Chapter M: T. M (19)

In a wet district such as the west of Ireland the "making" is a difficult affair and large quantities of hay are often spoiled, while much labour has to be spent in cocking up, turning over, ricking, &c., before it is fit to be stacked up. On the other hand, in the dry districts of south-eastern England it is often possible to cut and carry the hay without any special "making," as the sun and wind will dry it quickly enough to fit it for stacking up without the expenditure of much labour. This rule also applies to dry countries like the United States and several of the British colonies, and it is for this reason that most of the modern implements used for quickly handling a bulk of hay have been invented or improved in those countries. Forage of all kinds intended for hay should be cut at or before the flowering stage if possible. The full growth and food value of the plant are reached then, and further change consists in the formation and ripening of the seed at the expense of the leaves and stems, leaving these hard and woody and of less feeding value.

Grass or other forage, when growing, contains a large proportion of water, and after cutting must be left to dry in the sun and wind, a process which may at times be assisted by turning over or shaking up. In fine weather in the south of England grass is sufficiently dried in from two to four days to be stacked straight away. In Scotland or other districts where the rainfall is heavy and the air moist, it is first put into small field-ricks or "pykes" of from 10 to 20 cwt. each. In the drying process the 75% of water usually present in grass should be reduced to approximately 15% in the hay, and in wet or broken weather it is exceedingly difficult to secure this reduction. With a heavy crop or in damp weather grass may need turning in the swathe, raking up into "windrows," and then making up into cocks or "quiles," i.e. round beehive-like heaps, before it can be "carried." A properly made cock will stand bad weather for a week, as only the outside straws are weathered, and therefore the hay is kept fresh and green. Indeed, it is a good rule always to cock hay, for even in sunny weather undue exposure ends in bleaching, which is almost as detrimental to its quality as wet-weathering.

In the last quarter of the 19th century the methods of haymaking were completely changed, and even some of the principles underlying its practice were revised. Generally speaking, before that time the only implements used were the scythe, the rake and the pitchfork; nowadays--with the exception of the pitchfork--these implements are seldom used, except where the work is carried on in a small way. Instead of the scythe, for instance, the mowing machine is employed for cutting the crop, and with a modern improved machine taking a swathe as wide as 5 or 6 ft. some 10 acres per day can easily be mown by one man and a pair of horses (figs. 1 and 2).

It will be seen from the figures that a mower consists of three
principal parts: (1) a truck or carriage on two high wheels carrying
the driving gear; (2) the cutting mechanism, comprising a
reciprocating knife or sickle operating through slots in the guards or
"fingers" fastened to the cutting bar which projects to either the
right or left of the truck; and (3) the pole with whipple-trees, by
which the horses are attached to give the motive power. The
reciprocating knife has a separate blade to correspond to each finger,
and is driven by a connecting rod and crank on the fore part of the
truck. In work the pointed "fingers" pass in between the stalks of
grass and the knives shear them off, acting against the fingers as the
crank drives them backwards and forwards. In the swathe of grass left
behind by the machine, the stalks are, in a manner, thatched over one
another, so that it is in the best position for drying in the sun, or,
per contra, for shedding off the rain if the weather is wet. This is a
great point in favour of the use of the machine, because the swathe
left by the scythe required to be "tedded" out, i.e. the grass had
to be shaken out or spread to allow it to be more easily dried.

After the grass has lain in the swathe a day or two till it is partly dried, it is necessary to turn it over to dry the other side. This used to be done with the hand rake, and a band of men or women would advance in _echelon_ across a field, each turning the swathe of hay by regular strokes of the rake at each step: "driving the dusky wave along the mead" as described in Thomson's _Seasons._ This part of the work was the act of "haymaking" proper, and the subject of much sentiment in both prose and poetry. The swathes as laid by the mowing machine lent themselves to this treatment in the old days when the swathe was only some 3 to 4 ft. wide, but with the wide cut of the present day it becomes impracticable. If the hay is turned and "made" at all, the operation is now generally performed by a machine made for the purpose. There is a wide selection of "tedders" or "kickers," and "swathe-turners" on the market. The one illustrated in fig. 3 is the first prize winner at the Royal Agricultural Society's trials (1907). It takes two swathes at a time, and it will be seen that the working part consists of a wheel or circle of prongs or tines, which revolves _across_ the line of the swathe. Each prong in turn catches the edge of the swathe of grass and kicks it up and over, thus turning it and leaving it loose for the wind to blow through.

The "kicker" is mounted on two wheels, and carries in bearings at the rear of the frame a multiple-cranked shaft, provided with a series of forks sleeved on the cranks and having their upper ends connected by links to the frame. As the crankshaft is driven from the wheels by proper gearing the forks move upward and forward, then downward and rearward, in an elliptical path, and kick the hay sharply to the rear, thus scattering and turning it.

It is a moot point, however, whether grass should be turned at all, or left to "make" as it falls from the mowing machine. In a dry sunny season and with a moderate crop it is only a waste of time and labour to turn it, for it will be cured quite well as it lies, especially if raked up into loose "windrows" a little before carrying to the stack. On the other hand, where the crop is heavy (say over 2 tons per acre) or the climate is wet, turning will be necessary.

With heavy crops of clover, lucerne and similar forage crops, turning may be an absolute necessity, because a thick swathe of a succulent crop will be difficult to dry or "make" excepting in hot sunny weather, but with ordinary meadow grass or with a mixture of "artificial" grasses it may often be dispensed with. It must be remembered, however, that the process of turning breaks the stalks (thus letting out the albuminoid and saccharine juices), and should be avoided as far as possible in order to save both labour and the quality of the hay.

One of the earlier mechanical inventions in connexion with haymaking
was that of the horse rake (fig. 4). Before its introduction the hay,
after making, had to be gathered up by the hand rake--a tedious and
laborious process--but the introduction of this implement, whereby one
horse and one man can do work before requiring six or eight men,
marked a great advance. The horse rake is a framework on two wheels
carrying hinged steel teeth placed 3 in. apart, so that their points
slide along the ground below the hay. In work it gathers up the loose
hay, and when full a tipping mechanism permits the emptying of the
load.

The tipping is effected by pulling down a handle which sets a leverage
device in motion, whereby the teeth are lifted up and the load of hay
dropped below and left behind. On some rakes a clutch is worked by the
driver's foot, and this put in action causes the ordinary forward
revolving motion of the driving wheels to do the tipping.

The loads are tipped end to end as the rake passes and repasses at the
work, and thus the hay is left loose in long parallel rows on the
field. Each row is termed a "windrow," the passage of the wind through
the hay greatly aiding the drying and "making" thereof. When hay is in
this form it may either be carried direct to the stack if sufficiently
"made," or else put into cocks to season a little longer. The original
width of horse rakes was about 8 ft., but nowadays they range up to 16
and 18 ft. The width should be suited to that of the swathes as left
by the mower, and as the latter is now made to cut 5 and 6 ft. wide,
it is necessary to have a rake to cover two widths. The very wide
rakes are only suitable for even, level land; those of less width must
be used where the land has been laid down in ridge and furrow. As the
swathes lie in long parallel rows, it is a great convenience in
working for two to be taken in width at a time, so that the horse can
walk in the space between.

The side-delivery rake, a development of the ordinary horse rake, is a
useful implement, adapted for gathering and laying a quantity of hay
in one continuous windrow. It is customary with this to go up the
field throwing two swathes to one side, and then back down on the
adjacent swathes, so that thus four are thrown into one central
windrow. The implement consists of a frame carried on two wheels with
shafts for a horse; across the frame are fixed travelling or revolving
prongs of different varieties which pick up the hay off the ground and
pass it along sideways across the line of travel, leaving it in one
continuous line. Some makes of swathe-turners are designed to do this
work as well as the turning of the hay.

Perhaps the greatest improvement of modern times is the method of
carrying the hay from the field to the stack. An American invention
known as the sweep rake was introduced by the writer into England in
1894, and now in many modified forms is in very general use in the
Midlands and south of England, where the hay is carried from the cock,
windrow or swathe straight to the stack. This implement consists of a
wheeled framework fitted with long wooden iron-pointed teeth which
slide along the ground; two horses are yoked to it--one at each
side--the driver directing from a central seat behind the framework.
When in use it is taken to the farther end of a row of cocks, a
windrow, or even to a row of untouched swathes on the ground, and
walked forward. As it advances it scoops up a load, and when full is
drawn to where the stack is being erected (fig. 5). In ordinary
circumstances the sweep rake will pick up at a load two-thirds of an
ordinary cart-load, but, where the hay is in good order and it is
swept down hill, a whole one-horse cart-load can be carried each time.
The drier the hay the better will the sweep rake work, and if it is
not working sweetly but has a tendency to clog or make rolls of hay,
it may be inferred that the latter is not in a condition fit for
stacking. Where the loads must be taken through a gateway or a long
distance to the stack, it is necessary to use carts or wagons, and the
loading of these in the field out of the windrow is largely expedited
by the use of the "loader," also an American invention of which many
varieties are in the market. Generally speaking, it consists of a
frame carrying a revolving web with tines or prongs. The implement is
hitched on behind a cart or wagon, and as it moves forward the web
picks the loose hay off the ground and delivers it on the top, where a
man levels it with a pitchfork and builds it into a load ready to move
to the stack. At the stack the most convenient method of transferring
the hay from a cart, wagon or sweep rake is the elevator, a tall
structure with a revolving web carrying teeth or spikes (fig. 6). The
hay is thrown in forkfuls on at the bottom, a pony-gear causes the web
to revolve, and the hay is carried in an almost continuous stream up
the elevator and dropped over the top on to the stack. The whole
implement is made to fold down, and is provided with wheels so that it
can be moved from stack to stack. In the older forms there is a
"hopper" or box at the bottom into which the hay is thrown to enable
the teeth of the web to catch it, but in the modern forms there is no
hopper, the web reaching down to the ground so that hay can be picked
up from the ground level. Where the hay is brought to the stack on
carts or wagons it can be unloaded by means of the horse fork. This is
an adaptation of the principle of the ordinary crane; a central pole
and jib are supported by guy ropes, and from the end of the jib a rope
runs over a pulley. At the end of this rope is a "fork" formed of two
sets of prongs which open and shut. This is lowered on to the load of
hay, the prongs are forced into it, a horse pulls at the other end of
the rope, and the prongs close and "grab" several cwt. of hay which
are swung up and dropped on the stack. In this way a large cart or
wagon load is hoisted on to the stack in three or four "forkfuls." The
horse fork is not suited for use with the sweep rake, however, because
the hay is brought up to the stack in a loose flat heap without
sufficient body for the fork to get hold of.

In northern and wet districts of England it is customary to "make" the hay as in the south, but it is then built up into little stacks in the field where it grew (ricks, pykes or tramp-cocks are names used for these in different districts), each containing about 10 to 15 cwt. These are made in the same way as the ordinary stack--one person on top building, another on the ground pitching up the hay--and are carefully roped and raked down. In these the hay gets a preliminary sweating or tempering while at the same time it is rendered safe from the weather, and, thus stored, it may remain for weeks before being carried to the big stacks at the homestead. The practice of putting up the hay into little ricks in the field has brought about the introduction of another set of implements for carrying these to the stackyard.

Various forms of rick-lifters are in use, the characteristic feature
of which is a tipping platform on wheels to which a horse is attached
between shafts. The vehicle is backed against a rick, and a chain
passed round the bottom of the latter, which is then pulled up the
slant of the tipped platform by means of a small windlass. When the
centre of the balance is passed, the platform carrying the rick tips
back to the level, and the whole is thus loaded ready to move. Another
variety of loader is formed of three shear-legs with block and tackle.
These are placed over a rick, under which the grab-irons are passed,
and the whole hauled up by a horse. When high enough a cart is backed
in below, the rick lowered, and the load is ready to carry away.

When put into a stack the next stage in curing the hay begins--the heating or sweating. In the growing plants the tissues are composed of living cells containing protoplasm. This continues its life action as long as it gets sufficient moisture and air. As life action involves the development of heat, the temperature in a confined space like a stack where the heat is not dissipated may rise to such a point that spontaneous combustion occurs. The chemical or physical reasons for this are not very well understood. The starch and sugar contents of the tissues are changed in part into alcohol. In the analogous process of making silage (i.e. stacking wet green grass in a closed building) the alcohol develops into acetic acid, thus making "sour" silage. In a haystack the intermediate body, acetaldehyde, which is both inflammable and suffocating, is produced--men having been suffocated when sleeping on the top of a heating stack. The production of this gas leads to slow combustion and ignition. One explanation of the process is that the protoplasm of the cells acts as a fermenting agent (like yeast) until a temperature sufficient to kill germ life, say 150 deg. F., is reached, beyond which the action which leads up to the temperature of ignition must be purely chemical. If the stack contains no air at all it does not heat, or if it has excess of air it is safe. The danger-point in a stack is the centre at about 6 ft. from the ground; below this the weight of the hay itself squeezes out the air, and at the sides and top the heat is dissipated outwards. If a stack shows signs of overheating (a process that may take weeks or even months to develop) it can be saved by cutting a gap in the side of it with the hay knife, thus letting out the heat and fumes, and admitting fresh air to the centre. The essential point in haymaking is that the hay should be dried sufficiently to ensure the sweating process in the stack reaching no further than the stage of the formation of sugar. Good hay should come out green and with the odour of coumarin--to which is due the scent of new-mown hay. Only part of a stack can ever attain to a perfect state: the tops, bottom and outsides are generally wasted by the weather after stacking, while there may be three or four intermediate qualities present. In some markets hay that has been sweated till it is brown in colour is desired, but for general purposes green hay is the best.

Hay often becomes musty when the weather during "making" has been too wet to allow of its getting sufficiently dry for stacking. Mustiness is caused by the growth of various moulds (_Penicillium_, _Aspergillus_, &c.) on the damp stems, with the result that the hay when cut out for use is dusty and shows white streaks and spots. Such hay is inferior to that which has been overheated, and in practice it is found that a strong heating will prevent mouldiness by killing the fungi.

Heavy lush crops--especially those containing a large proportion of clover or other leguminous plants--are proportionately more difficult to "make" than light grassy ones. Thus, if one ton is taken as a fair yield off one acre, a two-ton crop will probably require four times as much work in curing as the smaller crop. In the treacherous climate of Great Britain hay is frequently spoiled because the weather does not hold good long enough to permit of its being properly "made." Consequently many experienced haymakers regard a moderate crop as the more profitable because it can be stacked in first-class condition, whereas a heavy crop forced by "high farming" is grown at a loss, owing to the weather waste and the heavier expenses involved in securing it.

In handling or marketing out of the stack hay may be transported loose
on a cart or wagon, but it is more usual to truss or bale it. A truss
is a rectangular block cut out of the solid stack, usually about 3 ft.
long and 2 ft. wide, and of a thickness sufficient to give a weight of
56 lb.: thirty-six of these constitute a "load" of 18 cwt.--the unit
of sale in many markets. A truss is generally bound with two bands of
twisted straw, but if it has to undergo much handling it is compressed
in a hay-press and tied with two string bands. In some districts a
baler is used: a square box with a compressible lid. The hay is
tumbled in loose, the lid forced down by a leverage arrangement and
the bale tied by three strings. It is usually made to weigh from 1 to
1(1/2) cwt. The customs of different markets vary very much in their
methods of handling hay, and in the overseas hay trade the size and
style of the trusses or bales are adapted for packing on ship-board.

HAYASHI, TADASU, COUNT (1850- ), Japanese statesman, was born in Tokyo (then Yedo), and was one of the first batch of students sent by the Tokugawa government to study in England. He returned on the eve of the abolition of the Shogunate, and followed Enomoto (q.v.) when the latter, sailing with the Tokugawa fleet to Yezo, attempted to establish a republic there in defiance of the newly organized government of the emperor. Thrown into prison on account of this affair, Hayashi did not obtain office until 1871. Thereafter he rose rapidly, until, after a long period of service as vice-minister of foreign affairs, he was appointed to represent his country first in Peking, then in St Petersburg and finally in London, where he acted an important part in negotiating the first Anglo-Japanese Alliance, for which service he received the title of viscount. He remained in London throughout the Russo-Japanese War, and was the first Japanese ambassador at the court of St James after the war. Returning to Tokyo in 1906 to take the portfolio of foreign affairs, he remained in office until the resignation of the Saionji cabinet in 1908. He was raised to the rank of count for eminent services performed during the war between his country and Russia, and in connexion with the second Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1905.

HAYDEN, FERDINAND VANDEVEER (1829-1887), American geologist, was born at Westfield, Massachusetts, on the 7th of September 1829. He graduated from Oberlin College in 1850 and from the Albany Medical College in 1853, where he attracted the notice of Professor James Hall, state geologist of New York, through whose influence he was induced to join in an exploration of Nebraska. In 1856 he was engaged under the United States government, and commenced a series of investigations of the Western Territories, one result of which was his _Geological Report of the Exploration of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers in 1859-1860_ (1869). During the Civil War he was actively employed as an army surgeon. In 1867 he was appointed geologist-in-charge of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, and from his twelve years of labour there resulted a most valuable series of volumes in all branches of natural history and economic science; and he issued in 1877 his _Geological and Geographical Atlas of Colorado_. Upon the reorganization and establishment of the United States Geological Survey in 1879 he acted for seven years as one of the geologists. He died at Philadelphia on the 22nd of December 1887.

His other publications were: _Sun Pictures of Rocky Mountain Scenery_
(1870); _The Yellowstone National Park_, illustrated by
chromolithographic reproductions of water-colour sketches by Thomas
Moran (1876); _The Great West: its Attractions and Resources_ (1880).
With F. B. Meek, he wrote (_Smithsonian Institution Contributions_, v.
14. Art. 4) "Palaeontology of the Upper Missouri, Pt. 1,
Invertebrate." His valuable notes on Indian dialects are in _The
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society_ (1862), in _The
American Journal of Science_ (1862) and in _The Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society_ (1869). With A. R. C. Selwyn he wrote
_North America_ (1883) for Stanford's _Compendium_.

HAYDN, FRANZ JOSEPH (1732-1809), Austrian composer, was born on the 31st of March 1732 at Rohrau (Trstnik), a village on the borders of Lower Austria and Hungary. There is sufficient evidence that his family was of Croatian stock: a fact which throws light upon the distinctively Slavonic character of much of his music. He received the first rudiments of education from his father, a wheelwright with twelve children, and at an early age evinced a decided musical talent. This attracted the attention of a distant relative named Johann Mathias Frankh, who was schoolmaster in the neighbouring town of Hainburg, and who, in 1738, took the child and for the next two years trained him as a chorister. In 1740, on the recommendation of the Dean of Hainburg, Haydn obtained a place in the cathedral choir of St Stephen's, Vienna, where he took the solo-part in the services and received, at the choir school, some further instruction on the violin and the harpsichord. In 1749 his voice broke, and the director, Georg von Reutter, took the occasion of a boyish escapade to turn him into the streets. A few friends lent him money and found him pupils, and in this way he was enabled to enter upon a rigorous course of study (he is said to have worked for sixteen hours a day), partly devoted to Fux's treatise on counterpoint, partly to the "Friedrich" and "Wurttemberg" sonatas of C. P. E. Bach, from which he gained his earliest acquaintance with the principles of musical structure. The first fruits of his work were a comic opera, _Der neue krumme Teufel_, and a Mass in F major (both written in 1751), the former of which was produced with success. About the same time he made the acquaintance of Metastasio, who was lodging in the same house, and who introduced him to one or two patrons; among others Senor Martinez, to whose daughter he gave lessons, and Porpora, who, in 1753, took him for the summer to Mannersdorf, and there gave him instruction in singing and in the Italian language.

The turning-point of his career came in 1755, when he accepted an invitation to the country-house of Freiherr von Furnberg, an accomplished amateur who was in the habit of collecting parties of musicians for the performance of chamber-works. Here Haydn wrote, in rapid succession, eighteen divertimenti which include his first symphony and his first quartet; the two earliest examples of the forms with which his name is most closely associated. Thenceforward his prospects improved. On his return to Vienna in 1756 he became famous as teacher and composer, in 1759 he was appointed conductor to the private band of Count Morzin, for whom he wrote several orchestral works (including a symphony in D major erroneously called his first), and in 1760 he was promoted to the sub-directorship of Prince Paul Esterhazy's _Kapelle_, at that time the best in Austria. During the tenure of his appointment with Count Morzin he married the daughter of a Viennese hairdresser named Keller, who had befriended him in his days of poverty, but the marriage turned out ill and he was shortly afterwards separated from his wife, though he continued to support her until her death in 1800. From 1760 to 1790 he remained with the Esterhazys, principally at their country-seats of Esterhaz and Eisenstadt, with occasional visits to Vienna in the winter. In 1762 Prince Paul Esterhazy died and was succeeded by his brother Nicholas, surnamed the Magnificent, who increased Haydn's salary, showed him every mark of favour, and, on the death of Werner in 1766, appointed him _Oberkapellmeister_. With the encouragement of a discriminating patron, a small but excellent orchestra and a free hand, Haydn made the most of his opportunity and produced a continuous stream of compositions in every known musical form. To this period belong five Masses, a dozen operas, over thirty clavier-sonatas, over forty quartets, over a hundred orchestral symphonies and overtures, a Stabat Mater, a set of interludes for the service of the Seven Words, an Oratorio _Tobias_ written for the _Tonkunstler-Societat_ of Vienna, and a vast number of concertos, divertimenti and smaller pieces, among which were no less than 175 for Prince Nicholas' favourite instrument, the baryton.

Meanwhile his reputation was spreading throughout Europe. A Viennese notice of his appointment as _Oberkapellmeister_ spoke of him as "the darling of our nation," his works were reprinted or performed in every capital from Madrid to St Petersburg. He received commissions from the cathedral of Cadiz, from the grand duke Paul, from the king of Prussia, from the directors of the _Concert Spirituel_ at Paris; beside his transactions with Breitkopf and Hartel, and with La Chevardiere, he sold to one English firm the copyright of no less than 129 compositions. But the most important fact of biography during these thirty years was his friendship with Mozart, whose acquaintance he made at Vienna in the winter of 1781-1782. There can have been little personal intercourse between them, for Haydn was rarely in the capital, and Mozart seems never to have visited Eisenstadt; but the cordiality of their relations and the mutual influence which they exercised upon one another are of the highest moment in the history of 18th-century music. "It was from Haydn that I first learned to write a quartet," said Mozart; it was from Mozart that Haydn learned the richer style and the fuller mastery of orchestral effect by which his later symphonies are distinguished.

In 1790 Prince Nicholas Esterhazy died and the _Kapelle_ was disbanded. Haydn, thus released from his official duties, forthwith accepted a commission from Salomon, the London concert-director, to write and conduct six symphonies for the concerts in the Hanover Square Rooms. He arrived in England at the beginning of 1791 and was welcomed with the greatest enthusiasm, receiving among other honours the degree of D Mus. from the university of Oxford. In June 1792 he returned home, and, breaking his journey at Bonn, was presented with a Cantata by Beethoven, then aged two-and-twenty, whom he invited to come to Vienna as his pupil. The lessons, which were not very successful, lasted for about a year, and were then interrupted by Haydn's second visit to England (January 1794 to July 1795), where he produced the last six of his "Salomon" symphonies. From 1795 onward he resided in the Mariahilf suburb of Vienna, and there wrote his last eight Masses, the last and finest of his chamber works, the Austrian national anthem (1797), the _Creation_ (1799) and the _Seasons_ (1801). His last choral composition which can be dated with any certainty was the Mass in C minor, written in 1802 for the name-day of Princess Esterhazy. Thenceforward his health declined, and his closing years, surrounded by the love of friends and the esteem of all musicians, were spent almost wholly in retirement. On the 27th of March 1808 he was able to attend a performance of the _Creation_, given in his honour, but it was his last effort, and on the 31st of May 1809 he died, aged seventy-seven. Among the mourners who followed him to the grave were many French officers from Napoleon's army, which was then occupying Vienna.

Haydn's place in musical history is best determined by his instrumental compositions. His operas, for all their daintiness and melody, no longer hold the stage; the Masses in which he "praised God with a cheerful heart" have been condemned by the severer decorum of our own day; of his oratorios the _Creation_ alone survives. In all these his work belongs mainly to the style and idiom of a bygone generation: they are monuments, not landmarks, and their beauty and invention seem rather to close an epoch than to inaugurate its successor. Even the naif pictorial suggestion, of which free use is made in the _Creation_ and in the _Seasons_, is closer to the manner of Handel than to that of the 19th century: it is less the precursor of romance than the descendant of an earlier realism. But as the first great master of the quartet and the symphony his claim is incontestable. He began, half-consciously, by applying through the fuller medium the lessons of design which he had learned from C. P. E. Bach's sonatas; then the medium itself began to suggest wider horizons and new possibilities of treatment; his position at Eisenstadt enabled him to experiment without reserve; his genius, essentially symphonic in character, found its true outlet in the opportunities of pure musical structure. The quartets in particular exhibit a wider range and variety of structural invention than those of any other composer except Beethoven. Again it is here that we can most readily trace the important changes which he wrought in melodic idiom. Before his time instrumental music was chiefly written for the _Paradiesensaal_, and its melody often sacrificed vitality of idea to a ceremonial courtliness of phrase. Haydn broke through this convention by frankly introducing his native folk-music, and by writing many of his own tunes in the same direct, vigorous and simple style. The innovation was at first received with some disfavour; critics accustomed to polite formalism censured it as extravagant and undignified; but the freshness and beauty of its melody soon silenced all opposition, and did more than anything else throughout the 18th century to establish the principle of nationalism in musical art. The actual employment of Croatian folk-tunes may be illustrated from the string quartets Op. 17, No. 1; Op. 33, No. 3; Op. 50, No. 1; Op. 77, No. 1, and the Salomon Symphonies in D and E[flat], while there is hardly an instrumental composition of Haydn's in which his own melodies do not show some traces of the same influence. His natural idiom in short was that of a heightened and ennobled folk-song, and one of the most remarkable evidences of his genius was the power with which he adapted all his perfection and symmetry of style to the requirements of popular speech. His music is in this way singularly expressive; its humour and pathos are not only absolutely sincere, but so outspoken that we cannot fail to catch their significance.

In the development of instrumental polyphony Haydn's work was almost as important as that of Mozart. Having at his disposal a band of picked virtuosi he could produce effects as different from the tentative experiments of C. P. E. Bach as these were from the orchestral platitudes of Reutter or Hasse. His symphony _Le Midi_ (written in 1761) already shows a remarkable freedom and independence in the handling of orchestral forces, and further stages of advance were reached in the oratorio of _Tobias_, in the Paris and Salomon symphonies, and above all in the _Creation_, which turns to good account some of the debt which he owed to his younger contemporary. The importance of this lies not only in a greater richness of musical colour, but in the effect which it produced on the actual substance and texture of composition. The polyphony of Beethoven was unquestionably influenced by it and, even in his latest sonatas and quartets, may be regarded as its logical outcome.

The compositions of Haydn include 104 symphonies, 16 overtures, 76
quartets, 68 trios, 54 sonatas, 31 concertos and a large number of
divertimentos, cassations and other instrumental pieces; 24 operas and
dramatic pieces, 16 Masses, a Stabat Mater, interludes for the "Seven
Words," 3 oratorios, 2 Te Deums and many smaller pieces for the
church, over 40 songs, over 50 canons and arrangements of Scottish and
Welsh national melodies.

His younger brother, JOHANN MICHAEL HAYDN (1737-1806), was also a chorister at St Stephen's, and shortly after leaving the choir-school was appointed _Kapellmeister_ at Grosswardein (1755) and at Salzburg (1762). The latter office he held for forty-three years, during which time he wrote over 360 compositions for the church and much instrumental music, which, though unequal, deserves more consideration than it has received. He was the intimate friend of Mozart, who had a high opinion of his genius, and the teacher of C. M. von Weber. His most important works were the _Missa hispanica_, which he exchanged for his diploma at Stockholm, a Mass in D minor, a Lauda Sion, a set of graduals, forty-two of which are reprinted in Diabelli's _Ecclesiasticon_, three symphonies (1785), and a string quintet in C major which has been erroneously attributed to Joseph Haydn. Another brother, JOHANN EVANGELIST HAYDN (1743-1805), gained some reputation as a tenor vocalist, and was for many years a member of Prince Esterhazy's _Kapelle_.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. Mayr, _Brevi notizie storiche della vita e delle
opere di Giuseppe Haydn_ (1809); Griesinger, _Biographische Notizen
uber Joseph Haydn_ (1810); Carpani, _Le Haydeni_ (1812 and 1823);
Bombet (M. de Stendhal), _Vies de Haydn, de Mozart et de Metastase_
(Paris, 1854); Karajan, _Joseph Haydn in London_ (1861); C. F. Pohl,
_Mozart und Haydn in London_ (1867); _Joseph Haydn_ (vol. i. 1875,
vol. ii. 1882: this, the standard biography, was left unfinished at Dr
Pohl's death and needs a third volume to complete it); article on
Haydn in Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_; Fr. S. Kuhac,
_Josip Haydn i Hravatske Narodne Popievke_ (Joseph Haydn and the
Croatian Folk-songs) (Agram, 1880); A. Niggli, _Joseph Haydn, sein
Leben und Werken_ (Basel, 1882); L. Nohl, _Biographie Haydns_
(Leipzig, Reclam); P. D. Townsend; _Joseph Haydn_ (London, 1884),
Biography in H. Reimann's _Beruhmte Musiker_ (Berlin, 1898); J. C.
Hadden, _Joseph Haydn_ (Great Musicians series) (London, 1902). To
these should be added the list of Haydn's symphonies printed in Alfred
Wotquenne's _Catalogue de la Bibliotheque du Conservatoire Royal de
Bruxelles_, vol. ii. (1902). (W. H. Ha.)

HAYDON, BENJAMIN ROBERT (1786-1846), English historical painter and writer, was born at Plymouth on the 26th of January 1786. His mother was the daughter of the Rev. Benjamin Cobley, rector of Dodbrook, Devon, whose son, General Sir Thomas Cobley, signalized himself in the Russian service at the siege of Ismail. His father, a prosperous printer, stationer and publisher, was a man of literary taste, and was well known and esteemed amongst all classes in Plymouth. Haydon, an only son, at an early date gave evidence of his taste for study, which was carefully fostered and promoted by his mother. At the age of six he was placed in Plymouth grammar school, and at twelve in Plympton St Mary school. He completed his education in this institution, where Sir Joshua Reynolds also had acquired all the scholastic training he ever received. On the ceiling of the school-room was a sketch by Reynolds in burnt cork, which it used to be Haydon's delight to sit and contemplate. Whilst at school he had some thought of adopting the medical profession, but he was so shocked at the sight of an operation that he gave up the idea. A perusal of Albinus, however, inspired him with a love for anatomy; and Reynolds's discourses revived within him a smouldering taste for painting, which from childhood had been the absorbing idea of his mind.

Sanguine of success, full of energy and vigour, he started from the parental roof, on the 14th of May 1804, for London, and entered his name as a student of the Royal Academy. He began and prosecuted his studies with such unwearied ardour that Fuseli wondered when he ever found time to eat. At the age of twenty-one (1807) Haydon exhibited, for the first time, at the Royal Academy, "The Repose in Egypt," which was bought by Mr Thomas Hope the year after. This was a good start for the young artist, who shortly received a commission from Lord Mulgrave and an introduction to Sir George Beaumont. In 1809 he finished his well-known picture of "Dentatus," which, though it brought him a great increase of fame, involved him in a lifelong quarrel with the Royal Academy, whose committee had hung the picture in a small side-room instead of the great hall. In 1810 his difficulties began through the stoppage of an allowance of L200 a year he had received from his father. His disappointment was embittered by the controversies in which he now became involved with Sir George Beaumont, for whom he had painted his picture of "Macbeth," and Payne Knight, who had denied the beauties as well as the money value of the Elgin Marbles. "The Judgment of Solomon," his next production, gained him L700, besides L100 voted to him by the directors of the British Institution, and the freedom of the borough of Plymouth. To recruit his health and escape for a time from the cares of London life, Haydon joined his intimate friend Wilkie in a trip to Paris; he studied at the Louvre; and on his return to England produced his "Christ's Entry into Jerusalem," which afterwards formed the nucleus of the American Gallery of Painting, erected by his cousin, John Haviland of Philadelphia. Whilst painting another large work, the "Resurrection of Lazarus," his pecuniary difficulties increased, and for the first time he was arrested but not imprisoned, the sheriff-officer taking his word for his appearance. Amidst all these harassing cares he married in October 1821 a beautiful young widow who had some children, Mrs Hyman, to whom he was devotedly attached.

In 1823 Haydon was lodged in the King's Bench, where he received consoling letters from the first men of the day. Whilst a prisoner he drew up a petition to parliament in favour of the appointment of "a committee to inquire into the state of encouragement of historical painting," which was presented by Brougham. He also, during a second imprisonment in 1827, produced the picture of the "Mock Election," the idea of which had been suggested by an incident that happened in the prison. The king (George IV.) gave him L500 for this work. Among Haydon's other pictures were--1829, "Eucles" and "Punch"; 1831, "Napoleon at St Helena," for Sir Robert Peel; "Xenophon, on his Retreat with the 'Ten Thousand,' first seeing the Sea"; and "Waiting for the _Times_," purchased by the marquis of Stafford; 1832, "Falstaff" and "Achilles playing the Lyre." In 1834 he completed the "Reform Banquet," for Lord Grey--this painting contained 197 portraits; in 1843, "Curtius Leaping into the Gulf," and "Uriel and Satan." There was also the "Meeting of the Anti-Slavery Society," energetically treated, now in the National Portrait Gallery. When the competition took place at Westminster Hall, Haydon sent two cartoons, "The Curse of Adam" and "Edward the Black Prince," but, with some unfairness, he was not allowed a prize for either. He then painted "The Banishment of Aristides," which was exhibited with other productions under the same roof where the American dwarf Tom Thumb was then making his debut in London. The exhibition was unsuccessful; and the artist's difficulties increased to such an extent that, whilst employed on his last grand effort, "Alfred and the Trial by Jury," overcome by debt, disappointment and ingratitude, he wrote "Stretch me no longer on this rough world," and put an end to his existence with a pistol-shot, on the 22nd of June 1846, in the sixty-first year of his age. He left a widow and three children (various others had died), who, by the generosity of their father's friends, were rescued from their pecuniary difficulties and comfortably provided for; amongst the foremost of these friends were Sir Robert Peel, Count D'Orsay, Mr Justice Talfourd and Lord Carlisle.

Haydon began his first lecture on painting and design in 1835, and afterwards visited all the principal towns in England and Scotland. His delivery was energetic and imposing, his language powerful, flowing and apt, and replete with wit and humour; and to look at the lecturer, excited by his subject, one could scarcely fancy him a man overwhelmed with difficulties and anxieties. The height of Haydon's ambition was to behold the chief buildings of his country adorned with historical representations of her glory. He lived to see the acknowledgment of his principles by government in the establishment of schools of design, and the embellishment of the new houses of parliament; but in the competition of artists for the carrying out of this object, the commissioners (amongst whom was one of his former pupils) considered, or affected to consider, that he had failed. Haydon was well versed in all points of his profession; and his _Lectures_, which were published shortly after their delivery, showed that he was as bold a writer as painter. It may be mentioned in this connexion that he was the author of the long and elaborate article, "Painting," in the 7th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.

To form a correct estimate of Haydon it is necessary to read his autobiography. This is one of the most natural books ever written, full of various and abundant power, and fascinating to the reader. The author seems to have daguerreotyped his feelings and sentiments without restraint as they rose in his mind, and his portrait stands in these volumes limned to the life by his own hand. His love for his art was both a passion and a principle. He found patrons difficult to manage; and, not having the tact to lead them gently, he tried to drive them fiercely. He failed, abused patrons and patronage, and intermingled talk of the noblest independence with acts not always dignified. He was self-willed to perversity, but his perseverance was such as is seldom associated with so much vehemence and passion. With a large fund of genuine self-reliance he combined a considerable measure of vanity. To the last he believed in his own powers and in the ultimate triumph of art. In taste he was deficient, at least as concerned himself. Hence the tone of self-assertion which he assumed in his advertisements, catalogues and other appeals to the public. He proclaimed himself the apostle and martyr of high art, and, not without some justice, he believed himself to have on that account a claim on the sympathy and support of the nation. It must be confessed that he often tested severely those whom he called his friends. Every reader of his autobiography will be struck at the frequency and fervour of the short prayers interspersed throughout the work. Haydon had an overwhelming sense of a personal, overruling and merciful providence, which influenced his relations with his family, and to some extent with the world. His conduct as a husband and father entitles him to the utmost sympathy. In art his powers and attainments were undoubtedly very great, although his actual performances mostly fall short of the faculty which was manifestly within him; his general range and force of mind were also most remarkable, and would have qualified him to shine in almost any path of intellectual exertion or of practical work. His eager and combative character was partly his enemy; but he had other enemies actuated by motives as unworthy as his own were always high-pitched and on abstract grounds laudable. Of his three great works--the "Solomon," the "Entry into Jerusalem" and the "Lazarus"--the second has generally been regarded as the finest. The "Solomon" is also a very admirable production, showing his executive power at its loftiest, and of itself enough to place Haydon at the head of British historical painting in his own time. The "Lazarus" (which belongs to the National Gallery, but is not now on view there) is a more unequal performance, and in various respects open to criticism and censure; yet the head of Lazarus is so majestic and impressive that, if its author had done nothing else, we must still pronounce him a potent pictorial genius.

The chief authorities for the life of Haydon are _Life of B. R.
Haydon, from his Autobiography and Journals_, edited and compiled by
Tom Taylor (3 vols., 1853); and _B. R. Haydon's Correspondence and
Table Talk_, with a memoir by his son, F. W. Haydon (2 vols., 1876).
(W. M. R.)

HAYES, RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD (1822-1893), nineteenth president of the United States, was born in Delaware, Ohio, on the 4th of October 1822. He received his first education in the common schools, graduated in 1842 at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, and was a student at the law school of Harvard University from 1843 until his graduation in 1845. He was admitted to the bar in 1845, and practised law, first at Lower Sandusky (now Fremont), and then at Cincinnati, where he won a very respectable standing, and in 1858-1861 served as city solicitor. In politics he was at first an anti-slavery Whig and then from the time of its organization in 1854 until his death was a member of the Republican party. In December 1852 he married Lucy Ware Webb of Chillicothe, Ohio, who survived him. After the breaking out of the Civil War the governor of Ohio, on the 7th of June 1861, appointed him a major of a volunteer regiment, and in July he was sent to western Virginia for active service. He served throughout the war, distinguished himself particularly at South Mountain, Winchester, Fisher's Hill and Cedar Creek, and by successive promotions became a brigadier-general of volunteers and, by brevet, a major-general of volunteers. While still in the field he was elected a member of the National House of Representatives, and took his seat in December 1865. He was re-elected in 1866, and supported the reconstruction measures advocated by his party. From 1868 to 1872 he was governor of Ohio. In 1873 he removed from Cincinnati to Fremont, his intention being to withdraw from public life; but in 1875 the Republican party in Ohio once more selected him as its candidate for the governorship. He accepted the nomination with great reluctance. The Democrats adopted a platform declaring in favour of indefinitely enlarging the volume of the irredeemable paper currency which the Civil War had left behind it. Hayes stoutly advocated the speediest practicable resumption of specie payments, and carried the election. The "sound-money campaign" in Ohio having attracted the attention of the whole country, Hayes was marked out as a candidate for the presidency, and he obtained the nomination of the Republican National Convention of 1876, his chief competitor being James G. Blaine. The candidate of the Democratic party, Samuel J. Tilden, by his reputation as a statesman and a reformer of uncommon ability, drew many Republican votes. An excited controversy having arisen about the result of the balloting in the states of South Carolina, Florida, Oregon and Louisiana, the two parties in Congress in order to allay a crisis dangerous to public peace agreed to pass an act referring all contested election returns to an extraordinary commission, called the "Electoral Commission" (q.v.), which decided each contest by eight against seven votes in favour of the Republican candidates. Hayes was accordingly on the 2nd of March 1877 declared duly elected.