Chapter M: T. M (13)

HAUTE-GARONNE, a frontier department of south-western France, formed in 1790 from portions of the provinces of Languedoc (Toulousain and Lauraguais) and Gascony (Comminges and Nebouzan). Pop. (1906), 442,065. Area, 2458 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, E. by Tarn, Aude and Ariege, S. by Spain and W. by Gers and Hautes-Pyrenees. Long and narrow in shape, the department consists in the north of an undulating stretch of country with continual interchange of hill and valley nowhere thrown into striking relief; while towards the south the land rises gradually to the Pyrenees, which on the Spanish border attain heights of upwards of 10,000 ft. Two passes, the Port d'Oo, near the beautiful lake and waterfall of Oo, and the Port de Venasque, exceed 9800 and 7900 ft. in altitude respectively. Entering the department in the south-east, the Garonne flows in a northerly direction and traverses almost its entire length, receiving in its course the Pique, the Salat, the Louge, the Ariege, the Touch and the Save. Except in the mountainous region the climate is mild, the mean annual temperature being rather higher than that of Paris. The rainfall, which averages 24 in. at Toulouse, exceeds 40 in. in some parts of the mountains; and sudden and destructive inundations of the Garonne--of which that of 1875 is a celebrated example--are always to be feared. The valley of the Garonne is also frequently visited by severe hail-storms. Thick forests of oak, fir and pine exist in the mountains and furnish timber for shipbuilding. The arable land of the plains and valleys is well adapted for the cultivation of wheat, maize and other grain crops; and the produce of cereals is generally much more than is required for the local consumption. Market-gardening flourishes around Toulouse. A large area is occupied by vineyards, though the wine is only of medium quality; and chestnuts, apples and peaches are grown. As pasture land is abundant a good deal of attention is given to the rearing of cattle and sheep, and co-operative dairies are numerous in the mountains; but deforestation has tended to reduce the area of pasture-land, because the soil, unretained by the roots of trees, has been gradually washed away. Haute-Garonne has deposits of zinc and lead, and salt-workings; there is an ancient and active marble-working industry at St Beat. Mineral springs are common, those of Bagneres-de-Luchon Encausse, Barbazan and Salies-du-Salat being well known. The manufactures are various though not individually extensive, and include iron and copper goods, woollen, cotton and linen goods, leather, paper, boots and shoes, tobacco and table delicacies. Flour-mills, iron-works and brick-works are numerous. Railway communication is furnished by the Southern and the Orleans railways, the main line of the former from Bordeaux to Cette passing through Toulouse. The Canal du Midi traverses the department for 32 m. and the lateral canal of the Garonne for 15 m. The Garonne is navigable below its confluence with the Salat. There are four arrondissements--Toulouse, Villefranche, Muret and St Gaudens, subdivided into 39 cantons and 588 communes. The chief town is Toulouse, which is the seat of a court of appeal and of an archbishop, the headquarters of the XVIIth army corps and the centre of an academy; and St Gaudens, Bagneres-de-Luchon and, from an architectural and historical standpoint, St Bertrand-de-Comminges are of importance and receive separate treatment. Other places of interest are St Aventin, Montsaunes and Venerque, which possess ancient churches in the Romanesque style. The church of St Just at Valcabrere is of still greater age, the choir dating from the 8th or 9th century and part of the nave from the 11th century. There are ruins of a celebrated Cistercian abbey at Bonnefont near St Martory. Gallo-Roman remains and works of art have been discovered at Martres. Near Revel is the fine reservoir of St Ferreol, constructed for the canal du Midi in the 17th century.

HAUTE-LOIRE, a department of central France, formed in 1790 of Velay and portions of Vivarais and Gevaudan, three districts formerly belonging to the old province of Languedoc, of a portion of Forez formerly belonging to Lyonnais, and a portion of lower Auvergne. Pop. (1906), 314,770. Area, 1931 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Puy-de-Dome and Loire, E. by Loire and Ardeche, S. by Ardeche and Lozere and W. by Lozere and Cantal. Haute-Loire, which is situated on the central plateau of France, is traversed from north to south by four mountain ranges. Its highest point, the Mont Mezenc (5755 ft.), in the south-east of the department, belongs to the mountains of Vivarais, which are continued along the eastern border by the Boutieres chain. The Lignon divides the Boutieres from the Massif du Megal, which is separated by the Loire itself from the mountains of Velay, a granitic range overlaid with the eruptions of more than one hundred and fifty craters. The Margeride mountains run along the western border of the department. The Loire enters the department at a point 16 m. distant from its source in Ardeche, and first flowing northwards and then north-east, waters its eastern half. The Allier, which joins the Loire at Nevers, traverses the western portion of Haute-Loire in a northerly direction. The chief affluents of the Loire within the limits of the department are the Borne on the left, joining it near Le Puy, and the Lignon, which descends from the Mezenc, between the Boutieres and Megal ranges, on the right. The climate, owing to the altitude, the northward direction of the valleys, and the winds from the Cevennes, is cold, the winters being long and rigorous. Storms and violent rains are frequent on the higher grounds, and would give rise to serious inundations were not the rivers for the most part confined within deep rocky channels. Cereals, chiefly rye, oats, barley and wheat, are cultivated in the lowlands and on the plateaus, on which aromatic and medicinal plants are abundant. Lentils, peas, mangel-wurzels and other forage and potatoes are also grown. Horned cattle belong principally to the Mezenc breed; goats are numerous. The woods yield pine, fir, oak and beech. Lace-making, which employs about 90,000 women, and coal-mining are main industries; the coal basins are those of Brassac and Langeac. There are also mines of antimony and stone-quarries. Silk-milling, caoutchouc-making, various kinds of smith's work, paper-making, glass-blowing, brewing, wood-sawing and flour-milling are also carried on. The principal imports are flour, brandy, wine, live-stock, lace-thread and agricultural implements. Exports include fat stock, wool, aromatic plants, coal, lace. The department is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee company. There are three arrondissements--Le Puy, Brioude and Yssingeaux, with 28 cantons and 265 communes.

Haute-Loire forms the diocese of Le Puy and part of the ecclesiastical province of Bourges, and belongs to the academie (educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand. Its court of appeal is at Riom. Le Puy the capital, Brioude and La Chaise-Dieu the principal towns of the department, receive separate treatment. It has some notable churches, of which those of Chamalieres, St Paulien and Sainte-Marie-des-Chazes are Romanesque in style; Le Monastier preserves the church, in part Romanesque, and the buildings of the abbey to which it owes its origin. Arlempdes and Bouzols (near Coubon) have the ruins of large feudal chateaus. The rocky plateau overlooking Polignac is occupied by the ruins of the imposing stronghold of the ancient family of Polignac, including a square donjon of the 14th century. Interesting Gallo-Roman remains have been found on the site.

HAUTE-MARNE, a department of north-eastern France, made up for the most part of districts belonging to the former province of Champagne (Bassigny, Perthois, Vallage), with smaller portions of Lorraine and Burgundy, and some fragments of Franche-Comte. Area, 2415 sq. m. Pop. (1906), 221,724. It is bounded N.E. by Meuse, E. by Vosges, S.E. by Haute-Saone, S. and S.W. by Cote d'Or, W. by Aube, and N.W. by Marne. Its greatest elevation (1693 ft.) is in the plateau of Langres in the south between the sources of the Marne and those of the Aube; the watershed between the basin of the Rhone on the south and those of the Seine and Meuse on the north, which is formed by the plateau of Langres continued north-east by the Monts Faucilles, has an average height of 1500 or 1600 ft. The country descends rapidly towards the south, but in very gentle slopes northwards. To the north is Bassigny (the paybas or low country, as distinguished from the highlands), a district characterized by monotonous flats of little fertility and extensive wooded tracts. The lowest level of the department is 361 ft. Hydrographically Haute-Marne belongs for the most part to the basin of the Seine, the remainder to those of the Rhone and the Meuse. The principal river is the Marne, which rises here, and has a course of 75 m. within the department. Among its more important affluents are, on the right the Rognon, and on the left the Blaise. The Saulx, another tributary of the Marne on the right, also rises in Haute-Marne. Westward the department is watered by the Aube and its tributary the Aujon, both of which have their sources on the plateau of Langres. The Meuse also rises in the Monts Faucilles, and has a course of 31 m. within the department. On the Mediterranean side the department sends to the Saone the Apance, the Amance, the Salon and the Vingeanne. The climate is partly that of the Seine region, partly that of the Vosges, and partly that of the Rhone; the mean temperature is 51 deg. F., nearly that of Paris; the rainfall is slightly below the average for France.

The agriculture of the department is carried on chiefly by small proprietors. The chief crops are wheat and oats, which are more than sufficient for the needs of the inhabitants; potatoes, lucerne and mangel-wurzels are next in importance. Natural pasture is abundant, especially in Bassigny, where horse and cattle-raising flourish. The vineyards produce some fair wines, notably the white wine of Soyers. More than a quarter of the territory is under wood. The department is rich in iron and building and other varieties of stone are quarried. The warm springs of Bourbonne-les-Bains are among the earliest known and most frequented in France. The leading industry is the metallurgical; its establishments include blast furnaces, foundries, forges, plate-rolling works, and shops for nailmaking and smith's work of various descriptions. St Dizier is the chief centre of manufacture and distribution. The cutlery trade occupies thousands of hands at Nogent-en-Bassigny and in the neighbourhood of Langres. Val d'Osne is well known for its production of fountains, statues, &c., in metal-work. Flour-milling, glove-making (at Chaumont), basket-making, brewing, tanning and other industries are also carried on. The principal import is coal, while manufactured goods, iron, stone, wood and cereals are exported. The department is served by the Eastern railway, of which the line from Paris to Belfort passes through Chaumont and Langres. The canal from the Marne to the Saone and the canal of the Haute-Marne, which accompany the Marne, together cover 99 m.; there is a canal 14 m. long from St Dizier to Wassy. There are three arrondissements (Chaumont, Langres and Wassy), with 28 cantons and 550 communes. Chaumont is the capital. The department forms the diocese of Langres; it belongs to the VII. military region and to the educational circumscription (academie) of Dijon, where also is its court of appeal. The principal towns--Chaumont, Langres, St Dizier and Bourbonne-les-Bains--receive separate notice. At Montier-en-Der the remains of an abbey founded in the 7th century include a fine church with nave and aisles of the 10th, and choir of the 13th century. Wassy, the scene in 1562 of the celebrated massacre of Protestants by the troops of Francis, duke of Guise, has among its old buildings a church much of which dates from the Romanesque period. Vignory has a church of the 11th century. Joinville, a metallurgical centre, preserves a chateau of the dukes of Guise in the Renaissance style. Pailly, near Langres, has a fine chateau of the last half of the 16th century.

HAUTERIVE, ALEXANDRE MAURICE BLANC DE LANAUTTE, COMTE D' (1754-1830), French statesman and diplomatist, was born at Aspres (Hautes-Alpes) on the 14th of April 1754, and was educated at Grenoble, where he became a professor. Later he held a similar position at Tours, and there he attracted the attention of the duc de Choiseul, who invited him to visit him at Chanteloup. Hauterive thus came in contact with the great men who visited the duke, and one of these, the comte de Choiseul-Goiffier, on his appointment as ambassador to Constantinople in 1784 took him with him. Hauterive was enriched for a time by his marriage with a widow, Madame de Marchais, but was ruined by the Revolution. In 1790 he applied for and received the post of consul at New York. Under the Consulate, however, he was accused of embezzlement and recalled; and, though the charge was proved to be false, was not reinstated. In 1798, after trying his hand at farming in America, Hauterive was appointed to a post in the French foreign office. In this capacity he made a sensation by his _L'Etat de la France a la fin de l'an VIII_ (1800), which he had been commissioned by Bonaparte to draw up, as a manifesto to foreign nations, after the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Brumaire. This won him the confidence of Bonaparte, and he was henceforth employed in drawing up many of the more important documents. In 1805 he was made a councillor of state and member of the Legion of Honour, and between 1805 and 1813 he was more than once temporarily minister of foreign affairs. He attempted, though vainly, to use his influence to moderate Napoleon's policy, especially in the matter of Spain and the treatment of the pope. In 1805 a difference of opinion with Talleyrand on the question of the Austrian alliance, which Hauterive favoured, led to his withdrawal from the political side of the ministry of foreign affairs, and he was appointed keeper of the archives of the same department. In this capacity he did very useful work, and after the Restoration continued in this post at the request of the duc de Richelieu, his work being recognized by his election as a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1820. He died at Paris on the 28th of July 1830.

There is a detailed account of Hauterive, with considerable extracts
from his correspondence with Talleyrand, in the _Biographie
universelle_ by A. F. Artand de Montor, who published a separate life
in 1831. Criticisms of his _Etat de la France_ appeared in Germany and
England by F. von Gentz (_Von dem politischen Zustande_, 1801), and by
T. B. Clarke (_A Hist. and Pol. View ..._, 1803).

HAUTES ALPES, a department in S.E. France, formed in 1790 out of the south-eastern portion of the old province of Dauphine, together with a small part of N. Provence. It is bounded N. by the department of Savoie, E. by Italy and the department of the Basses Alpes, S. by the last-named department and that of the Drome, and W. by the departments of the Drome and of the Isere. Its area is 2178 sq. m., its greatest length is 85 m. and its greatest breadth 62 m. It is very mountainous, and includes the Pointe des Ecrins (13,462 ft.), the loftiest summit in France before the annexation of Savoy in 1860, as well as the Meije (13,081 ft.), the Ailefroide (12,989 ft.) and the Mont Pelvoux (12,973 ft.), though Monte Viso (12,609 ft.) is wholly in Italy, rising just over the border. The department is to a large extent made up of the basins of the upper Durance (with its tributaries, the Guisane, the Gyronde and the Guil), of the upper Drac and of the Buech--all being to a very large extent wild mountain torrents in their upper course. The department is divided into three arrondissements (Gap, Briancon and Embrun), 24 cantons and 186 communes. In 1906 its population was 107,498. It is a very poor department owing to its great elevation above the sea-level. There are no industries of any extent, and its commerce is almost wholly of local importance. The prolonged winter greatly hinders agricultural development, while the pastoral region has been greatly damaged and the forests destroyed by the ravages of the Provencal sheep, vast flocks of which are driven up here in the summer, as the pastures are leased out to a large extent, and but little utilized by the inhabitants. It now forms the diocese of Gap (this see is first certainly mentioned in the 6th century), which is in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence; in 1791 there was annexed to it the archiepiscopal see of Embrun, which was then suppressed. There are 114 m. of railway in the department. This includes the main line from Briancon past Gap towards Grenoble. About 16(1/2) m. W. of Gap is the important railway junction of Veynes, whence branch off the lines to Grenoble, to Valence by Die and Livron, and to Sisteron for Marseilles. The chief town is Gap, while Briancon and Embrun are the only other important places.

See J. Roman, _Dictionnaire topographique du dep. des Htes-Alpes_ (Paris, 1884), _Tableau historique du dep. des Htes-Alpes_ (Paris, 1887-1890, 2 vols.), and _Repertoire archeologique du dep. des Htes-Alpes_(Paris, 1888); J. C. F. Ladoucette, _Histoire, topographie, &c., des Hautes-Alpes_ (3rd ed., Paris, 1848). (W. A. B. C.)

HAUTE-SAONE, a department of eastern France, formed in 1790 from the northern portion of Franche Comte. It is traversed by the river Saone, bounded N. by the department of the Vosges, E. by the territory of Belfort, S. by Doubs and Jura, and W. by Cote-d'Or and Haute-Marne. Pop. (1906), 263,890; area, 2075 sq. m. On the north-east, where they are formed by the Vosges, and to the south along the course of the Ognon the limits are natural. The highest point of the department is the Ballon de Servance (3970 ft.), and the lowest the confluence of the Saone and Ognon (610 ft.). The general slope is from north-east to south-west, the direction followed by those two streams. In the north-east the department belongs to the Vosgian formation, consisting of forest-clad mountains of sandstone and granite, and is of a marshy nature; but throughout the greater part of its extent it is composed of limestone plateaus 800 to 1000 ft. high pierced with crevasses and subterranean caves, into which the rain water disappears to issue again as springs in the valleys 200 ft. lower down. In its passage through the department the Saone receives from the right the Amance and the Salon from the Langres plateau, and from the left the Coney, the Lanterne (augmented by the Breuchin which passes by Luxeuil), the Durgeon (passing Vesoul), and the Ognon. The north-eastern districts are cold and have an annual rainfall ranging from 36 to 48 in. Towards the south-west the climate becomes more temperate. At Vesoul and Gray the rainfall only reaches 24 in. per annum.

Haute-Saone is primarily agricultural. Of its total area nearly half is arable land; wheat, oats, meslin and rye are the chief cereals and potatoes are largely grown. The vine flourishes mainly in the arrondissement of Gray. Apples, plums and cherries (from which the kirsch, for which the department is famous, is distilled) are the chief fruits. The woods which cover a quarter of the department are composed mainly of firs in the Vosges and of oak, beech, hornbeam and aspen in the other districts. The river-valleys furnish good pasture for the rearing of horses and of horned cattle. The department possesses mines of coal (at Ronchamp) and rock-salt (at Gouhenans) and stone quarries are worked. Of the many mineral waters of Haute-Saone the best known are the hot springs of Luxeuil (q.v.). Besides iron-working establishments (smelting furnaces, foundries and wire-drawing mills), Haute-Saone possesses copper-foundries, engineering works, steel-foundries and factories at Plancher-les-Mines and elsewhere for producing ironmongery, nails, pins, files, saws, screws, shot, chains, agricultural implements, locks, spinning machinery, edge tools. Window-glass and glass wares, pottery and earthenware are manufactured; there are also brick and tile-works. The spinning and weaving of cotton, of which Hericourt (pop. in 1906, 5194) is the chief centre, stand next in importance to metal working, and there are numerous paper-mills. Print-works, fulling mills, hosiery factories and straw-hat factories are also of some account; as well as sugar works, distilleries, dye-works, saw-mills, starch-works, the chemical works at Gouhenans, oil-mills, tanyards and flour-mills. The department exports wheat, cattle, cheese, butter, iron, wood, pottery, kirschwasser, plaster, leather, glass, &c. The Saone provides a navigable channel of about 70 m., which is connected with the Moselle and the Meuse at Corre by the Canal de l'Est along the valley of the Coney. Gray is the chief emporium of the water-borne trade of the Saone. Haute-Saone is served chiefly by the Eastern railway. There are three arrondissements--Vesoul, Gray, Lure--comprising 28 cantons, 583 communes. Haute-Saone is in the district of the VII. army corps, and in its legal, ecclesiastical and educational relations depends on Besancon.

Vesoul, the capital of the department, Gray and Luxeuil are the principal towns. There is an important school of agriculture at St Remy in the arrondissement of Vesoul. The Roman ruins and mosaics at Membrey in the arrondissement of Gray and the church (13th and 15th centuries) and abbey buildings at Faverney, in the arrondissement of Vesoul, are of antiquarian interest.

HAUTE-SAVOIE, a frontier department of France, formed in 1860 of the old provinces of the Genevois, the Chablais and the Faucigny, which constituted the northern portion of the duchy of Savoy. It is bounded N. by the canton and Lake of Geneva, E. by the Swiss canton of the Valais, S. by Italy and the department of Savoie, and W. by the department of the Ain. It is mainly made up of the river-basins of the Arve (flowing along the northern foot of the Mont Blanc range, and receiving the Giffre, on the right, and the Borne and Foron, on the left--the Arve joins the Rhone, close to Geneva), of the Dranse (with several branches, all flowing into the Lake of Geneva), of the Usses and of the Fier (both flowing direct into the Rhone, the latter after forming the Lake of Annecy). The upper course of the Arly is also in the department, but the river then leaves it to fall into the Isere. The whole of the department is mountainous. But the hills attain no very great height, save at its south-east end, where rises the snowclad chain of Mont Blanc, with many high peaks (culminating in Mont Blanc, 15,782 ft.) and many glaciers. That portion of the department is alone frequented by travellers, whose centre is Chamonix in the upper Arve valley. The lowest point (945 ft.) in the department is at the junction of the Fier with the Rhone. The whole of the department is included in that portion of the duchy of Savoy which was neutralized in 1815. In 1906 the population of the department was 260,617. Its area is 1775 sq. m., and it is divided into four arrondissements (Annecy, the chief town, Bonneville, St Julien and Thonon), 28 cantons and 314 communes. It forms the diocese of Annecy. There are in the department 176 m. of broad-gauge railways, and 70 m. of narrow-gauge lines. There are also a number of mineral springs, only three of which are known to foreigners--the chalybeate waters of Evian and Amphion, close to each other on the south shore of the Lake of Geneva, and the chalybeate and sulphurous waters of St Gervais, at the north-west end of the chain of Mont Blanc. Anthracite and asphalte mines are numerous, as well as stone quarries. Cotton is manufactured at Annecy, while Cluses is the centre of the clock-making industry. There is a well-known bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux. Thonon (the old capital of the Chablais) is the most important town on the southern shore of the Lake of Geneva and, after Annecy, the most populous place in the department. (W. A. B. C.)

HAUTES-PYRENEES, a department of south-western France, on the Spanish frontier, formed in 1790, half of it being taken from Bigorre and the remainder from Armagnac, Nebouzan, Astarac and Quatre Vallees, districts which all belonged to the province of Gascony. Pop. (1906), 209,397. Area, 1750 sq. m. Hautes-Pyrenees is bounded S. by Spain, W. by the department of Basses-Pyrenees (which encloses on its eastern border five communes belonging to Hautes-Pyrenees), N. by Gers and E. by Haute-Garonne. Except on the south its boundaries are conventional. The south of the department, comprising two-thirds of its area, is occupied by the central Pyrenees. Some of the peaks reach or exceed the height of 10,000 ft., the Vignemale (10,820 ft.) being the highest in the French Pyrenees. The imposing _cirques_ (Cirques de Troumouse, Gavarnie and Estaube), with their glaciers and waterfalls, and the pleasant valleys attract a large number of tourists, the most noted point being the Cirque de Gavarnie. The northern portion of the department is a region of plains and undulating hills clothed with cornfields, vineyards and meadows. To the north-east, however, the cold and wind-swept plateau of Lannemezan (about 2000 ft.), the watershed of the streams that come down on the French side of the Pyrenees, presents in its bleakness and barrenness a striking contrast to the plain that lies below. The department is drained by three principal streams, the Gave de Pau, the Adour and the Neste, an affluent of the Garonne. The sources of the first and third lie close together in the Cirque of Gavarnie and on the slopes of Troumouse, whence they flow respectively to the north-west and north-east. An important section of the Pyrenees, which carries the Massif Neouvielle and the Pic du Midi de Bigorre (with its meteorological observatory), runs northward between these two valleys. From the Pic du Midi descends the Adour, which, after watering the pleasant valley of Campan, leaves the mountains at Bagneres and then divides into a multitude of channels, to irrigate the rich plain of Tarbes. The chief of these is the Canal d'Alaric with a length of 36 m. Beyond Hautes-Pyrenees it receives on the right the Arros, which flows through the department from south to north-northwest; on the left it receives the Gave de Pau. This latter stream, rising in Gavarnie, is joined at Luz by the Gave de Bastan from Neouvielle, and at Pierrefitte by the Gave de Cauterets, fed by streams from the Vignemale. The Gave de Pau, after passing Argeles, a well-known centre for excursions, and Lourdes, leaves the mountains and turns sharply from north to west; it has a greater volume of water than the Adour, but, being more of a mountain torrent, is regarded as a tributary of the Adour, which is navigable in the latter part of its course. The Neste d'Aure, descending from the peaks of Neouvielle and Troumouse, receives at Arreau the Neste de Louron from the pass of Clarabide and flows northwards through a beautiful valley as far as La Barthe, where it turns east; it is important as furnishing the plateau of Lannemezan with a canal, the Canal de la Neste, the waters of which are partly used for irrigation and partly for supplying the streams that rise there and are dried up in summer--the Gers and the Baise, affluents of the Garonne. This latter only touches the department. The climate of Hautes-Pyrenees, though very cold on the highlands, is warm and moist in the plains, where there are hot summers, fine autumns, mild winters and rainy springs. On the plateau of Lannemezan, while the summers are dry and scorching, the winters are very severe. The average annual rainfall at Tarbes, in the north of the department, is about 34 in.; at the higher altitudes it is much greater. The mean annual temperature at Tarbes is 59 deg. Fahr.

Hautes-Pyrenees is agricultural in the plains, pastoral in the highlands. The more important cereals are wheat and maize, which is much used for the feeding of pigs and poultry, especially geese; rye, oats and barley are grown in the mountain districts. The wines of Madiran and Peyriguere are well known and tobacco is also cultivated; chestnut trees and fruit trees are grown on the lower slopes. In the neighbourhood of Tarbes and Bagneres-de-Bigorre horse-breeding is the principal occupation and there is a famous stud at Tarbes. The horse of the region is the result of a fusion of Arab, English and Navarrese blood and is well fitted for saddle and harness; it is largely used by light cavalry regiments. Cattle raising is important; the milch-cows of Lourdes and the oxen of Tarbes and the valley of the Aure are highly esteemed. Sheep and goats are also reared. The forests, which occur chiefly in the highlands, contain bears, boars, wolves and other wild animals. There are at Campan and Sarrancolin quarries of fine marble, which is sawn and worked at Bagneres. There is a group of slate quarries at Labassere. Deposits of lignite, lead, manganese and zinc are found. The mineral springs of Hautes-Pyrenees are numerous and much visited. The principal in the valley of the Gave de Pau are Cauterets (hot springs containing sulphur and sodium), St Sauveur (springs with sulphur and sodium), and Bareges (hot springs with sulphur and sodium), and in the valley of the Adour Bagneres (hot or cold springs containing calcium sulphates, iron, sulphur and sodium) and Capvern near Lannemezan (springs containing calcium sulphates).

The department has flour-mills and saw-mills, a large military arsenal at Tarbes, paper-mills, tanneries and manufactories of agricultural implements and looms. The spinning and weaving of wool and the manufacture of knitted goods are carried on; Bagneres-de-Bigorre is the chief centre of the textile industry.

Of the passes (_ports_) into Spain, even the chief, Gavarnie (7398 ft.), is not accessible to carriages. The department is served by the Southern railway and is traversed from west to east by the main line from Bayonne to Toulouse. There are three arrondissements, those of Tarbes, Argeles and Bagneres-de-Bigorre, 26 cantons and 480 communes. Tarbes is the capital of Hautes-Pyrenees, which constitutes the diocese of Tarbes, and is attached to the appeal court of Pau; it forms part of the region of the XVIII. army corps. In educational matters it falls within the circumscription of the academie of Toulouse. Tarbes, Lourdes, Bagneres-de-Bigorre and Luz-St Sauveur are the principal towns. St Savin, in the valley of the Gave de Pau, and Sarrancolin have interesting Romanesque churches. The church of Maubourguet built by the Templars in the 12th century is also remarkable.

HAUTE-VIENNE, a department of central France, formed in 1790 of Haut-Limousin and of portions of Marche, Poitou and Berry. Pop. (1906), 385,732. Area, 2144 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Indre, E. by Creuse, S.E. by Correze, S.W. by Dordogne, W. by Charente and N.W. by Vienne. Haute-Vienne belongs to the central plateau of France, and drains partly to the Loire and partly to the Garonne. The highest altitude (2549 ft.) is in the extreme south-east, and belongs to the treeless but well-watered plateau of Millevaches, formed of granite, gneiss and mica. From that point the department slopes towards the west, south-west and north. To the north-west of the Millevaches are the Ambazac and Blond Hills, both separating the valley of the Vienne from that of the Gartempe, a tributary of the Creuse. The Vienne traverses the department from east to west, passing Eymoutiers, St Leonard, Limoges and St Junien, and receiving on the right the Maude and the Taurion. The Isle, which flows into the Dordogne, with its tributaries the Auvezere and the Dronne, and the Tardoire and the Bandiat, tributaries of the Charente, all rise in the south of the department. The altitude and inland position of Haute-Vienne, its geological character, and the northern exposure of its valleys make the winters long and severe; but the climate is milder in the west and north-west. The annual rainfall often reaches 36 or 37 in. and even more in the mountains. Haute-Vienne is on the whole unproductive. Rye, wheat, buckwheat and oats are the cereals most grown, but the chestnut, which is a characteristic product of the department, still forms the staple food of large numbers of the population. Potatoes, mangolds, hemp and colza are cultivated. After the chestnut, walnuts and cider-apples are the principal fruits. Good breeds of horned cattle and sheep are reared and find a ready market in Paris. Horses for remount purposes are also raised. The quarries furnish granite and large quantities of kaolin, which is both exported and used in the porcelain works of the department. Amianthus, emeralds and garnets are found. Limoges is the centre of the porcelain industry and has important liqueur distilleries. Woollen goods, starch, paper and pasteboard, wooden and leather shoes, gloves, agricultural implements and hats are other industrial products, and there are flour-mills, breweries, dye-works, tanneries, iron foundries and printing works. Wine and alcohol for the liqueur-manufacture, coal, raw materials for textile industries, hops, skins and various manufactured articles are among the imports.

The department is served almost entirely by the Orleans Railway. It is divided into the arrondissements of Limoges, Bellac, Rochechouart and St Yrieix (29 cantons and 205 communes), and belongs to the academie (educational division) of Poitiers and the ecclesiastical province of Bourges. Limoges, the capital, is the seat of a bishopric and of a court of appeal, and is the headquarters of the XII. army corps. The other principal towns are St Yrieix and St Junien. Solignac, St Leonard and Le Dorat have fine Romanesque churches. The remains of the chateau of Chalusset (S.S.E. of Limoges), the most remarkable feudal ruins in Limousin, and the chateau of Rochechouart, which dates from the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, are also of interest.

HAUT-RHIN, before 1871 a department of eastern France, formed in 1790 from the southern portion of Alsace. The name "Haut-Rhin" is sometimes used of the territory of Belfort (q.v.).

HAUY, RENE JUST (1743-1822), French mineralogist, commonly styled the Abbe Hauy, from being an honorary canon of Notre Dame, was born at St Just, in the department of Oise, on the 28th of February 1743. His parents were in a humble rank of life, and were only enabled by the kindness of friends to send their son to the college of Navarre and afterwards to that of Lemoine. Becoming one of the teachers at the latter, he began to devote his leisure hours to the study of botany; but an accident directed his attention to another field in natural history. Happening to let fall a specimen of calcareous spar belonging to a friend, he was led by examination of the fragments to make experiments which resulted in the statement of the geometrical law of crystallization associated with his name (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). The value of this discovery, the mathematical theory of which is given by Hauy in his _Traite de mineralogie_, was immediately recognized, and when communicated to the Academy, it secured for its author a place in that society. Hauy's name is also known for the observations he made in pyro-electricity. When the Revolution broke out, he was thrown into prison, and his life was even in danger, when he was saved by the intercession of E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1802, under Napoleon, he became professor of mineralogy at the museum of natural history, but after 1814 he was deprived of his appointments by the government of the Restoration. His latter days were consequently clouded by poverty, but the courage and high moral qualities which had helped him forward in his youth did not desert him in his old age; and he lived cheerful and respected till his death at Paris on the 3rd of June 1822.

The following are his principal works: _Essai d'une theorie sur la
structure des cristaux_ (1784); _Exposition raisonnee de la theorie de
l'electricite et du magnetisme, d'apres les principes d'Aepinus_
(1787); _De la structure consideree comme caractere distinctif des
mineraux_ (1793); _Exposition abregee de la theorie de la structure
des cristaux_ (1793); _Extrait d'un traite elementaire de mineralogie_
(1797); _Traite de mineralogie_ (4 vols., 1801); _Traite elementaire
de physique_ (2 vols., 1803, 1806); _Tableau comparatif des resultats
de la cristallographie, et de l'analyse chimique relativement a la
classification des mineraux_ (1809); _Traite des pierres precieuses_
(1817); _Traite de cristallographie_ (2 vols., 1822). He also
contributed papers, of which 100 are enumerated in the Royal Society's
catalogue, to various scientific journals, especially the _Journal de
physique_ and the _Annals du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle_.

HAVANA (the name is of aboriginal origin; Span. Habana or, more fully, San Cristobal de la Habana), the capital of Cuba, the largest city of the West Indies, and one of the principal seats of commerce in the New World, situated on the northern coast of the island in 23 deg. 9' N. lat. and 82 deg. 22' W. long. Pop. (1899), 235,981; (1907), 297,159. The city occupies a peninsula to the W. of the harbour, between its waters and those of the sea. Several small streams, of which the Almendares river is the largest, empty into the harbour. The pouch-shaped, landlocked bay is spacious and easy of access. Large merchantmen and men-of-war can come up and unload along at least a considerable part of the water-front. The entrance, which is encumbered by neither bar nor rock, averages about 260 yds. in width and is about 1400 yds. long. Within, the bay breaks up into three distinct arms, Marimalena or Regla Bay, Guanabacoa Bay and the Bay of Atares. On the left hand of the entrance stands the lofty lighthouse tower of the Morro. The sewage of the city and other impurities were for centuries allowed to pollute the bay, but the extent to which the harbour was thereby filled up has been exaggerated. Though certainly very much smaller than it once was, there is a difference of opinion as to whether the harbour has grown smaller since the end of the 18th century.

From the sea the city presents a picturesque appearance. The Havana side of the bay has a sea-wall and an excellent drive. The city walls, begun in 1671 and completed about 1740, were almost entirely demolished between 1863 and 1880, only a few insignificant remnants having survived the American military occupation of 1899-1902; but it is still usual to speak of the "intramural" and the "extramural" city. The former, the old city, lying close to the harbour front, has streets as narrow as is consistent with wheel traffic. Obispo (Pi y Margall in the new republican nomenclature), O'Reilly and San Rafael are the finest retail business streets, and the Prado and the Cerro the handsomest residential streets in the city proper. The new city, including the suburbs to the W. overlooking the sea, has been laid out on a somewhat more spacious plan, with isolated dwellings and wide thoroughfares, some planted with trees. Most of the houses, and especially those of the planter aristocracy, are massively built of stone, with large grated windows, flat roofs with heavy parapets and inner courts. As the erection of wooden buildings was illegal long after 1772, it is only in the suburban districts that they are to be seen. The limestone which underlies almost all the island affords excellent building stone. The poorer houses are built of brick with plaster fronts. Three-fourths of all the buildings of the city are of one very high storey; there are but a few dozen buildings as high as four storeys. Under Spanish rule, Havana was reputed to be a city of noises and smells. There was no satisfactory cleaning of the streets or draining of the subsoil, and the harbour was rendered visibly foul by the impurities of the town. A revolution was worked in this respect during the United States military occupation of the city, and the republic continued the work.

_Climate._--The general characteristics of the climate of Havana are
described in the article Cuba. A temperature as low as 40 deg. F. is
extraordinary; and freezing point is only reached on extremely rare
occasions, such as during hurricanes or electric storms. The mean
annual temperature is about 25.7 deg. C. (78 deg. F.); that of the
hottest month is about 28.8 deg. C. (84 deg. F.), and that of the
coldest, 21 deg. C. (70 deg. F.). The means of the four seasons are
approximately--for December, January, February and successive
quarters--23 deg., 27 deg., 28 deg. and 26 deg. C. (73.4 deg., 80.6
deg., 82.4 deg. and 78.8 deg. F.). The mean relative humidity is
between 75 and 80 for all seasons save spring, when it is least and
may be from 65 upward. A difference of 30 deg. C. (54 deg. F.) at
mid-day in the temperature of two spots close together, one in sun and
one in shade, is not unusual. The daily variation of temperature is
also considerable. The depressing effect of the heat and humidity is
greatly relieved by afternoon breezes from the sea, and the nights are
invariably comfortable and generally cool.

_Defences._--The principal defences of Havana under Spanish rule, when
the city was maintained as a military stronghold of the first rank,
were (to use the original and unabbreviated form of the names) the
Castillo de San Salvador de la Punta, to the W. of the harbour
entrance; the Castillo de Los Tres Reyes del Morro and San Carlos de
la Cabana, to the E.; the Santo Domingo de Atares, at the head of the
western arm of the bay, commanding the city and its vicinity; and the
Castillo del Principe (1767-1780), situated inland on an eminence to
the W. El Morro, as it is popularly called, was first erected in
1590-1640, and La Punta, a much smaller fort, is of the same period;
both were reconstructed after the evacuation of the city by the
English in 1763, from which time also date the castles of Principe,
Atares and the Cabana. The Cabana, which alone can accommodate some
6000 men, fronts the bay for a distance of more than 800 yds., and was
long supposed, at least by Spaniards, to be the strongest fortress of
America. Here is the "laurel ditch" or "dead-line"--commemorated by a
handsome bronze relief set in the wall of the fortress--where scores
of Cuban patriots were shot. To the E. and W. inland are several small
forts. The military establishment of the republic is very small.

_Churches._--Of the many old churches in the city, the most noteworthy
is the cathedral. The original building was abandoned in 1762. The
present one, originally the church of the Jesuits, was erected in
1656-1724. The interior decoration dates largely from the last decade
of the 18th century and the first two decades of the 19th. In the wall
of the chancel, a medallion and inscription long distinguished the
tomb of Columbus, whose remains were removed hither from Santo Domingo
in 1796. In 1898 they were taken to Spain. Mention may also be made of
the churches of Santo Domingo (begun in 1578), Santa Catalina (1700),
San Agustin (1608), Santa Clara (1644), La Merced (1744, with a
collection of oil paintings) and San Felipe (1693). Monasteries and
nunneries were very numerous until the suppression of the religious
orders in 1842, when many became simple churches. Some of the convents
were successful in conserving their wealth. The former monastery of
the Jesuits, now the Jesuit church of Belen (1704), at the corner of
Luz and Compostela Streets, is one of the most elegant and richly
ornamented in Cuba.

_Public Buildings._--The Palace, which served as a residence for the
captains-general during the Spanish rule, is the home of the city
government and the residence of the president of the republic. It is a
large and handsome stone structure (tinted in white and yellow), and
stands on the site of the original parish church, facing the Plaza de
Armas from the east. It was erected in 1773-1792 and radically altered
in 1835 and 1851. A large municipal gaol (1834-1837), capable of
receiving 500 inmates, with barracks for a regiment, is a striking
object on the Prado. The Castillo del Principe now serves as the state
penitentiary. Among other public buildings are the exchange (El
Muelle), the custom-house (formerly the church of San Francisco; begun
about 1575, rebuilt in 1731-1737), and the Maestranza (c. 1723), once
the navy yard and the headquarters of the artillery and now the home
of the national library. All these are in the old city. Some of the
older structures--notably the church of Santo Domingo and the
Maestranza--are built of grey limestone. In the old city also are the
Plaza Vieja, dating from the middle of the 16th century (with the
modern Mercado de Cristina, of 1837--destroyed 1908), the old
stronghold La Fuerza, erected by Hernando de Soto in 1538, once the
treasury of the flotas and galleons, and residence of the governors,
with its old watch-tower (La Vigia); and the Plaza de Armas, with the
palace, the Senate building, a statue of Fernando VII. (1833), and a
commemorative chapel (El Templete, 1828) to mark the supposed spot
where mass was first said at the establishment of the city. Mention
must be made of the large and interesting markets, especially those of
Colon and Tacon. Of the theatres, which until the end of the Spanish
period had to compete with the bull-ring and the cockpit, the most
important is the Tacon (now "Nacional") erected in 1838.

Havana is famous for its promenades, drives and public gardens. On the
city's E. harbour front runs the Paseo (Alameda) de Paula (1772-1775,
improved 1844-1845), an embanked drive, continued by the Paseo de
Rocali and the Cortina de Valdes, with fine views of the forts and the
harbour. On the N., along the sea, beginning at the Punta fortress and
running W. for several miles along the sea-wall, is a speedway and
pleasure-drive, known--from the wall--as the Malecon. Beginning at the
Punta fortress--where a park was laid out in 1899 in the place of an
ugly quarter, with a memorial to the students judicially murdered by
the Spanish volunteers in 1871--and running along the line of the
former city walls, past the Parque Central, through the Parque de
Isabel II. and the Parque de la India (these two names are now
practically abandoned) to the Parque de Colon or Campo de Marte, is
the Prado,[1] a wide and handsome promenade and drive, shaded with
laurels and lined with fine houses and clubs. In 1907 a hurricane
destroyed the greater part of the laurels of the Prado and the royal
palms of the Parque de Colon. Central Park is surrounded by hotels,
theatres, cafes and clubs, the last including the Centro Asturiano and
Casino Espanol. In the centre is a monument to Jose Marti (1853-1895),
"the apostle of independence," and in an adjoining square is the
city's fine monument to the Cuban engineer Francisco de Albear, to
whom she owes her water system. From the Parque de Colon the Calle (or
Calzada) de la Reina--an ordinary business street, once a promenade
and known as the Alameda de Isabel II.--with its continuations, the
Paseo de Carlos III. and Paseo de Tacon, runs westward through the
city past the botanical gardens and the Quinta de los Molinos to the
citadel of El Principe (1774-1794). A statue of Charles III. by Canova
(1803), fountains, pavilions and four rows of trees adorn the Paseo de
Carlos III. The gardens of Los Molinos, where the captains-general
formerly maintained their summer residence, and the adjoining
botanical gardens of the university, contain beautiful avenues of palm
trees. Near El Principe is the Columbus cemetery, with a fine gateway,
a handsome monument (1888) to the students shot in 1871, and another
(1897; 75 ft. high) to the firemen lost in a great fire in 1890,
besides many smaller memorials. The Calzada de la Infanta is a fine
street at the W. end of the new city; the Cerro, in the S.W., is lined
with massive residences, once the homes of Cuban aristocracy.

_Suburbs._--In the coral rock of the coast sea-baths are excavated, so
that bathers may run no risk from sharks. On the S. and W. the city is
backed by an amphitheatre of hills, which are crowned in the W. by the
conspicuous fortifications of Castillo del Principe. On the lower
heights near the city lie Vedado, Jesus del Monte, Luyano and other
healthy suburbs. Chorrera, Puentes Grandes, Marianao (founded 1830;
pop. 1907, 9332) and Guanabacoa (with mineral springs), are attractive
places of resort. Regla, just across the bay (now part of the
_municipio_), has large business interests.

_Charities and Education._--Among the numerous charitable institutions
the most important hospital is the Casa de Beneficencia y Maternidad
(Charity and Maternity Asylum), opened in 1794, and containing an
orphan asylum, a maternity ward, a home for vagrants, a lunatic asylum
and an infirmary. There is also in the city an immense lazaretto for
lepers. The Centro Asturiano, a club with a membership of some ten or
fifteen thousand (not limited to Asturians), maintains for the
benefit of its members a large and well-managed sanatorium in spacious
grounds in the midst of the city.

Of the schools of the city the most noteworthy is the university (581
regular students, 1907), founded in 1728. Its quarters were in the old
convent of Santo Domingo until 1900, when the American military
government prepared better quarters for it in the former Pirotecnica
Militar, near El Principe. There are various laboratories in the city.
Other schools are the provincial Institute of Secondary Education (490
regular students in 1907; library of 12,863 vols.), a provincial
school of arts and trades (opened 1882), a theological seminary, a
boys' technical school, a school of painting and sculpture, a
conservatory of music, normal school, mercantile school and a military
academy. The Jesuit church (Belen) has a large college for boys,
laboratories, an observatory, a museum of natural history, and an
historical library. Great progress has been made in education, which
was extremely backward until after the end of Spanish rule. The
Sociedad Economica de Amigos del Pais, established in 1792, has always
had considerable influence. It has a library of some 42,000 volumes,
rich in material for Cuban history. Among other similar organizations
are an Academy of Medical, Physical and Natural Sciences (1863); a
national library, established in 1901, and having in 1908 about 40,000
volumes, including the finest collection in the world of materials for
Cuban history; an anthropological society; various medical societies;
and a Bar association. An association of sugar planters is a very
important factor in the economic development of the island.

Of the newspapers of Havana the most notable is the _El Diario de la
Marina_ (established in 1838; under its present name, 1844; morning
and evening), which was almost from its foundation an official organ
of the Spanish government, and generally the mouthpiece of the most
intransigent peninsular opinion in all that concerned the politics of
the island. _El Ansador Comercial_ (1868; evening) is devoted almost
exclusively to commercial and financial news. Of the other newspapers
the leading ones in 1909 were _La Discusion_ (1888; evening), _La
Luchu_ (1884; evening) and _El Mundo_ (1902; morning).

_Trade._--Havana commands the wholesale trade of all the western half
of the island, and is the centre of commercial and banking interests.
Its foreign trade in the five calendar years 1902-1906 (average
imports $57,201,276; exports, $40,563,637) amounted to 68.9% of the
imports and 44.6% of the exports of the island. The average number of
vessels entering the port annually in the ten years from 1864 to 1873
was 1981 (771,196 tons), and the average entries in the five years
1902-1906 were 3698 of 3,904,906 gross tons (coast trade alone, 2162
of 333,795 tons).

In spite of high tariffs and civil wars, and the competition of
Matanzas, Cardenas, Cienfuegos and other Cuban ports opened to foreign
trade in modern times, the commerce of Havana has steadily increased.
The chief foreign customers are Great Britain and the United States.
The two staple articles of export are sugar and tobacco-wares. Other
exports of importance are rum, wax and honey; and of less primary
importance, fruits, fine cabinet woods, oils and starch. The leading
imports are grains, flour, lard and various other foodstuffs, coal,
lumber, petroleum and machinery, all mainly from the United States;
wines and olive oil from Spain; jerked beef from South America;
fabrics and other staples from varied sources. Rice is a principal
food of the people; it was formerly taken from the East Indies, but is
now mostly raised in the island.

The chief manufacturing industry of Havana is that of tobacco. Of the
cigar factories, some of which are in former public and private
palaces, more than a hundred may be reckoned as of the first class.
Besides the making of boxes and barrels and other articles necessarily
involved in its sugar and tobacco trade, Havana also, to some extent,
builds carriages and small ships, and manufactures iron and machinery;
but the weight of taxation during the Spanish period was always a
heavy deterrent on the development of any business requiring great
capital. There are minor manufacturing interests in tanneries, and in
the manufacture of sweetmeats, malt and distilled liquors, especially
rum, besides soaps, candles, starch, perfume, &c. There is one large
and complete petroleum refinery (1905).