Chapter M: T. M (9)

The inhabitants are descended from various stocks. The Upper and Lower Saxon, the Thuringian and the Frankish races have all contributed to form the present people, and their respective influences are still to be traced in the varieties of dialect. The boundary line between High and Low German passes through the Harz. The Harz was the last stronghold of paganism in Germany, and to that fact are due the legends, in which no district is richer, and the fanciful names given by the people to peculiar objects and appearances of nature.

See _Zeitschrift des Harzvereins_ (Wernigerode, annually since 1868);
Gunther, _Der Harz in Geschichts- Kultur- und Landschaftsbildern_
(Hanover, 1885), and "Der Harz" in Scobel's _Monographien zur
Erdkunde_ (Bielefeld, 1901); H. Hoffmann and others, _Der Harz_
(Leipzig, 1899), _Harzwanderungen_ (Leipzig, 1902); Hampe, _Flora
Hercynica_ (Halle, 1873); von Groddeck, _Abriss der Geognosie des
Harzes_ (2nd ed., Klausthal, 1883); Prohle, _Harzsagen_ (2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1886); Hautzinger, _Der Kupfer- und Silbersegen des Harzes_
(Berlin, 1877); Hoppe, _Die Bergwerke im Ober- und Unterharz_
(Klausthal, 1883); Schulze, _Lithia Hercynica_ (Leipzig, 1895);
Ludecke, _Die Minerale des Harzes_ (Berlin, 1896).

HASA, EL (_Ahsa_, _Al Hasa_), a district in the east of Arabia stretching along the shore of the Persian Gulf from Kuwet in 29 deg. 20' N. to the south point of the Gulf of Bahrein in 25 deg. 10' N., a length of about 360 m. On the W. it is bounded by Nejd, and on the S.E. by the peninsula of El Katr which forms part of Oman. The coast is low and flat and has no deep-water port along its whole length with the exception of Kuwet; from that place to El Katif the country is barren and without villages or permanent settlements, and is only occupied by nomad tribes, of which the principal are the Bani Hajar, Ajman and Khalid. The interior consists of low stony ridges rising gradually to the inner plateau. The oases of Hofuf and Katif, however, form a strong contrast to the barren wastes that cover the greater part of the district. Here an inexhaustible supply of underground water (to which the province owes its name Hasa) issues in strong springs, marking, according to Arab geographers, the course of a great subterranean river draining the Nejd highlands. Hofuf the capital, a town of 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, with its neighbour Mubariz scarcely less populous, forms the centre of a thriving district 50 m. long by 15 m. in breadth, containing numerous villages each with richly cultivated fields and gardens. The town walls enclose a space of 1(1/2) by 1 m., at the north-west angle of which is a remarkable citadel attributed to the Carmathian princes. Mubariz is celebrated for its hot spring, known as Um Saba or "mother of seven," from the seven channels by which its water is distributed. Beyond the present limits of the oasis much of the country is well supplied with water, and ruined sites and half-obliterated canals show that it has only relapsed into waste in recent times. Cultivation reappears at Katif, a town situated on a small bay some 35 m. north-west of Bahrein. Date groves extend for several miles along the coast, which is low and muddy. The district is fertile but the climate is hot and unhealthy; still, owing to its convenient position, the town has a considerable trade with Bahrein and the gulf ports on one side and the interior of Nejd on the other. The fort is a strongly built enclosure attributed, like that at Hofuf, to the Carmathian prince Abu Tahir.

'Uker or 'Ujer is the nearest port to Hofuf, from which it is distant about 40 m.; large quantities of rice and piece goods transhipped at Bahrein are landed here and sent on by caravan to Hofuf, the great entrepot for the trade between southern Nejd and the coast. It also shares in the valuable pearl fishery of Bahrein and the adjacent coast.

Politically El Hasa is a dependency of Turkey, and its capital Hofuf is the headquarters of the sanjak or district of Nejd. Hofuf, Katif and El Katr were occupied by Turkish garrisons in 1871, and the occupation has been continued in spite of British protest as to El Katr, which according to the agreement made in 1867, when Bahrein was taken under British protection, was tributary to the latter. Turkish claims to Kuwet have not been admitted by Great Britain.

AUTHORITIES.--W. G. Palgrave, _Central and Eastern Arabia_ (London,
1865); L. Pelly, _Journal R.G.S._ (1866); S. M. Zwemer, _Geog.
Journal_ (1902); G. F. Sadlier, _Diary of a Journey across Arabia_
(Bombay, 1866); V. Chirol, _The Middle East_ (London, 1904).
(R. A. W.)

HASAN AND HOSAIN (or HUSEIN), sons of the fourth Mahommedan caliph Ali by his wife Fatima, daughter of Mahomet. On Ali's death Hasan was proclaimed caliph, but the strength of Moawiya who had rebelled against Ali was such that he resigned his claim on condition that he should have the disposal of the treasure stored at Kufa, with the revenues of Darabjird. This secret negotiation came to the ears of Hasan's supporters, a mutiny broke out and Hasan was wounded. He retired to Medina where he died about 669. The story that he was poisoned at Moawiya's instigation is generally discredited (see CALIPHATE, sect. B, S 1). Subsequently his brother Hosain was invited by partisans in Kufa to revolt against Moawiya's successor Yazid. He was, however, defeated and killed at Kerbela on the 10th of October (Muharram) 680 (see CALIPHATE, sect. B, S _2 ad init._). Hosain is the hero of the Passion Play which is performed annually (e.g. at Kerbela) on the anniversary of his death by the Shi'ites of Persia and India, to whom from the earliest times the family of Ali are the only true descendants of Mahomet. The play lasts for several days and concludes with the carrying out of the coffins (_tabut_) of the martyrs to an open place in the neighbourhood.

See Sir Wm. Muir, _The Caliphate_ (1883); Sir Lewis Pelly, _The
Miracle Play of Hasan and Hosein_ (1879).

HASAN UL-BASRI [Abu Sa'ud ul-Hasan ibn Abi-l-Hasan Yassar ul-Basri], (642-728 or 737), Arabian theologian, was born at Medina. His father was a freedman of Zaid ibn Thabit, one of the _Ansar_ (Helpers of the Prophet), his mother a client of Umm Salama, a wife of Mahomet. Tradition says that Umm Salama often nursed Hasan in his infancy. He was thus one of the _Tabi'un_ (i.e. of the generation that succeeded the Helpers). He became a teacher of Basra and founded a school there. Among his pupils was Wasil ibn 'Ata, the founder of the Mo'tazilites. He himself was a great supporter of orthodoxy and the most important representative of asceticism in the time of its first development. With him fear is the basis of morality, and sadness the characteristic of his religion. Life is only a pilgrimage, and comfort must be denied to subdue the passions. Many writers testify to the purity of his life and to his excelling in the virtues of Mahomet's own companions. He was "as if he were in the other world." In politics, too, he adhered to the earliest principles of Islam, being strictly opposed to the inherited caliphate of the Omayyads and a believer in the election of the caliph.

His life is given in Nawawi's _Biographical Dictionary_ (ed. F.
Wustenfeld, Gottingen, 1842-1847). Cf. R. Dozy, _Essai sur l'histoire
de l'islamisme_, pp. 201 sqq. (Leiden and Paris, 1879); A. von Kremer,
_Culturgeschichtliche Streifzuge_, p. 5 seq.; R. A. Nicholson, _A
Literary History of the Arabs_, pp. 225-227 (London, 1907).
(G. W. T.)

HASBEYA, or HASBEIYA, a town of the Druses, about 36 m. W. of Damascus, situated at the foot of Mt. Hermon in Syria, overlooking a deep amphitheatre from which a brook flows to the Hasbani. The population is about 5000 (4000 Christians). Both sides of the valley are planted in terraces with olives, vines and other fruit trees. The grapes are either dried or made into a kind of syrup. In 1846 an American Protestant mission was established in the town. This little community suffered much persecution at first from the Greek Church, and afterwards from the Druses, by whom in 1860 nearly 1000 Christians were massacred, while others escaped to Tyre or Sidon. The castle in Hasbeya was held by the crusaders under Count Oran; but in 1171 the Druse emirs of the great Shehab family (see DRUSES) recaptured it. In 1205 this family was confirmed in the lordship of the town and district, which they held till the Turkish authorities took possession of the castle in the 19th century. Near Hasbeya are bitumen pits let by the government; and to the north, at the source of the Hasbani, the ground is volcanic. Some travellers have attempted to identify Hasbeya with the biblical Baal-Gad or Baal-Hermon.

HASDAI IBN SHAPRUT, the founder of the new culture of the Jews in Moorish Spain in the 10th century. He was both physician and minister to Caliph Abd ar-Rahman III. in Cordova. A man of wide learning and culture, he encouraged the settlement of Jewish scholars in Andalusia, and his patronage of literature, science and art promoted the Jewish renaissance in Europe. Poetry, philology, philosophy all flourished under his encouragement, and his name was handed down to posterity as the first of the many Spanish Jews who combined diplomatic skill with artistic culture. This type was the creation of the Moors in Andalusia, and the Jews ably seconded the Mahommedans in the effort to make life at once broad and deep. (I. A.)

HASDEU, or HAJDEU, BOGDAN PETRICEICU (1836-1907), Rumanian philologist, was born at Khotin in Bessarabia in 1836, and studied at the university of Kharkov. In 1858 he first settled in Jassy as professor of the high school and librarian. He may be considered as the pioneer in many branches of Rumanian philology and history. At Jassy he started his _Archiva historica a Romaniei_ (1865-1867), in which a large number of old documents in Slavonic and Rumanian were published for the first time. In 1870 he inaugurated _Columna lui Traian_, the best philological review of the time in Rumania. In his _Cuvente den Batrani_ (2 vols., 1878-1881) he was the first to contribute to the history of apocryphal literature in Rumania. His _Historia critica a Romanilor_ (1875), though incomplete, marks the beginning of critical investigation into the history of Rumania. Hasdeu edited the ancient Psalter of Coresi of 1577 (_Psaltirea lui Coresi_, 1881). His _Etymologicum magnum Romaniae_ (1886, &c.) is the beginning of an encyclopaedic dictionary of the Rumanian language, though never finished beyond the letter B. In 1876 he was appointed director of the state archives in Bucharest and in 1878 professor of philology at the university of Bucharest. His works, which include one drama, _Rasvan si Vidra_, bear the impress of great originality of thought, and the author is often carried away by his profound erudition and vast imagination. Hasdeu was a keen politician. After the death of his only child Julia in 1888 he became a mystic and a strong believer in spiritism. He died at Campina on the 7th of September 1907. (M. G.)

HASDRUBAL, the name of several Carthaginian generals, among whom the following are the most important:--

1. The son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca (q.v.), who followed the latter in his campaign against the governing aristocracy at Carthage at the close of the First Punic War, and in his subsequent career of conquest in Spain. After Hamilcar's death (228) Hasdrubal, who succeeded him in the command, extended the newly acquired empire by skilful diplomacy, and consolidated it by the foundation of New Carthage (Cartagena) as the capital of the new province, and by a treaty with Rome which fixed the Ebro as the boundary between the two powers. In 221 he was killed by an assassin.

Polybius ii. 1; Livy xxi. 1; Appian, _Hispanica_, 4-8.

2. The second son of Hamilcar Barca, and younger brother of Hannibal. Left in command of Spain when Hannibal departed to Italy (218), he fought for six years against the brothers Gnaeus and Publius Scipio. He had on the whole the worst of the conflict, and a defeat in 216 prevented him from joining Hannibal in Italy at a critical moment; but in 212 he completely routed his opponents, both the Scipios being killed. He was subsequently outgeneralled by Publius Scipio the Younger, who in 209 captured New Carthage and gained other advantages. In the same year he was summoned to join his brother in Italy. He eluded Scipio by crossing the Pyrenees at their western extremity, and, making his way thence through Gaul and the Alps in safety, penetrated far into Central Italy (207). He was ultimately checked by two Roman armies, and being forced to give battle was decisively defeated on the banks of the Metaurus. Hasdrubal himself fell in the fight; his head was cut off and thrown into Hannibal's camp as a sign of his utter defeat.

Polybius x. 34-xi. 3; Livy xxvii. 1-51; Appian, _Bellum Hannibalicum_,
ch. lii. sqq.; R. Oehler, _Der letzte Feldzug des Barkiden Hasdrubals_
(Berlin, 1897); C. Lehmann, _Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf
Italien_ (Leipzig, 1905). See also PUNIC WARS.

HASE, CARL BENEDICT (1780-1864), French Hellenist, of German extraction, was born at Sulza near Naumburg on the 11th of May 1780. Having studied at Jena and Helmstedt, in 1801 he made his way on foot to Paris, where he was commissioned by the comte de Choiseul-Gouffier, late ambassador to Constantinople, to edit the works of Johannes Lydus from a MS. given to Choiseul by Prince Mourousi. Hase thereupon decided to devote himself to Byzantine history and literature, on which he became the acknowledged authority. In 1805 he obtained an appointment in the MSS. department of the royal library; in 1816 became professor of palaeography and modern Greek at the Ecole Royale, and in 1852 professor of comparative grammar in the university. In 1812 he was selected to superintend the studies of Louis Napoleon (afterwards Napoleon III.) and his brother. He died on the 21st of March 1864. His most important works are the editions of Leo Diaconus and other Byzantine writers (1819), and of Johannes Lydus, _De ostentis_ (1823), a masterpiece of textual restoration, the difficulties of which were aggravated by the fact that the MS. had for a long time been stowed away in a wine-barrel in a monastery. He also edited part of the Greek authors in the collection of the Historians of the Crusades and contributed many additions (from the fathers, medical and technical writers, scholiasts and other sources) to the new edition of Stephanus's _Thesaurus_.

See J. D. Guigniaut, _Notice historique sur la vie et les travaux de
Carl Benedict Hase_ (Paris, 1867); articles in _Nouvelle Biographie
generale_ and _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and a collection of
autobiographical letters, _Briefe von der Wanderung und aus Paris_,
edited by O. Heine (1894), containing a vivid account of Hase's
journey, his enthusiastic impressions of Paris and the hardships of
his early life.

HASE, KARL AUGUST VON (1800-1890), German Protestant theologian and Church historian, was born at Steinbach in Saxony on the 25th of August 1800. He studied at Leipzig and Erlangen, and in 1829 was called to Jena as professor of theology. He retired in 1883 and was made a baron. He died at Jena on the 3rd of January 1890. Hase's aim was to reconcile modern culture with historical Christianity in a scientific way. But though a liberal theologian, he was no dry rationalist. Indeed, he vigorously attacked rationalism, as distinguished from the rational principle, charging it with being unscientific inasmuch as it ignored the historical significance of Christianity, shut its eyes to individuality and failed to give religious feeling its due. His views are presented scientifically in his _Evangelisch-protestantische Dogmatik_ (1826; 6th ed., 1870), the value of which "lies partly in the full and judiciously chosen historical materials prefixed to each dogma, and partly in the skill, caution and tact with which the permanent religious significance of various dogmas is discussed" (Otto Pfleiderer). More popular in style is his _Gnosis oder prot.-evang. Glaubenslehre_ (3 vols., 1827-1829; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1869-1870). But his reputation rests chiefly on his treatment of Church history in his _Kirchengeschichte, Lehrbuch zunachst fur akademische Vorlesungen_ (1834, 12th ed., 1900).

His biographical studies, Franz von Assisi (1856; 2nd ed., 1892),
_Katerina von Siena_ (1864; 2nd ed., 1892), _Neue Propheten_ (Die
Jungfrau von Orleans, Savonarola, Thomas Munzer) are judicious and
sympathetic. Other works are: _Hutterus redivivus oder Dogmatik der
evang.-luth. Kirche_ (1827; 12th ed., 1883), in which he sought to
present the teaching of the Protestant church in such a way as Hutter
would have reconstructed it, had he still been alive; _Leben Jesu_
(1829; 5th ed., 1865; Eng. trans., 1860); in an enlarged form,
_Geschichte Jesu_ (2nd ed., 1891); and _Handbuch der prot. Polemik
gegen die rom.-kath. Kirche_ (1862; 7th ed., 1900; Eng. trans., 1906).

For his life see his _Ideale und Irrtumer_ (1872; 5th ed., 1894) and
_Annalen meines Lebens_ (1891); and cf. generally Otto Pfleiderer,
_Development of Theology_ (1890); F. Lichtenberger, _Hist. of German
Theology_ (1889).

HASHISH, or HASHEESH, the Arabic name, meaning literally "dried herb," for the various preparations of the Indian hemp plant (_Cannabis indica_), used as a narcotic or intoxicant in the East, and either smoked, chewed or drunk (see HEMP and BHANG). From the Arabic _hashishin_, i.e. "hemp-eaters," comes the English "assassin" (see ASSASSIN).

HASLEMERE, a market-town in the Guildford parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 43 m. S.W. from London by the London & South-Western railway. It is situated in an elevated valley between the bold ridges of Hindhead (895 ft.) and Blackdown (918 ft.). Their summits are open and covered with heath, but their flanks and the lower ground are magnificently wooded. The hills are deeply scored by steep and picturesque valleys, of which the most remarkable is the Devil's Punch Bowl, a hollow of regular form on the west flank of Hindhead. The invigorating air has combined with scenic attraction to make the district a favourite place of residence. Professor Tyndall built a house on the top of Hindhead, setting an example followed by many others. On Blackdown, closely screened by plantations, is Aldworth, built for Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who died here in 1892. George Eliot stayed for a considerable period at Shottermill, a neighbouring village. Pop. of Haslemere (1901), 2614; of Hindhead, 666.

HASLINGDEN, a market-town and municipal borough in the Rossendale and Heywood parliamentary divisions of Lancashire, England, 19 m. N. by W. from Manchester by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901), 18,543. It lies in a hilly district on the borders of the forest of Rossendale, and is supposed by some to derive its name from the hazel trees which formerly abounded in its neighbourhood. The old town stood on the slope of a hill, but the modern part has extended about its base. The parish church of St James was rebuilt in 1780, with the exception of the tower, which dates from the time of Henry VIII. The woollen manufacture was formerly the staple. The town, however, steadily increasing in importance, has cotton, woollen and engineering works--coal-mining, quarrying and brickmaking are carried on in the neighbourhood. The borough, as incorporated in 1891, comprised several townships and parts of townships, but under the Local Government Act of 1894 these were united into one civil parish. The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 8196 acres.

HASPE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, in the valley of the Ennepe, at the confluence of the Hasper, and on the railway from Dusseldorf to Dortmund, 10 m. N.E. of Barmen by rail. Pop. (1905), 19,813. Its industries include iron foundries, rolling mills, puddling furnaces, and manufactures of iron, steel and brass wares and of machines. Haspe was raised to the rank of a town in 1873.

HASSAM, CHILDE (1859- ), American figure and landscape painter, born in Boston, Massachusetts, was a pupil of Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris. He soon fell under the influence of the Impressionists, and took to painting in a style of his own, in brilliant colour, with effective touches of pure pigment. He won a bronze medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1889; medals at the World's Fair, Chicago, 1893; Boston Art Club, 1896; Philadelphia Art Club, 1892; Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg, 1898; Buffalo Pan-American, 1901; Temple gold medal, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1899; and silver medal, Paris Exhibition, 1900. He became a member of the National Academy of Design, the Society of American Artists, the Ten Americans, the American Water Colour Society, the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts, Paris, and the Secession Society, Munich.

HASSAN, a town and district of Mysore, India. The town dates from the 11th century and had in 1901 a population of 8241. The district naturally divides into two portions, the Malnad, or hill country, which includes some of the highest ranges of the Western Ghats, and the Maidan or plain country, sloping towards the south. The Hemavati, which flows into the Cauvery in the extreme south, is the most important river of the district. The upper slopes of the Western Ghats are abundantly clothed with magnificent forests, and wild animals abound. Among the mineral products are kaolin, felspar and quartz. The soil of the valleys is a rich red alluvial loam. The area is 2547 sq. m. Population (1901), 568,919, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The district contains some of the most remarkable archaeological monuments in India, such as the colossal Jain image at Sravana Belgola (a monolith 57 ft. high on the summit of a hill) and the great temple at Halebid. Coffee cultivation has been on the increase of late years. The first plantation was opened in 1843, and now there are many coffee estates owned by Europeans and also native holdings. The exports are large, consisting chiefly of food-grains and coffee. The imports are European piece-goods, hardware of all sorts and spices. The largest weekly fair is held at Alur. A great annual religious gathering and fair, attended by about 10,000 persons, takes place every year at Melukot. The Southern Mahratta railway traverses the north-east of the district.

The real history of Hassan does not begin until the epoch of the Hoysala dynasty, which lasted from the 11th till the 14th century. Their capital was at Dwarasamundra (Dwaravati-pura), the ruins of which are still to be seen scattered round the village of Halebid. The earlier kings professed the Jain faith, but the finest temples were erected to Siva by the later monarchs of the line. While they were at the zenith of their power the whole of southern India acknowledged their sway.

HASSANIA, an African tribe of Semitic stock. They inhabit the desert between Merawi and the Nile at the 6th Cataract, and the left bank of the Blue Nile immediately south of Khartum.

HASSAN IBN THABIT (died 674), Arabian poet, was born in Yathrib (Medina), a member of the tribe Khazraj. In his youth he travelled to Hira and Damascus, then settled in Medina, where, after the advent of Mahomet, he accepted Islam and wrote poems in defence of the prophet. His poetry is regarded as commonplace and lacking in distinction.

His diwan has been published at Bombay (1864), Tunis (1864) and Lahore
(1878). See H. Hirschfeld's "Prolegomena to an edition of the Diwan of
Hassan" in _Transactions of Oriental Congress_ (London, 1892).
(G. W. T.)

HASSE, JOHANN ADOLPH (1699-1783), German musical composer, was born at Bergedorf near Hamburg, on the 25th of March 1699, and received his first musical education from his father. Being possessed of a fine tenor voice, he chose the theatrical career, and joined the operatic troupe conducted by Reinhard Keiser, in whose orchestra Handel had played the second violin some years before. Hasse's success led to an engagement at the court theatre of Brunswick, and it was there that, in 1723, he made his debut as a composer with the opera _Antigonus_. The success of this first work induced the duke to send Hasse to Italy for the completion of his studies, and in 1724 he went to Naples and placed himself under Porpora, with whom, however, he seems to have disagreed both as a man and as an artist. On the other hand he gained the friendship of Alessandro Scarlatti, to whom he owed his first commission for a serenade for two voices, sung at a family celebration of a wealthy merchant by two of the greatest singers of Italy, Farinelli and Signora Tesi. This event established Hasse's fame; he soon became very popular, and his opera _Sesostrato_, written for the Royal Opera at Naples in 1726, made his name known all over Italy. At Venice, where he went in 1727, he became acquainted with the celebrated singer Faustina Bordogni (born at Venice in 1700), who became the composer's wife in 1730. The two artists soon afterwards went to Dresden, in compliance with a brilliant offer made to them by the splendour-loving elector of Saxony, Augustus II. There Hasse remained for two years, after which he again journeyed to Italy, and also in 1733 to London, in which latter city he was tempted by the aristocratic clique inimical to Handel to become the rival and antagonist of that great master. But this he modestly and wisely declined, remaining in London only long enough to superintend the rehearsals for his opera _Artaserse_ (first produced at Venice, 1730). All this while Faustina had remained at Dresden, the declared favourite of the public and unfortunately also of the elector, nor was her husband, who remained attached to her, allowed to see her except at long intervals. In 1739, after the death of Augustus II., Hasse settled permanently at Dresden till 1763, when he and his wife retired from court service with considerable pensions. But Hasse was still too young to rest on his laurels. He went with his family to Vienna, and added several operas to the great number of his works already in existence. His last work for the stage was the opera _Ruggiero_ (1771), written for the wedding of Archduke Ferdinand at Milan. On the same occasion a work by Mozart, then fourteen years old, was performed, and Hasse observed "this youngster will surpass us all." By desire of his wife Hasse settled at her birthplace Venice, and there he died on the 23rd of December 1783. His compositions include as many as 120 operas, besides oratorios, cantatas, masses, and almost every variety of instrumental music. During the siege of Dresden by the Prussians in 1760, most of his manuscripts, collected for a complete edition to be brought out at the expense of the elector, were burnt. Some of his works, amongst them an opera _Alcide al Bivio_ (1760), have been published, and the libraries of Vienna and Dresden possess the autographs of others. Hasse's instrumentation is certainly not above the low level attained by the average musicians of his time, and his _ensembles_ do not present any features of interest. In dramatic fire also he was wanting, but he had a fund of gentle and genuine melody, and by this fact his enormous popularity during his life must be accounted for. The two airs which Farinelli had to repeat every day for ten years to the melancholy king of Spain, Philip V., were both from Hasse's works. Of Faustina Hasse it will be sufficient to add that she was, according to the unanimous verdict of the critics (including Dr Burney), one of the greatest singers of a time rich in vocal artists. The year of her death is not exactly known. Most probably it shortly preceded that of her husband.

HASSELQUIST, FREDERIK (1722-1752), Swedish traveller and naturalist, was born at Tornevalla, East Gothland, on the 3rd of January 1722. On account of the frequently expressed regrets of Linnaeus, under whom he studied at Upsala, at the lack of information regarding the natural history of Palestine, Hasselquist resolved to undertake a journey to that country, and a sufficient subscription having been obtained to defray expenses, he reached Smyrna towards the end of 1749. He visited parts of Asia Minor, Egypt, Cyprus and Palestine, making large natural history collections, but his constitution, naturally weak, gave way under the fatigues of travel, and he died near Smyrna on the 9th of February 1752 on his way home. His collections reached home in safety, and five years after his death his notes were published by Linnaeus under the title _Resa till Heliga Landet forattad fran ar 1749 till 1752_, which was translated into French and German in 1762 and into English in 1766.

HASSELT, ANDRE HENRI CONSTANT VAN (1806-1874), Belgian poet, was born at Maastricht, in Limburg, on the 5th of January 1806. He was educated in his native town, and at the university of Liege. In 1833 he left Maastricht, then blockaded by the Belgian forces, and made his way to Brussels, where he became a naturalized Belgian, and was attached to the Bibliotheque de Bourgogne. In 1843 be entered the education department, and eventually became an inspector of normal schools. His native language was Dutch, and as a French poet Andre van Hasselt had to overcome the difficulties of writing in a foreign language. He had published a _Chant hellenique_ in honour of Canaris in the columns of _La Sentinelle des Pays-Bas_ as early as 1826, and other poems followed. His first volume of verse, _Primeveres_ (1834), shows markedly the influence of Victor Hugo, which had been strengthened by a visit to Paris in 1830. His relations with Hugo became intimate in 1851-1852, when the poet was an exile in Brussels. In 1839 he became editor of the _Renaissance_, a paper founded to encourage the fine arts. His chief work, the epic of the _Quatre Incarnations du Christ_, was published in 1867. In the same volume were printed his _Etudes rythmiques_, a series of metrical experiments designed to show that the French language could be adapted to every kind of musical rhythm. With the same end in view he executed translations of many German songs, and wrote new French libretti for the best-known operas of Mozart, Weber and others. Hasselt died at Saint Josse ten Noode, a suburb of Brussels, on the 1st of December 1874.

A selection from his works (10 vols., Brussels, 1876-1877) was edited
by MM. Charles Hen and Louis Alvin. He wrote many books for children,
chiefly under the pseudonym of Alfred Avelines; and studies on
historical and literary subjects. The books written in collaboration
with Charles Hen are signed Charles Andre. A bibliography of his
writings is appended to the notice by Louis Alvin in the _Biographie
nat. de Belgique_, vol. vii. Van Hasselt's fame has continued to
increase since his death. A series of tributes to his memory are
printed in the _Poesies choisies_ (1901), edited by M. Georges Barral
for the _Collection des poetes francais de l'etranger_. This book
contains a biographical and critical study by Jules Guillaume, and
some valuable notes on the poet's theories of rhythm.

HASSELT, the capital of the Belgian province of Limburg. Pop. (1904), 16,179. It derives its name from _Hazel-bosch_ (hazel wood). It stands at the junction of several important roads and railways from Maaseyck, Maastricht and Liege. It has many breweries and distilleries, and the spirit known by its name, which is a coarse gin, has a certain reputation throughout Belgium. On the 6th of August 1831 the Dutch troops obtained here their chief success over the Belgian nationalists during the War of Independence. Hasselt is best known for its great septennial fete held on the day of Assumption, August 15th. The curious part of this fete, which is held in honour of the Virgin under the name of Virga Jesse, is the conversion of the town for the day into the semblance of a forest. Fir trees and branches from the neighbouring forest are collected and planted in front of the houses, so that for a few hours Hasselt has the appearance of being restored to its primitive condition as a wood. The figure of the giant who is supposed to have once held the Hazel-bosch under his terror is paraded on this occasion as the "lounge man." Originally this celebration was held annually, but in the 18th century it was restricted to once in seven years. There was a celebration in 1905.

HASSENPFLUG, HANS DANIEL LUDWIG FRIEDRICH (1794-1862), German statesman, was born at Hanau in Hesse on the 26th of February 1794. He studied law at Gottingen, graduated in 1816, and took his seat as _Assessor_ in the judicial chamber of the board of government (_Regierungskollegium_) at Cassel, of which his father Johann Hassenpflug was also a member. In 1821 he was nominated by the new elector, William II., _Justizrat_ (councillor of justice); in 1832 he became _Ministerialrat_ and reporter (_Referent_) to the ministry of Hesse-Cassel, and in May of the same year was appointed successively minister of justice and of the interior. It was from this moment that he became conspicuous in the constitutional struggles of Germany.

The reactionary system introduced by the elector William I. had broken down before the revolutionary movements of 1830, and in 1831 Hesse had received a constitution. This development was welcome neither to the elector nor to the other German governments, and Hassenpflug deliberately set to work to reverse it. In doing so he gave the lie to his own early promise; for he had been a conspicuous member of the revolutionary _Burschenschaft_ at Gottingen, and had taken part as a volunteer in the War of Liberation. Into the causes of the change it is unnecessary to inquire; Hassenpflug by training and tradition was a strait-laced official; he was also a first-rate lawyer; and his naturally arbitrary temper had from the first displayed itself in an attitude of overbearing independence towards his colleagues and even towards the elector. To such a man constitutional restrictions were intolerable, and from the moment he came into power he set to work to override them, by means of press censorship, legal quibbles, unjustifiable use of the electoral prerogatives, or frank supersession of the legislative rights of the Estates by electoral ordinances. The story of the constitutional deadlock that resulted belongs to the history of Hesse-Cassel and Germany; so far as Hassenpflug himself was concerned, it made him, more even than Metternich, the Mephistopheles of the Reaction to the German people. In Hesse itself he was known as "Hessen's Hass und Fluch" (Hesse's hate and curse). In the end, however, his masterful temper became unendurable to the regent (Frederick William); in the summer of 1837 he was suddenly removed from his post as minister of the interior and he thereupon left the elector's service.

In 1838 he was appointed head of the administration of the little principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, an office which he exchanged in the following year for that of civil governor of the grand-duchy of Luxemburg. Here, too, his independent character suffered him to remain only a year: he resented having to transact all business with the grand-duke (king of the Netherlands) through a Dutch official at the Hague; he protested against the absorption of the Luxemburg surplus in the Dutch treasury; and, failing to obtain redress, he resigned (1840). From 1841 to 1850 he was in Prussian service, first as a member of the supreme court of justice (_Obertribunal_) and then (1846) as president of the high court of appeal (_Oberappellationsgericht_) at Greifswald. In 1850 he was tried for peculation and convicted; and, though this judgment was reversed on appeal, he left the service of Prussia.

With somewhat indecent haste (the appeal had not been heard) he was now summoned by the elector of Hesse once more to the head of the government, and he immediately threw himself again with zeal into the struggle against the constitution. He soon found, however, that the opinion of all classes, including the army, was solidly against him, and he decided to risk all on an alliance with the reviving fortunes of Austria, which was steadily working for the restoration of the _status quo_ overthrown by the revolution of 1848. On his advice the elector seceded from the Northern Union established by Prussia and, on the 13th of September, committed the folly of flying secretly from Hesse with his minister. They went to Frankfort, where the federal diet had been re-established, and on the 21st persuaded the diet to decree an armed intervention in Hesse. This decree, carried out by Austrian troops, all but led to war with Prussia, but the unreadiness of the Berlin government led to the triumph of Austria and of Hassenpflug, who at the end of the year was once more installed in power at Cassel as minister of finance. His position was, however, not enviable; he was loathed and despised by all, and disliked even by his master. The climax came in November 1853, when he was publicly horse-whipped by the count of Isenburg-Wachtersbach, the elector's son-in-law. The count was pronounced insane; but Hassenpflug was conscious of the method in his madness, and tendered his resignation. This was, however, not accepted; and it was not till the 16th of October 1855 that he was finally relieved of his offices. He retired to Marburg, where he died on the 15th of October 1862. He lived just long enough to hear of the restoration of the Hesse constitution of 1831 (June 21, 1862), which it had been his life's mission to destroy. Of his publications the most important is _Actenstucke, die landstandischen Anklagen wider den Kurfurstlichen hessischen Staatsminister Hassenpflug. Ein Beitrag zur Zeitgeschichte und zum neueren deutschen Staatsrechte_, anonym. (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1836). He was twice married, his first wife being the sister of the brothers Grimm. His son Karl Hassenpflug (1824-1890) was a distinguished sculptor.

See the biography by Wippermann in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_,
with authorities.

HASTINAPUR, an ancient city of British India, in the Meerut district of the United Provinces, lying on the bank of a former bed of the Ganges, 22 m. N.E. of Meerut. It formed the capital of the great Pandava kingdom, celebrated in the _Mahabharata_, and probably one of the earliest Aryan settlements outside the Punjab. Tradition points to a group of shapeless mounds as the residence of the Lunar princes of the house of Bharata whose deeds are commemorated in the great national epic. After the conclusion of the famous war which forms the central episode of that poem, Hastinapur remained for some time the metropolis of the descendants of Parikshit, but the town was finally swept away by a flood of the Ganges, and the capital was transferred to Kausambi.

HASTINGS, a famous English family. JOHN, BARON HASTINGS (c. 1262-c. 1313), was a son of Sir Henry de Hastings (d. 1268), who was summoned to parliament as a baron by Simon de Montfort in 1264. Having joined Montfort's party Sir Henry led the Londoners at the battle of Lewes and was taken prisoner at Evesham. After his release he continued his opposition to Henry III.; he was among those who resisted the king at Kenilworth, and after the issue of the _Dictum de Kenilworth_ he commanded the remnants of the baronial party when they made their last stand in the isle of Ely, submitting to Henry in July 1267. His younger son, Edmund, was specially noted for his military services in Scotland during the reign of Edward I. John Hastings married Isabella (d. 1305), daughter of William de Valence, earl of Pembroke, a half-brother of Henry III., and fought in Scotland and in Wales. Through his mother, Joanna de Cantilupe, he inherited the extensive lordship of Abergavenny, hence he is sometimes referred to as lord of Bergavenny, and in 1295 he was summoned to parliament as a baron. Before this date, however, he had come somewhat prominently to the front. His paternal grandmother, Ada, was a younger daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, and a niece of the Scottish king, William the Lion; and in 1290 when Margaret, the maid of Norway, died, Hastings came forward as a claimant for the vacant throne. Although unsuccessful in the matter he did not swerve from his loyalty to Edward I. He fought constantly either in France or in Scotland; he led the bishop of Durham's men at the celebrated siege of Carlaverock castle in 1300; and with his brother Edmund he signed the letter which in 1301 the English barons sent to Pope Boniface VIII. repudiating papal interference in the affairs of Scotland; on two occasions he represented the king in Aquitaine. Hastings died in 1312 or 1313. His second wife was Isabella, daughter of the elder Hugh le Despenser. Hastings, who was one of the most wealthy and powerful nobles of his time, stood high in the regard of the king and is lauded by the chroniclers.

His eldest son JOHN (d. 1325), who succeeded to the barony, was the father of Laurence Hastings, who was created earl of Pembroke in 1339, the earls of Pembroke retaining the barony of Hastings until 1389. A younger son by a second marriage, Sir Hugh Hastings (c. 1307-1347), saw a good deal of military service in France; his portrait and also that of his wife may still be seen on the east window of Elsing church, which contains a beautiful brass to his memory.

On the death of John, the third and last earl of Pembroke of the Hastings family, in 1389, Sir Hugh's son JOHN had, according to a decision of the House of Lords in 1840, a title to the barony of Hastings, but he did not prosecute his claim and he died without sons in 1393. However his grand-nephew and heir, Hugh (d. 1396), claimed the barony, which was also claimed by Reginald, Lord Grey of Ruthyn. Like the earls of Pembroke, Grey was descended through his grandmother, Elizabeth Hastings, from John, Lord Hastings, by his first wife; Hugh, on the other hand, was descended from John's second wife. After Hugh's death his brother, Sir Edward Hastings (c. 1382-1438), claimed the barony, and the case as to who should bear the arms of the Hastings family came before the court of chivalry. In 1410 it was decided in favour of Grey, who thereupon assumed the arms. Both disputants still claimed the barony, but the view seems to have prevailed that it had fallen into abeyance in 1389. Sir Edward was imprisoned for refusing to pay his rival's costs, and he was probably still in prison when he died in January 1438. After his death the Hastings family, which became extinct during the 16th century, tacitly abandoned the claim to the barony. Then in 1840 the title was revived in favour of Sir Jacob Astley, Bart. (1797-1859), who derived his claim from a daughter of Sir Hugh Hastings who died in 1540. Sir Jacob's descendant, Albert Edward (b. 1882), became 21st Baron Hastings in 1904.

A distant relative of the same family was William, Baron Hastings (c. 1430-1483), a son of Sir Leonard Hastings (d. 1455). He became attached to Edward IV., whom he served before his accession to the throne, and after this event he became master of the mint, chamberlain of the royal household and one of the king's most trusted advisers. Having been made a baron in 1461, he married Catherine, daughter of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury, and was frequently sent on diplomatic errands to Burgundy and elsewhere. He was faithful to Edward IV. during the king's exile in the winter of 1470-1471, and after his return he fought for him at Barnet and at Tewkesbury; he has been accused of taking part in the murder of Henry VI.'s son, prince Edward, after the latter battle. Hastings succeeded his sovereign in the favour of Jane Shore. He was made captain of Calais in 1471, and was with Edward IV. when he met Louis XI. of France at Picquigny in 1475, on which occasion he received gifts from Louis and from Charles the Bold of Burgundy. After Edward IV.'s death Hastings behaved in a somewhat undecided manner. He disliked the queen, Elizabeth Woodville, but he refused to ally himself with Richard, duke of Gloucester, afterwards King Richard III. Suddenly Richard decided to get rid of him, and during a meeting of the council on the 13th of June 1483 he was seized and at once put to death. This dramatic incident is related by Sir Thomas More in his _History of Richard III._, and has been worked by Shakespeare into his play _Richard III._ Hastings is highly praised by his friend Philippe de Commines, and also by More. He left a son, Edward (d. 1508), the father of George, Baron Hastings (c. 1488-1545), who was created earl of Huntingdon (q.v.) in 1529.

When Francis, 10th earl of Huntingdon, died in October 1789, the barony of Hastings passed to his sister Elizabeth (1731-1808), wife of John Rawdon, earl of Moira, and from her it came to her son Francis Rawdon-Hastings (see below), who was created marquess of Hastings in 1817.

HASTINGS, FRANCIS RAWDON-HASTINGS, 1st MARQUESS OF (1754-1826), British soldier and governor-general of India, born on the 9th of December 1754, was the son of Sir John Rawdon of Moira in the county of Down, 4th baronet, who was created Baron Rawdon of Moira, and afterwards earl of Moira, in the Irish peerage. His mother was the Lady Elizabeth Hastings, daughter of Theophilus, 9th earl of Huntingdon. Lord Rawdon, as he was then called, was educated at Harrow and Oxford, and joined the army in 1771 as ensign in the 15th foot. His life henceforth was entirely spent in the service of his country, and may be divided into four periods: from 1775 to 1782 he was engaged with much distinction in the American war; from 1783 to 1813 he held various high appointments at home, and took an active part in the business of the House of Lords; from 1813 to 1823 was the period of his labours in India; after retiring from which, in the last years of his life (1824-1826), he was governor of Malta.

In America Rawdon served at the battles of Bunker Hill, Brooklyn, White Plains, Monmouth and Camden, at the attacks on Forts Washington and Clinton, and at the siege of Charleston. In fact he was engaged in many important operations of the war. Perhaps his most noted achievements were the raising of a corps at Philadelphia, called the Irish Volunteers, who under him became famous for their fighting qualities, and the victory of Hobkirk's Hill, which, in command of only a small force, he gained by superior military skill and determination against a much larger body of Americans. In 1781 he was invalided. The vessel in which he returned to England was captured and carried into Brest. He was speedily released, and on his arrival in England was much honoured by George III., who created him an English peer (Baron Rawdon) in March 1783. In 1789 his mother succeeded to the barony of Hastings, and Rawdon added the surname of Hastings to his own.

In 1793 Rawdon succeeded his father as earl of Moira. In 1794 he was sent with 7000 men to Ostend to reinforce the duke of York and the allies in Flanders. The march by which he effected a junction was considered extraordinary. In 1803 he was appointed commander-in-chief in Scotland, and in 1804 he married Flora Mure Campbell, countess of Loudoun in her own right. When Fox and Grenville came into power in 1806, Lord Moira, who had always voted with them, received the place of master-general of the ordnance. He was now enabled to carry a philanthropic measure, of which from his first entry into the House of Lords he had been a great promoter, namely, the Debtor and Creditor Bill for relief of poor debtors. Ireland was another subject to which he had given particular attention: in 1797 there was published a _Speech by Lord Moira on the Dreadful and Alarming State of Ireland_. Lord Moira's sound judgment on public affairs, combined with his military reputation and the uprightness of his character, won for him a high position among the statesmen of the day, and he gained an additional _prestige_ from his intimate relations with the prince of Wales. As a mark of the regent's regard Lord Moira received the order of the Garter in 1812, and in the same year was appointed governor-general of Bengal and commander-in-chief of the forces in India. He landed at Calcutta, and assumed office in succession to Lord Minto in October 1813. One of the chief questions which awaited him was that of relations with the Gurkha state of Nepal. The Gurkhas, a brave and warlike little nation, failing to extend their conquests in the direction of China, had begun to encroach on territories held or protected by the East India Company; especially they had seized the districts of Batwal and Seoraj, in the northern part of Oudh, and when called upon to relinquish these, they deliberately elected (April 1814) to go to war rather than do so. Lord Moira, having travelled through the northern provinces and fully studied the question, declared war against Nepal (November 1814). The enemy's frontier was 600 m. long, and Lord Moira, who directed the plan of the campaign, resolved to act offensively along the whole line. It was an anxious undertaking, because the native states of India were all watching the issue and waiting for any serious reverse to the English to join against them. At first all seemed to go badly, as the British officers despised the enemy, and the sepoys were unaccustomed to mountain warfare, and thus alternate extremes of rashness and despondency were exhibited. But this rectified itself in time, especially through the achievements of General (afterwards Sir David) Ochterlony, who before the end of 1815 had taken all the Gurkha posts to the west, and early in 1816 was advancing victoriously within 50 m. of Khatmandu, the capital. The Gurkhas now made peace; they abandoned the disputed districts, ceded some territory to the British, and agreed to receive a British resident. For his masterly conduct of these affairs Lord Moira was created marquess of Hastings in February 1817.

He had now to deal with internal dangers. A combination of Mahratta powers was constantly threatening the continuance of British rule, under the guise of plausible assurances severally given by the peshwa, Sindhia, Holkar and other princes. At the same time the existence of the Pindari state was not only dangerous to the British, as being a warlike power always ready to turn against them, but it was a scourge to India itself. In 1816, however, the Pindaris entered British territory in the Northern Circars, where they destroyed 339 villages. On this, permission was obtained to act for their suppression. Before the end of 1817 the preparations of Lord Hastings were completed, when the peshwa suddenly broke into war, and the British were opposed at once to the Mahratta and Pindari powers, estimated at 200,000 men and 500 guns. Both were utterly shattered in a brief campaign of four months (1817-18). The peshwa's dominions were annexed, and those of Sindhia, Holkar, and the raja of Berar lay at the mercy of the governor-general, and were saved only by his moderation. Thus, after sixty years from the battle of Plassey, the supremacy of British power in India was effectively established. The Pindaris had ceased to exist, and peace and security had been substituted for misery and terror.

"It is a proud phrase to use," said Lord Hastings, "but it is a true
one, that we have bestowed blessings upon millions. Nothing can be
more delightful than the reports I receive of the sensibility
manifested by the inhabitants to this change in their circumstances.
The smallest detachment of our troops cannot pass through that
district without meeting everywhere eager and exulting gratulations,
the tone of which proves them to come from glowing hearts. Multitudes
of people have, even in this short interval, come from the hills and
fastnesses in which they had sought refuge for years, and have
reoccupied their ancient deserted villages. The ploughshare is again
in every quarter turning up a soil which had for many seasons never
been stirred, except by the hoofs of predatory cavalry."