of conjecture, and while in
his lectures and addresses he was frequently carried away by the
excitement of the moment, and made sharp and questionable attacks on
his opponents, in his writings he exhibits great self-control. The
results of many of his researches are altogether lost, because he
could not be prevailed upon to publish what fell much short of his own
high ideal of excellence. To the progress of classical scholarship he
contributed by _Quaestiones Catullianae_ (1837), _Observationes
criticae_ (1841), and editions of Ovid's _Halieutica_ and the
_Cynegetica_ of Gratius and Nemesianus (1838), of Catullus, Tibullus
and Propertius (3rd ed., 1868), of Horace (3rd ed., 1871) and of
Virgil (2nd ed., 1873). As early as 1836, with Hoffmann von
Fallersleben, he started the _Altdeutsche Blatter_, which in 1841 gave
place to the _Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum_, of which he
continued editor till his death. Hartmann von Aue's _Erec_ (1839) and
his _Lieder_, _Buchlein_ and _Der arme Heinrich_ (1842), Rudolf von
Ems's _Guter Gerhard_ (1840) and Conrad von Wurzburg's _Engelhard_
(1844) are the principal German works which he edited. To form a
collection of the French songs of the 16th century was one of his
favourite schemes, but a little volume published after his death,
_Franzosische Volkslieder_ (1877), is the only monument of his labours
in that direction. Three volumes of his _Opuscula_ were published at
Leipzig (1875-1877).

See Kirchhoff, "Gedachtnisrede," in _Abhandl. der Konigl. Akad. der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin_ (1875); Otto Belger, _Moritz Haupt als
Lehrer_ (1879); Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii. (1908).

HAUPTMANN, GERHART (1862- ), German dramatist, was born on the 15th of November 1862 at Obersalzbrunn in Silesia, the son of an hotel-keeper. From the village school of his native place he passed to the Realschule in Breslau, and was then sent to learn agriculture on his uncle's farm at Jauer. Having, however, no taste for country life, he soon returned to Breslau and entered the art school, intending to become a sculptor. He then studied at Jena, and spent the greater part of the years 1883 and 1884 in Italy. In May 1885 Hauptmann married and settled in Berlin, and, devoting himself henceforth entirely to literary work, soon attained a great reputation as one of the chief representatives of the modern drama. In 1891 he retired to Schreiberhau in Silesia. Hauptmann's first drama, _Vor Sonnenaufgang_ (1889) inaugurated the realistic movement in modern German literature; it was followed by _Das Friedensfest_ (1890), _Einsame Menschen_ (1891) and _Die Weber_ (1892), a powerful drama depicting the rising of the Silesian weavers in 1844. Of Hauptmann's subsequent work mention may be made of the comedies _Kollege Crampton_ (1892), Der Biberpelz (1893) and _Der rote Hahn_ (1901), a "dream poem," _Hannele_ (1893), and an historical drama _Florian Geyer_ (1895). He also wrote two tragedies of Silesian peasant life, _Fuhrmann Henschel_ (1898) and _Rose Berndt_ (1903), and the "dramatic fairy-tales" _Die versunkene Glocke_ (1897) and _Und Pippa tanzt_ (1905). Several of his works have been translated into English.

Biographies of Hauptmann and critical studies of his dramas have been
published by A. Bartels (1897); P. Schlenther (1898); and U. C.
Woerner (2nd ed., 1900). See also L. Benoist-Hanappier, _Le Drame
naturaliste en Allemagne_ (1905).

HAUPTMANN, MORITZ (1792-1868), German musical composer and writer, was born at Dresden, on the 13th of October 1792, and studied music under Scholz, Lanska, Grosse and Morlacchi, the rival of Weber. Afterwards he completed his education as a violinist and composer under Spohr, and till 1820 held various appointments in private families, varying his musical occupations with mathematical and other studies bearing chiefly on acoustics and kindred subjects. For a time also Hauptmann was employed as an architect, but all other pursuits gave place to music, and a grand tragic opera, _Mathilde_, belongs to the period just referred to. In 1822 he entered the orchestra of Cassel, again under Spohr's direction, and it was then that he first taught composition and musical theory to such men as Ferdinand David, Burgmuller, Kiel and others. His compositions at this time chiefly consisted of motets, masses, cantatas and songs. His opera _Mathilde_ was performed at Cassel with great success. In 1842 Hauptmann obtained the position of cantor at the Thomas-school of Leipzig (long previously occupied by the great Johann Sebastian Bach) together with that of professor at the conservatoire, and it was in this capacity that his unique gift as a teacher developed itself and was acknowledged by a crowd of enthusiastic and more or less distinguished pupils. He died on the 3rd of January 1868, and the universal regret felt at his death at Leipzig is said to have been all but equal to that caused by the loss of his friend Medelssohn many years before. Hauptmann's compositions are marked by symmetry and perfection of workmanship rather than by spontaneous invention.

Amongst his vocal compositions--by far the most important portion of
his work--may be mentioned two masses, choral songs for mixed voices
(_Op._ 32, 47), and numerous part songs. The results of his scientific
research were embodied in his book _Die Natur der Harmonik und Metrik_
(1853), a standard work of its kind, in which a philosophic
explanation of the forms of music is attempted.

HAUREAU, (JEAN) BARTHELEMY (1812-1896), French historian and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris. At the age of twenty he published a series of apologetic studies on the _Montagnards_. In later years he regretted the youthful enthusiasm of these papers, and endeavoured to destroy the copies. He joined the staff of the _National_, and was praised by Theophile Gautier as the "tribune" of romanticism. At that time he seemed to be destined to a political career, and, indeed, after the revolution of the 24th of February 1848 was elected member of the National Assembly; but close contact with revolutionary men and ideas gradually cooled his old ardour. Throughout his life he was an enemy to innovators, not only in politics and religion, but also in literature. This attitude sometimes led him to form unjust estimates, but only on very rare occasions, for his character was as just as his erudition was scrupulous. After the _coup d'etat_ he resigned his position as director of the MS. department of the Bibliotheque Nationale, to which he had been appointed in 1848, and he refused to accept any administrative post until after the fall of the empire. After having acted as director of the national printing press from 1870 to 1881, he retired, but in 1893 accepted the post of director of the Fondation Thiers. He was also a member of the council of improvement of the Ecole des Chartes. He died on the 29th of April 1896. For over half a century he was engaged in writing on the religious, philosophical, and more particularly the literary history of the middle ages. Appointed librarian of the town of Le Mans in 1838, he was first attracted by the history of Maine, and in 1843 published the first volume of his _Histoire litteraire du Maine_ (4 vols., 1843-1852), which he subsequently recast on a new plan (10 vols., 1870-1877). In 1845 he brought out an edition of vol. ii. of G. Menage's _Histoire de Sable_. He then undertook the continuation of the _Gallia Christiana_, and produced vol. xiv. (1856) for the province of Tours, vol. xv. (1862) for the province of Besancon, and vol. xvi. (1865-1870) for the province of Vienne. This important work gained him admission to the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1862). In the _Notices et extraits des manuscrits_ he inserted several papers which were afterwards published separately, with additions and corrections, under the title _Notices et extraits de quelques manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Nationale_ (6 vols., 1890-1893). To the _Histoire litteraire de la France_ he contributed a number of studies, among which must be mentioned that relating to the sermon-writers (vol. xxvi., 1873), whose works, being often anonymous, raise many problems of attribution, and, though deficient in originality of thought and style, reflect the very spirit of the middle ages. Among his other works mention must be made of his remarkable _Histoire de la philosophie scolastique_ (1872-1880), extending from the time of Charlemagne to the 13th century, which was expanded from a paper crowned by the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1850; _Les Melanges poetiques d'Hildebert de Lavardin_ (1882); an edition of the _Works_ of Hugh of St Victor (1886); a critical study of the Latin poems attributed to St Bernard (1890); and _Bernard Delicieux et l'inquisition albigeoise_ (1877). To these must be added his contributions to the _Dictionnaire des sciences philosophiques_, Didot's _Biographie generale_, the _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_, and the _Journal des savants_. From the time of his appointment to the Bibliotheque Nationale up to the last days of his life he was engaged in making abstracts of all the medieval Latin writings (many anonymous or of doubtful attribution) relating to philosophy, theology, grammar, canon law, and poetry, carefully noting on cards the first words of each passage. After his death this index of _incipits_, arranged alphabetically, was presented to the Academie des Inscriptions, and a copy was placed in the MS. department of the Bibliotheque Nationale.

See obituary notice read by Henri Wallon at a meeting of the Academie
des Inscriptions on the 12th of November 1897; and the notice by Paul
Meyer prefixed to vol. xxxiii. of the _Histoire litteraire de la
France_.

HAUSA, sometimes incorrectly written HAUSSA, HOUSSA or HAOUSSA, a people inhabiting about half a million square miles in the western and central Sudan from the river Niger in the west to Bornu in the east. Heinrich Barth identifies them with the Atarantians of Herodotus. According to their own traditions the earliest home of the race was the divide between the Sokoto and Chad basins, and more particularly the eastern watershed, whence they spread gradually westward. In the middle ages, to which period the first authentic records refer, the Hausa, though never a conquering race, attained great political power. They were then divided into seven states known as "Hausa bokoy" ("the seven Hausa") and named Biram, Daura, Gober, Kano, Rano, Katsena and Zegzeg, after the sons of their legendary ancestor. This confederation extended its authority over many of the neighbouring countries, and remained paramount till the Fula under Sheikh Dan Fodio in 1810 conquered the Hausa states and founded the Fula empire of Sokoto (see FULA).

The Hausa, who number upwards of 5,000,000, form the most important nation of the central Sudan. They are undoubtedly nigritic, though in places with a strong crossing of Fula and Arab blood. Morally and intellectually they are, however, far superior to the typical Negro. They are a powerful, heavily built race, with skin as black as most Negroes, but with lips not so thick nor hair so woolly. They excel in physical strength. The average Hausa will carry on his head a load of ninety or a hundred pounds without showing the slightest signs of fatigue during a long day's march. When carrying their own goods it is by no means uncommon for them to take double this weight. They are a peaceful and industrious people, living partly in farmsteads amid their crops, partly in large trading centres such as Kano, Katsena and Yakoba (Bauchi). They are extremely intelligent and even cultured, and have exercised a civilizing effect upon their Fula conquerors to whose oppressive rule they submitted. They are excellent agriculturists, and, almost unaided by foreign influence, they have developed a variety of industries, such as the making of cloth, mats, leather and glass. In Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast territory they form the backbone of the military police, and under English leadership have again and again shown themselves to be admirable fighters and capable of a high degree of discipline and good conduct. Their food consists chiefly of guinea corn (_sorghum vulgare_), which is ground up and eaten as a sort of porridge mixed with large quantities of red pepper. The Hausa attribute their superiority in strength to the fact that they live on guinea corn instead of yams and bananas, which form the staple food of the tribes on the river Niger. The Hausa carried on agriculture chiefly by slave labour; they are themselves born traders, and as such are to be met with in almost every part of Africa north of the equator. Small colonies of them are to be found in towns as far distant from one another as Lagos, Tunis, Tripoli, Alexandria and Suakin.

_Language._--The Hausa language has a wider range over Africa north of
the equator, south of Barbary and west of the valley of the Nile, than
any other tongue. It is a rich sonorous language, with a vocabulary
containing perhaps 10,000 words. As an example of the richness of the
vocabulary Bishop Crowther mentions that there are eight names for
different parts of the day from cockcrow till after sunset. About a
third of the words are connected with Arabic roots, nor are these such
as the Hausa could well have borrowed in anything like recent times
from the Arabs. Many words representing ideas or things with which
the Hausa must have been familiar from the very earliest time are
obviously connected with Arabic or Semitic roots. There is a certain
amount of resemblance between the Hausa language and that spoken by
the Berbers to the south of Tripoli and Tunis. This language, again,
has several striking points of resemblance with Coptic. If, as seems
likely, the connexion between these three languages should be
demonstrated, such connexion would serve to corroborate the Hausa
tradition that their ancestors came from the very far east away beyond
Mecca. The Hausa language has been reduced to writing for at least a
century, possibly very much longer. It is the only language in
tropical Africa which has been reduced to writing by the natives
themselves, unless the Vai alphabet, introduced by a native inventor
in the interior of Liberia in the first half of the 19th century be
excepted; the character used is a modified form of Arabic. Some
fragments of literature exist, consisting of political and religious
poems, together with a limited amount of native history. A volume,
consisting of history and poems reproduced in facsimile, with
translations, has been published by the Cambridge University Press.

_Religion._--About one-third of the people are professed Mahommedans,
one-third are heathen, and the remainder have apparently no definite
form of religion. Their Mahommedanism dates from the 14th century, but
became more general when the Fula sheikh Dan Fodio initiated the
religious war which ended in the founding of the Fula empire. Ever
since then the ruler of Sokoto has been acknowledged as the religious
head of the whole country, and tribute has been paid to him as such.
The Hausa who profess Mahommedanism are extremely ignorant of their
own faith, and what little religious fanaticism exists is chiefly
confined to the Fula. Large numbers of the Hausa start every year on
the pilgrimage to Mecca, travelling sometimes across the Sahara desert
and by way of Tripoli and Alexandria, sometimes by way of Wadai,
Darfur, Khartum and Suakin. The journey often occupies five or six
years, and is undertaken quite as much from trading as from religious
motives. Mahommedanism is making very slow, if any, progress amongst
the Hausa. The greatest obstacle to its general acceptance is the
institution of the Ramadan fast. In a climate so hot as that of
Hausaland, the obligation to abstain from food and drink from sunrise
to sunset during one month in the year is a serious difficulty. Until
the last decade of the 19th century no important attempt had been made
to introduce Christianity, but the fact that the Hausa are fond of
reading, and that native schools exist in all parts of the country,
should greatly facilitate the work of Christian missionaries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny, _Account of Timbuctoo and
Haussa Territories_ (1820); Norris, _Dialogues and part of the New
Testament in the English, Arabic, Haussa and Bornu Languages_ (1853);
Koelle, _Polyglotta Africana_ (1854); Schon, _Grammar of the Hausa
Language_ (London, 1862), _Hausa Reading Book_ (1877), and also _A
Dictionary of the Hausa Language_ (1877). Schon has also produced
Hausa translations of Gen. (1858), Matt. (1857) and Luke (1858).
Heinrich Barth, _Travels in North and Central Africa_ (2 vols.,
London, 1857); _Central-afrikanische Vokabularien_ (Gotha, 1867); C.
H. Robinson, _Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles through the Central
Soudan_ (1896); _Specimens of Hausa Literature_ (1896); _Hausa
Grammar_ (1897); _Hausa Dictionary_ (1899); P. L. Monteil, _De
St-Louis a Tripoli par le lac Tchad_ (Paris, 1895); Lt. Seymour
Vandeleur, _Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger_ (1898).

HAUSER, KASPAR, a German youth whose life was remarkable from the circumstances of apparently inexplicable mystery in which it was involved. He appeared on the 26th of May 1828, in the streets of Nuremberg, dressed in the garb of a peasant, and with such a helpless and bewildered air that he attracted the attention of the passers-by. In his possession was found a letter purporting to be written by a poor labourer, stating that the boy was given into his custody on the 7th of October 1812, and that according to agreement he had instructed him in reading, writing, and the Christian religion, but that up to the time fixed for relinquishing his custody he had kept him in close confinement. Along with this letter was enclosed another purporting to be written by the boy's mother, stating that he was born on the 30th of April 1812, that his name was Kaspar, and that his father, formerly a cavalry officer in the 6th regiment at Nuremberg, was dead. The appearance, bearing, and professions of the youth corresponded closely with these credentials. He showed a repugnance to all nourishment except bread and water, was seemingly ignorant of outward objects, wrote his name as Kaspar Hauser, and said that he wished to be a cavalry officer like his father. For some time he was detained in prison at Nuremberg as a vagrant, but on the 18th of July 1828 he was delivered over by the town authorities to the care of a schoolmaster, Professor Daumer, who undertook to be his guardian and to take the charge of his education. Further mysteries accumulated about Kaspar's personality and conduct, not altogether unconnected with the vogue in Germany, at that time, of "animal magnetism," "somnambulism," and similar theories of the occult and strange. People associated him with all sorts of possibilities. On the 17th of October 1829 he was found to have received a wound in the forehead, which, according to his own statement, had been inflicted on him by a man with a blackened face. Having on this account been removed to the house of a magistrate and placed under close surveillance, he was visited by Earl Stanhope, who became so interested in his history that he sent him in 1832 to Ansbach to be educated under a certain Dr Meyer. After this he became clerk in the office of Paul John Anselm von Feuerbach, president of the court of appeal, who had begun to pay attention to his case in 1828; and his strange history was almost forgotten by the public when the interest in it was suddenly revived by his receiving a deep wound on his left breast, on the 14th of December 1833, and dying from it three or four days afterwards. He affirmed that the wound was inflicted by a stranger, but many believed it to be the work of his own hand, and that he did not intend it to be fatal, but only so severe as to give a sufficient colouring of truth to his story. The affair created a great sensation, and produced a long literary agitation. But the whole story remains somewhat mysterious. Lord Stanhope eventually became decidedly sceptical as to Kaspar's stories, and ended by being accused of contriving his death!

In 1830 a pamphlet was published at Berlin, entitled _Kaspar Hauser
nicht unwahrscheinlich ein Betruger_; but the truthfulness of his
statements was defended by Daumer, who published _Mitteilungen uber
Kaspar Hauser_ (Nuremberg, 1832), and _Enthullungen uber Kaspar
Hauser_ (Frankfort, 1859); as well as _Kaspar Hauser, sein Wesen,
seine Unschuld_, &c. (Regensburg, 1873), in answer to Meyer's (a son
of Kaspar's tutor) _Authentische Mitteilungen uber Kaspar Hauser_
(Ansbach, 1872). Feuerbach awakened considerable psychological
interest in the case by his pamphlet _Kaspar Hauser, Beispiel eines
Verbrechens am Seelenleben_ (Ansbach, 1832), and Earl Stanhope also
took part in the discussion by publishing _Materialien zur Geschichte
K. Hausers_ (Heidelberg, 1836). The theory of Daumer and Feuerbach and
other pamphleteers (finally presented in 1892 by Miss Elizabeth E.
Evans in her _Story of Kaspar Hauser from Authentic Records_) was that
the youth was the crown prince of Baden, the legitimate son of the
grand-duke Charles of Baden, and that he had been kidnapped at
Karlsruhe in October 1812 by minions of the countess of Hochberg
(morganatic wife of the grand-duke) in order to secure the succession
to her offspring; but this theory was answered in 1875 by the
publication in the Augsburg _Allgemeine Zeitung_ of the official
record of the baptism, post-mortem examination and burial of the heir
supposed to have been kidnapped. See _Kaspar Hauser und sein badisches
Prinzentum_ (Heidelberg, 1876). In 1883 the story was again revived in
a Regensburg pamphlet attacking, among other people, Dr Meyer; and the
sons of the latter, who was dead, brought an action for libel, under
the German law, to which no defence was made; all the copies of the
pamphlet were ordered to be destroyed. The evidence has been subtly
analyzed by Andrew Lang in his _Historical Mysteries_ (1904), with
results unfavourable to the "romantic" version of the story. Lang's
view is that possibly Kaspar was a sort of "ambulatory automatist," an
instance of a phenomenon, known by other cases to students of
psychical abnormalities, of which the characteristics are a mania for
straying away and the persistence of delusions as to identity; but he
inclines to regard Kaspar as simply a "humbug." The "authentic
records" purporting to confirm the kidnapping story Lang stigmatizes
as "worthless and impudent rubbish." The evidence is in any case in
complete confusion.

HAUSMANN, JOHANN FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1782-1859), German mineralogist, was born at Hanover on the 22nd of February 1782. He was educated at Gottingen, where he obtained the degree of Ph.D. After making a geological tour in Denmark, Norway and Sweden in 1807, he was two years later placed at the head of a government mining establishment in Westphalia, and he established a school of mines at Clausthal in the Harz mountains. In 1811 he was appointed professor of technology and mining, and afterwards of geology and mineralogy in the university of Gottingen, and this chair he occupied until a short time before his death. He was also for many years secretary of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Gottingen. He published observations on geology and mineralogy in Spain and Italy as well as in central and northern Europe: he wrote on gypsum, pyrites, felspar, tachylite, cordierite and on some eruptive rocks, and he devoted much attention to the crystals developed during metallurgical processes. He died at Hanover on the 26th of December 1859.

PUBLICATIONS.--_Grundlinien einer Encyklopadie der
Bergwerkswissenschaften_ (1811); _Reise durch Skandinavien_ (5 vols.,
1811-1818); _Handbuch der Mineralogie_ (3 vols., 1813; 2nd ed.,
1828-1847).

HAUSRATH, ADOLPH (1837-1909), German theologian, was born at Karlsruhe on the 13th of January 1837 and was educated at Jena, Gottingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, where he became _Privatdozent_ in 1861, professor extraordinary in 1867 and ordinary professor in 1872. He was a disciple of the Tubingen school and a strong Protestant. Among other works he wrote _Der Apostel Paulus_ (1865), _Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte_ (1868-1873, 4 vols.; Eng. trans.), _D. F. Strauss und die Theologie seiner Zeit_ (1876-1878, 2 vols.), and lives of _Richard Rothe_ (2 vols. 1902), and _Luther_ (1904). His scholarship was sound and his style vigorous. Under the pseudonym George Taylor he wrote several historical romances, especially _Antinous_ (1880), which quickly ran through five editions, and is the story of a soul "which courted death because the objective restraints of faith had been lost." _Klytia_ (1883) was a 16th-century story, _Jetta_ (1884) a tale of the great immigrations, and _Elfriede_ "a romance of the Rhine." He died on the 2nd of August 1909.

HAUSSER, LUDWIG (1818-1867), German historian, was born at Kleeburg, in Alsace. Studying philology at Heidelberg in 1835, he was led by F. C. Schlosser to give it up for history, and after continuing his historical work at Jena and teaching in the gymnasium at Wertheim he made his mark by his _Die teutschen Geschichtsschreiber vom Anfang des Frankenreichs bis auf die Hohenstaufen_ (1839). Next year appeared his _Sage von Tell_. After a short period of study in Paris on the French Revolution, he spent some time working in the archives of Baden and Bavaria, and published in 1845 _Die Geschichte der rheinischen Pfalz_, which won for him a professorship _extraordinarius_ at Heidelberg. In 1850 he became _professor ordinarius_. Hausser also interested himself in politics while at Heidelberg, publishing in 1846 _Schleswig-Holstein, Danemark und Deutschland_, and editing with Gervinus the _Deutsche Zeitung_. In 1848 he was elected to the lower legislative chamber of Baden, and in 1850 advocated the project of union with Prussia at the parliament held at Erfurt. Another timely work was his edition of Friedrich List's _Gesammelte Schriften_ (1850), accompanied with a life of the author. His greatest achievement, and the one on which his fame as an historian rests, is his _Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Grundung des deutschen Bundes_ (Leipzig, 1854-1857, 4 vols.). This was the first work covering that period based on a scientific study of the archival sources. In 1859 he again took part in politics, resuming his place in the lower chamber, opposing in 1863 the project of Austria for the reform of the Confederation brought forward in the assembly of princes at Frankfort, in his book _Die Reform des deutschen Bundestages_, and becoming one of the leaders of the "little German" (_kleindeutsche_) party, which advocated the exclusion of Austria from Germany. In addition to various essays (in his _Gesammelte Schriften_, Berlin, 1869-1870, 2 vols.), Hausser's lectures have been edited by W. Oncken in the _Geschichte des Zeitalters der Reformation_ (1869, 2nd ed. 1880), and _Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution_ (1869, 2nd ed. 1870). These lectures reveal all the charm of style and directness of presentation which made Hausser's work as a professor so vital.

See W. Wattenbach, _Lud. Hausser, ein Vortrag_ (Heidelberg, 1867).

HAUSSMANN, GEORGES EUGENE, BARON (1809-1891), whose name is associated with the rebuilding of Paris, was born in that city on the 27th of March 1809 of a Protestant family, German in origin. He was educated at the College Henri IV, and subsequently studied law, attending simultaneously the classes at the Paris conservatoire of music, for he was a good musician. He became sous-prefet of Nerac in 1830, and advanced rapidly in the civil service until in 1853 he was chosen by Persigny prefect of the Seine in succession to Jean Jacques Berger, who hesitated to incur the vast expenses of the imperial schemes for the embellishment of Paris. Haussmann laid out the Bois de Boulogne, and made extensive improvements in the smaller parks. The gardens of the Luxembourg Palace were cut down to allow of the formation of new streets, and the Boulevard de Sebastopol, the southern half of which is now the Boulevard St Michel, was driven through a populous district. A new water supply, a gigantic system of sewers, new bridges, the opera, and other public buildings, the inclusion of outlying districts--these were among the new prefect's achievements, accomplished by the aid of a bold handling of the public funds which called forth Jules Ferry's indictment, _Les Comptes fantastiques de Haussmann_, in 1867. A loan of 250 million francs was sanctioned for the city of Paris in 1865, and another of 260 million in 1869. These sums represented only part of his financial schemes, which led to his dismissal by the government of Emile Ollivier. After the fall of the Empire he spent about a year abroad, but he re-entered public life in 1877, when he became Bonapartist deputy for Ajaccio. He died in Paris on the 11th of January 1891. Haussmann had been made senator in 1857, member of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1867, and grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1862. His name is preserved in the Boulevard Haussmann. His later years were occupied with the preparation of his _Memoires_ (3 vols., 1890-1893).

HAUSSONVILLE, JOSEPH OTHENIN BERNARD DE CLERON, COMTE D' (1809-1884), French politician and historian, was born in Paris on the 27th of May 1809. His grandfather had been "grand louvetier" of France; his father Charles Louis Bernard de Cleron, comte d'Haussonville (1770-1846), was chamberlain at the court of Napoleon, a count of the French empire, and under the Restoration a peer of France and an opponent of the Villele ministry. Comte Joseph had filled a series of diplomatic appointments at Brussels, Turin and Naples before he entered the chamber of deputies in 1842 for Provins. Under the Second Empire he published a liberal anti-imperial paper at Brussels, _Le Bulletin francais_, and in 1863 he actively supported the candidature of Prevost Paradol. He was elected to the French Academy in 1869, in recognition of his historical writings, _Histoire de la politique exterieure du gouvernement francais de 1830 a 1848_ (2 vols., 1850), _Histoire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la France_ (4 vols., 1854-1859), _L'Eglise romaine et le premier empire 1800-1814_ (5 vols., 1864-1879). In 1870 he published a pamphlet directed against the Prussian treatment of France, _La France et la Prusse devant l'Europe_, the sale of which was prohibited in Belgium at the request of King William of Prussia. He was the president of an association formed to provide new homes in Algeria for the inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine who elected to retain their French nationality. In 1878 he was made a life-senator, in which capacity he allied himself with the Right Centre in defence of the religious associations against the anti-clericals. He died in Paris on the 28th of May 1884.

His wife Louise (1818-1882), a daughter of Duc Victor de Broglie, published in 1858 a novel _Robert Emmet_, followed by _Marguerite de Valois reine de Navarre_ (1870), _La Jeunesse de Lord Byron_ (1872), and _Les Dernieres Annees de Lord Byron_ (1874).

His son, GABRIEL PAUL OTHERIN DE CLERON, comte d'Haussonville, was born at Gurcy de Chatel (Seine-et-Marne) on the 21st of September 1843, and married in 1865 Mlle Pauline d'Harcourt. He represented Seine-et-Marne in the National Assembly (1871) and voted with the Right Centre. Though he was not elected to the chamber of deputies he became the right-hand man of his maternal uncle, the duc de Broglie, in the attempted coup of the 16th of May. His _Etablissements penitentiaires en France et aux colonies_ (1875) was crowned by the Academy, of which he was admitted a member in 1888. In 1891 the resignation of Henri Edouard Bocher from the administration of the Orleans estates led to the appointment of M d'Haussonville as accredited representative of the comte de Paris in France. He at once set to work to strengthen the Orleanist party by recruiting from the smaller nobility the officials of the local monarchical committees. He established new Orleanist organs, and sent out lecturers with instructions to emphasize the modern and democratic principles of the comte de Paris; but the prospects of the party were dashed in 1894 by the death of the comte de Paris. In 1904 he was admitted to the Academy of Moral and Political Science. The comte d'Haussonville published:--_C. A. Sainte-Beuve, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1875), _Etudes biographiques et litteraires_, 2 series (1879 and 1888), _Le Salon de Mme Necker_ (1882, 2 vols.), _Madame de La Fayette_ (1891), _Madame Ackermann_ (1892), _Le Comte de Paris, souvenirs personnels_ (1895), _La Duchesse de Bourgogne et l'alliance savoyarde_ (1898-1903), _Salaire et miseres de femme_ (1900), and, with G. Hanotaux, _Souvenirs sur Madame de Maintenon_ (3 vols., 1902-1904).