Chapter LX: Front Matter (60)

Baker Island:
The US took possession of the island in 1857, and its
guano deposits were mined by US and British companies during the
second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at
colonization was begun on this island - as well as on nearby Howland
Island - but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned.
Presently the island is a National Wildlife Refuge run by the US
Department of the Interior; a day beacon is situated near the middle
of the west coast.

Bangladesh:
Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East
Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. About a third of
this extremely poor country annually floods during the monsoon rainy
season, hampering economic development.

Barbados:
The island was uninhabited when first settled by the
British in 1627. Its economy remained heavily dependent on sugar,
rum, and molasses production through most of the 20th century. In
the 1990s, tourism and manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in
economic importance.

Bassas da India:
This atoll is a volcanic rock surrounded by reefs
and is awash at high tide. A French possession since 1897, it was
placed under the administration of a commissioner residing in
Reunion in 1968.

Belarus:
After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR,
Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closer
political and economic ties to Russia than any of the other former
Soviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-state
union on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economic
integration but, to date, neither side has actively sought to
implement the accord.

Belgium:
Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830 and
was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. It has prospered
in the past half century as a modern, technologically advanced
European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensions between the
Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and the French-speaking
Walloons of the south have led in recent years to constitutional
amendments granting these regions formal recognition and autonomy.

Belize:
Territorial disputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed
the independence of Belize (formerly British Honduras) until 1981.
Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. Tourism
has become the mainstay of the economy. The country remains plagued
by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug
trade, and increased urban crime.

Benin:
Dahomey gained its independence from France in 1960; the name
was changed to Benin in 1975. From 1974 to 1989 the country was a
socialist state; free elections were reestablished in 1991.

Bermuda:
Bermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked English
colonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape North
American winters first developed in Victorian times. Bermuda has
developed into a highly successful offshore financial center. A
referendum on independence was soundly defeated in 1995.

Bhutan:
Under British influence a monarchy was set up in 1907; three
years later a treaty was signed whereby the country became a British
protectorate. Independence was attained in 1949, with India
subsequently guiding foreign relations and supplying aid. A refugee
issue of some 100,000 Bhutanese in Nepal remains unresolved; 90% of
these displaced persons are housed in seven United Nations Office of
the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps. Maoist Assamese
separatists from India, who have established themselves in the
southeast portion of Bhutan, have drawn Indian cross-border
incursions.

Bolivia:
Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR,
broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history
has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and counter-coups.
Comparatively democratic civilian rule was established in the 1980s,
but leaders have faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty,
social unrest, and drug production. Current goals include attracting
foreign investment, strengthening the educational system, continuing
the privatization program, and waging an anti-corruption campaign.

Bosnia and Herzegovina:
Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of
sovereignty in October 1991, was followed by a referendum for
independence from the former Yugoslavia in February 1992. The
Bosnian Serbs - supported by neighboring Serbia - responded with
armed resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic
lines and joining Serb-held areas to form a "greater Serbia." In
March 1994, Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring
factions from three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint
Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November
1995, in Dayton, Ohio, the warring parties signed a peace agreement
that brought to a halt the three years of interethnic civil strife
(the final agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The
Dayton Agreement retained Bosnia and Herzegovina's international
boundaries and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic
government. This national government is charged with conducting
foreign, economic, and fiscal policy. Also recognized was a second
tier of government comprised of two entities roughly equal in size:
the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the
Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska (RS). The Federation and RS
governments are charged with overseeing internal functions. In
1995-96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of
60,000 troops served in Bosnia to implement and monitor the military
aspects of the agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led
Stabilization Force (SFOR) whose mission is to deter renewed
hostilities. SFOR remains in place at a level of approximately
21,000 troops.

Botswana:
Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland,
Botswana adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. The
economy, one of the most robust on the continent, is dominated by
diamond mining.

Bouvet Island:
This uninhabited volcanic island is almost entirely
covered by glaciers and is difficult to approach. It was discovered
in 1739 by a French naval officer after whom the island was named.
No claim was made until 1825 when the British flag was raised. In
1928, the UK waived its claim in favor of Norway, which had occupied
the island the previous year. In 1971, Bouvet Island and the
adjacent territorial waters were designated a nature reserve. Since
1977, Norway has run an automated meteorological station on the
island.

Brazil:
Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil
became an independent nation in 1822. By far the largest and most
populous country in South America, Brazil has overcome more than
half a century of military intervention in the governance of the
country to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development
of the interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor
pool, Brazil became Latin America's leading economic power by the
1970s. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressing problem.

British Indian Ocean Territory:
Established as a territory of the UK
in 1965, a number of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT)
islands were transferred to the Seychelles when it attained
independence in 1976. Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of the
six main island groups comprising the Chagos Archipelago. The
largest and most southerly of the islands, Diego Garcia, contains a
joint UK-US naval support facility. All of the remaining islands are
uninhabited. Former agricultural workers, earlier resident in the
islands, were relocated primarily to Mauritius but also to the
Seychelles, between 1967 and 1973. In 2000, a British High Court
ruling invalidated the local immigration order which had excluded
them from the archipelago, but upheld the special military status of
Diego Garcia.

British Virgin Islands:
First settled by the Dutch in 1648, the
islands were soon after (1672) annexed by the English. The economy
is closely tied to the larger and more populous US Virgin Islands to
the west; the US dollar is the legal currency.

Brunei:
The Sultanate of Brunei's heyday occurred between the 15th
and 17th centuries, when its control extended over coastal areas of
northwest Borneo and the southern Philippines. Brunei subsequently
entered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royal
succession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. In
1888, Brunei became a British protectorate; independence was
achieved in 1984. Brunei benefits from extensive petroleum and
natural gas fields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs
in the less developed countries. The same family has now ruled in
Brunei for over six centuries.

Bulgaria:
Bulgaria earned its independence from the Ottoman Empire
in 1878, but having fought on the losing side in both World Wars, it
fell within the Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's
Republic in 1946. Communist domination ended in 1990, when Bulgaria
held its first multi-party election since World War II and began the
contentious process of moving toward political democracy and a
market economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption,
and crime. Today, reforms and democratization keep Bulgaria on a
path toward eventual integration into NATO and the EU - with which
it began accession negotiations in 2000.

Burkina Faso:
Independence from France came to Burkina Faso
(formerly Upper Volta) in 1960. Governmental instability during the
1970s and 1980s was followed by multiparty elections in the early
1990s. Several hundred thousand farm workers migrate south every
year to Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana.

Burma:
Despite multiparty elections in 1990 that resulted in the
main opposition party winning a decisive victory, the military junta
ruling the country refused to hand over power. Key opposition leader
and Nobel Peace Prize recipient AUNG San Suu Kyi, under house arrest
from 1989 to 1995, was again placed under house detention in
September 2000; her supporters are routinely harassed or jailed.

Burundi:
Between 1993 and 2000, wide-spread, often intense ethnic
violence between Hutu and Tutsi factions in Burundi created hundreds
of thousands of refugees and left tens of thousands dead. Although
some refugees have returned from neighboring countries, continued
ethnic strife has forced many others to flee. Burundian troops,
seeking to secure their borders, have intervened in the conflict in
the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Cambodia:
Following a five-year struggle, communist Khmer Rouge
forces captured Phnom Penh in 1975 and ordered the evacuation of all
cities and towns; over 1 million displaced people died from
execution or enforced hardships. A 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove
the Khmer Rouge into the countryside and touched off 13 years of
fighting. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some
semblance of normalcy, as did the rapid diminishment of the Khmer
Rouge in the mid-1990s. A coalition government, formed after
national elections in 1998, brought renewed political stability and
the surrender of remaining Khmer Rouge forces.

Cameroon:
The former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroon
merged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generally
enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of
agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry.
Despite movement toward democratic reform, political power remains
firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy.

Canada:
A land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canada
became a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to the
British crown. Economically and technologically the nation has
developed in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south across
an unfortified border. Its paramount political problem continues to
be the relationship of the province of Quebec, with its
French-speaking residents and unique culture, to the remainder of
the country.

Cape Verde:
The uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by
the Portuguese in the 15th century; they subsequently became a
trading center for African slaves. Most Cape Verdeans descend from
both groups. Independence was achieved in 1975.

Cayman Islands:
The Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by
the British during the 18th and 19th centuries. Administered by
Jamaica from 1863, they remained a British dependency after 1962
when the former became independent.

Central African Republic:
The former French colony of Ubangi-Shari
became the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. After
three tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments
- a civilian government was installed in 1993.

Chad:
Chad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, endured
three decades of ethnic warfare as well as invasions by Libya before
a semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. The government
eventually suppressed or came to terms with most political-military
groups, settled a territorial dispute with Libya on terms favorable
to Chad, drafted a democratic constitution, and held multiparty
presidential and National Assembly elections in 1996 and 1997
respectively. In 1998 a new rebellion broke out in northern Chad,
which continued to escalate throughout 2000. Despite movement toward
democratic reform, power remains in the hands of a northern ethnic
oligarchy.

Chile:
A three-year-old Marxist government was overthrown in 1973 by
a dictatorial military regime led by Augusto PINOCHET, which ruled
until a freely elected president was installed in 1990. Sound
economic policies, first implemented by the PINOCHET dictatorship,
led to unprecedented growth in 1991-97 and have helped secure the
country's commitment to democratic and representative government.
Growth slowed in 1998-99, but recovered strongly in 2000.

China:
For centuries China has stood as a leading civilization,
outpacing the rest of the world in the arts and sciences. But in the
first half of the 20th century, China was beset by major famines,
civil unrest, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World
War II, the Communists under MAO Zedong established a dictatorship
that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed strict controls
over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people.
After 1978, his successor DENG Xiaoping gradually introduced
market-oriented reforms and decentralized economic decision making.
Output quadrupled in the next 20 years and China now has the world's
second largest GDP. Political controls remain tight even while
economic controls continue to weaken.

Christmas Island:
Named in 1643 for the day of its discovery, the
island was annexed and settlement was begun by the UK in 1888.
Phosphate mining began in the 1890s. The UK transferred sovereignty
to Australia in 1958. The phosphate mine, closed in 1987, was
reopened four years later, but the need for an alternative industry
has spurred investment in tourism. Old mining areas are being
restored, and almost two-thirds of the island has been declared a
national park.

Clipperton Island:
This isolated island was named for John
CLIPPERTON, a pirate who made it his hideout early in the 18th
century. Annexed by France in 1855, it was seized by Mexico in 1897.
Arbitration eventually awarded the island to France, which took
possession in 1935.

Cocos (Keeling) Islands:
The islands were discovered in 1609, but
remained uninhabited until the 19th century. Annexed by the UK in
1857, they were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.
The population on the two inhabited islands is split between the
mostly Europeans on West Island and the Malays on Home Island.

Colombia:
Colombia was one of the three countries that emerged from
the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others being Ecuador and
Venezuela). A 40-year insurgent campaign to overthrow the Colombian
Government escalated during the 1990s, undergirded in part by funds
from the drug trade. Although the violence is deadly and large
swaths of the countryside are under guerrilla influence, the
movement lacks the military strength or popular support necessary to
overthrow the government. While Bogota continues to try to negotiate
a settlement, neighboring countries worry about the violence
spilling over their borders.

Comoros:
Unstable Comoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coups
since gaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islands
of Anjouan and Moheli declared their independence from Comoros. In
1999, military chief Col. AZALI seized power. He has pledged to
resolve the secessionist crisis through the 2000 Fomboni Accord, a
confederal arrangement that the Organization of African Unity has
yet to recognize.

Congo, Democratic Republic of the:
Since 1994 the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DROC; formerly called Zaire) has been rent by
ethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow of
refugees from the fighting in Rwanda and Burundi. The government of
former president MOBUTU Sese Seko was toppled by a rebellion led by
Laurent KABILA in May 1997; his regime was subsequently challenged
by a Rwanda- and Uganda-backed rebellion in August 1998. Troops from
Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan intervened to support the
Kinshasa regime. A cease-fire was signed on 10 July 1999, but
sporadic fighting continued. KABILA was assassinated in January 2001
and his son Joseph KABILA was named head of state. The new president
quickly began overtures to end the war.

Congo, Republic of the:
Upon independence in 1960, the former French
region of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quarter
century of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and a
democratically elected government installed in 1992. A brief civil
war in 1997 restored former Marxist President SASSOU-NGUESSO.

Cook Islands:
Named after Captain Cook, who sighted them in 1770,
the islands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,
administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965
residents chose self-government in free association with New
Zealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand and
government deficits are continuing problems.

Coral Sea Islands:
Scattered over some 1 million square kilometers
of ocean, the Coral Sea Islands were declared a territory of
Australia in 1969. They are uninhabited except for a small
meteorological staff on Willis Island. Automated weather stations,
beacons, and a lighthouse occupy many other islands and reefs.

Costa Rica:
Costa Rica is a Central American success story: since
the late 19th century, only two brief periods of violence have
marred its democratic development. Although still a largely
agricultural country, it has achieved a relatively high standard of
living. Land ownership is widespread. Tourism is a rapidly expanding
industry.

Cote d'Ivoire:
Close ties to France since independence in 1960, the
development of cocoa production for export, and foreign investment
made Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the tropical
African states. Falling cocoa prices and political turmoil, however,
sparked an economic downturn in 1999 and 2000. On 25 December 1999,
a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire's history -
overthrew the government led by President Henri Konan BEDIE.
Presidential and legislative elections held in October and December
2000 provoked violence due to the exclusion of opposition leader
Alassane OUATTARA. In October 2000, Laurent GBAGBO replaced junta
leader Robert GUEI as president, ending 10 months of military rule.

Croatia:
In 1918, the Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdom
known after 1929 as Yugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslavia
became an independent communist state under the strong hand of
Marshal TITO. Although Croatia declared its independence from
Yugoslavia in 1991, it took four years of sporadic, but often
bitter, fighting before occupying Serb armies were mostly cleared
from Croatian lands. Under UN supervision the last Serb-held enclave
in eastern Slavonia was returned to Croatia in 1998.

Cuba:
Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in 1959; his iron
rule has held the country together since. Cuba's communist
revolution, with Soviet support, was exported throughout Latin
America and Africa during the 1960s, 70s, and 80s. The country is
now slowly recovering from a severe economic recession in 1990,
following the withdrawal of former Soviet subsidies, worth $4
billion to $6 billion annually. Havana portrays its difficulties as
the result of the US embargo in place since 1961. Illicit migration
to the US - using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, or falsified
visas - is a continuing problem. Some 3,000 Cubans took to the
Straits of Florida in 2000; the US Coast Guard interdicted only
about 35% of these.

Cyprus:
Independence from the UK was approved in 1960 with
constitutional guarantees by the Greek Cypriot majority to the
Turkish Cypriot minority. In 1974, a Greek-sponsored attempt to
seize the government was met by military intervention from Turkey,
which soon controlled almost 40% of the island. In 1983, the
Turkish-held area declared itself the "Turkish Republic of Northern
Cyprus", but it is recognized only by Turkey. UN-led talks on the
status of Cyprus resumed in December 1999 to prepare the ground for
meaningful negotiations leading to a comprehensive settlement.

Czech Republic:
After World War II, Czechoslovakia fell within the
Soviet sphere of influence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact
troops ended the efforts of the country's leaders to liberalize
party rule and create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet
demonstrations the following year ushered in a period of harsh
repression. With the collapse of Soviet authority in 1989,
Czechoslovakia regained its freedom through a peaceful "Velvet
Revolution." On 1 January 1993, the country underwent a "velvet
divorce" into its two national components, the Czech Republic and
Slovakia. Now a member of NATO, the Czech Republic has moved toward
integration in world markets, a development that poses both
opportunities and risks.

Denmark:
Once the seat of Viking raiders and later a major north
European power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nation
that is participating in the political and economic integration of
Europe. So far, however, the country has opted out of some aspects
of the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the economic
and monetary system (EMU) and issues concerning certain internal
affairs.

Djibouti:
The French Territory of the Afars and the Issas became
Djibouti in 1977. A peace accord in 1994 ended a three-year uprising
by Afars rebels.

Dominica:
Dominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to be
colonized by Europeans, due chiefly to the fierce resistance of the
native Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763,
which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years after
independence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt and
tyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary Eugenia
CHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, who
remained in office for 15 years.

Dominican Republic:
A legacy of unsettled, mostly
non-representative, rule for much of the 20th century was brought to
an end in 1996 when free and open elections ushered in a new
government.

Ecuador:
The "Republic of the Equator" was one of three countries
that emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others
being Colombia and Venezuela). Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lost
territories in a series of conflicts with its neighbors. A border
war with Peru that flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999.

Egypt:
Nominally independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired
full sovereignty following World War II. The completion of the Aswan
High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the
time-honored place of the Nile river in the agriculture and ecology
of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab
world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue
to overtax resources and stress society. The government has
struggled to ready the economy for the new millennium through
economic reform and massive investment in communications and
physical infrastructure.

El Salvador:
El Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821
and from the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil
war, which cost the lives of some 75,000 people, was brought to a
close in 1992 when the government and leftist rebels signed a treaty
that provided for military and political reforms.

Equatorial Guinea:
Composed of a mainland portion and five inhabited
islands, Equatorial Guinea has been ruled by ruthless leaders who
have badly mismanaged the economy since independence from 190 years
of Spanish rule in 1968. Although nominally a constitutional
democracy since 1991, the 1996 presidential and 1999 legislative
elections were widely seen as being flawed.

Eritrea:
Eritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of a
federation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 years
later sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991
with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence was
overwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two and a half year
border war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UN
auspices on 12 December 2000.

Estonia:
After centuries of Swedish and Russian rule, Estonia
attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporated into the USSR
in 1940, it regained its freedom in 1991 with the collapse of the
Soviet Union. Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia
has been free to promote economic and political ties with Western
Europe.

Ethiopia:
Unique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopian
monarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule, one exception
being the Italian occupation of 1936-41. In 1974 a military junta,
the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE (who had ruled since 1930)
and established a socialist state. Torn by bloody coups, uprisings,
wide-scale drought, and massive refugee problems, the regime was
finally toppled by a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian
People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), in 1991. A
constitution was adopted in 1994 and Ethiopia's first multiparty
elections were held in 1995. A two and a half year border war with
Eritrea that ended with a peace treaty on 12 December 2000 has
strengthened the ruling coalition, but has hurt the nation's economy.

Europa Island:
A French possession since 1897, the island is heavily
wooded; it is the site of a small military garrison that staffs a
weather station.

Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas):
Although first sighted by an
English navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occur
until almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement
(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned over
to Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subject
of a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, then
between Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to the
islands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentina
invaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with an
expeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fierce
fighting forced Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.

Faroe Islands:
The population of the Faroe Islands is largely
descended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. The
islands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14th
century. A high degree of self-government was attained in 1948.

Fiji:
Fiji became independent in 1970, after nearly a century as a
British colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two military
coups in 1987, caused by concern over a government perceived as
dominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborers
brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). A 1990
constitution favored native Melanesian control of Fiji, but led to
heavy Indian emigration; the population loss resulted in economic
difficulties, but ensured that Melanesians became the majority.
Amendments enacted in 1997 made the constitution more equitable.
Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in a government led by
an Indo-Fijian, but a coup in May of 2000 ushered in a prolonged
period of political turmoil. New elections are scheduled for August
2001.

Finland:
Ruled by Sweden from the 12th to the 19th centuries and by
Russia from 1809, Finland finally won its independence in 1917.
During World War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedom
and fend off invasions by the Soviet Union and Germany. In the
subsequent half century, the Finns have made a remarkable
transformation from a farm/forest economy to a diversified modern
industrial economy; per capita income is now on par with Western
Europe. As a member of the European Union, Finland was the only
Nordic state to join the euro system at its initiation in January
1999.

France:
Although ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, France
suffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rank
as a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of the
most modern countries in the world and is a leader among European
nations. Since 1958, it has constructed a presidential democracy
resistant to the instabilities experienced in earlier parliamentary
democracies. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperation
with Germany have proved central to the economic integration of
Europe, including the advent of the euro in January 1999. Presently,
France is at the forefront of European states seeking to exploit the
momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a more unified
and capable European defense and security apparatus.

French Guiana:
First settled by the French in 1604, French Guiana
was the site of notorious penal settlements until 1951. The European
Space Agency launches its communication satellites from Kourou.

French Polynesia:
The French annexed various Polynesian island
groups during the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred up
widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atoll
after a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January
1996.

French Southern and Antarctic Lands:
The Southern Lands consist of
two archipelagos, Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen, and two volcanic
islands, Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul. They contain no permanent
inhabitants and are visited only by researchers studying the native
fauna. The Antarctic portion consists of "Adelie Land," a thin slice
of the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in
1840.

Gabon:
Ruled by autocratic presidents since independence from France
in 1960, Gabon introduced a multiparty system and a new constitution
in the early 1990s that allowed for a more transparent electoral
process and for reforms of governmental institutions. A small
population, abundant natural resources, and foreign private
investment have helped make Gabon one of the more prosperous black
African countries.

Gambia, The:
The Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965;
it formed a short-lived federation of Senegambia with Senegal
between 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the two nations signed a friendship
and cooperation treaty. A military coup in 1994 overthrew the
president and banned political activity, but a new 1996 constitution
and presidential elections, followed by parliamentary balloting in
1997, have completed a nominal return to civilian rule.

Gaza Strip:
The Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim
Self-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington on 13
September 1993, provided for a transitional period not exceeding
five years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Strip
and the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certain
powers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, which
includes the Palestinian Legislative Council elected in January
1996, as part of the interim self-governing arrangements in the West
Bank and Gaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities for
the Gaza Strip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4
May 1994 Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area and
in additional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28
September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997
Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23
October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharm
el-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provides that Israel will retain
responsibility during the transitional period for external security
and for internal security and public order of settlements and
Israeli citizens. Permanent status is to be determined through
direct negotiations, which resumed in September 1999 after a
three-year hiatus. An intifadah broke out in September 2000; the
resulting widespread violence in the West Bank and Gaza Strip,
Israel's military response, and instability in the Palestinian
Authority are undermining progress toward a permanent settlement.

Georgia:
Georgia was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th
century. Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the
Russian revolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until
the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. Russian troops remain garrisoned
at four military bases and as peacekeepers in the separatist regions
of Abkhazia and South Ossetia (but are scheduled to withdraw from
two of the bases by July 2001). Despite a badly degraded
transportation network - brought on by ethnic conflict, criminal
activities, and fuel shortages - the country continues to move
toward a market economy and greater integration with Western
institutions.

Germany:
As Western Europe's richest and most populous nation,
Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political,
and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed the
country in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th
century and left the country occupied by the victorious Allied
powers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the
advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the
western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German
Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key
Western economic and security organizations, the EC and NATO, while
the communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led Warsaw
Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War allowed
for German unification in 1990. Since then Germany has expended
considerable funds to bring eastern productivity and wages up to
western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EU
countries formed a common European currency, the euro.

Ghana:
Formed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold
Coast and the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the
first country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. A long
series of coups resulted in the suspension of the constitution in
1981 and the banning of political parties. A new constitution,
restoring multiparty politics, was approved in 1992. Lt. Jerry
RAWLINGS, head of state since 1981, won presidential elections in
1992 and 1996, but was constitutionally prevented from running for a
third term in 2000. He was succeeded by John KUFUOR.

Gibraltar:
Strategically important, Gibraltar was ceded to Great
Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the British garrison
was formally declared a colony in 1830. In a 1967 referendum,
Gibraltarians ignored Spanish pressure and voted overwhelmingly to
remain a British dependency.

Glorioso Islands:
A French possession since 1892, the Glorioso
Islands are composed of two lushly vegetated islands (Ile Glorieuse
and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrison operates
a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.

Greece:
Greece achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire in
1829. During the second half of the 19th century and the first half
of the 20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands and
territories with Greek-speaking populations. Following the defeat of
communist rebels in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A military
dictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political liberties and
forced the king to flee the country, lasted seven years. Democratic
elections in 1974 and a referendum created a parliamentary republic
and abolished the monarchy; Greece joined the European Community or
EC in 1981 (which became the EU in 1992).

Greenland:
The world's largest island, about 84% ice-capped,
Greenland was granted self-government in 1978 by the Danish
parliament. The law went into effect the following year. Denmark
continues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs.

Grenada:
One of the smallest independent countries in the western
hemisphere, Grenada was seized by a Marxist military council on 19
October 1983. Six days later the island was invaded by US forces and
those of six other Caribbean nations, which quickly captured the
ringleaders and their hundreds of Cuban advisers. Free elections
were reinstituted the following year.

Guadeloupe:
Guadeloupe has been a French possession since 1635. The
island of Saint-Martin is divided with the Netherlands (whose
southern portion is named Sint Maarten and is part of the
Netherlands Antilles).

Guam:
Guam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by the
Japanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. The
military installation on the island is one of the most strategically
important US bases in the Pacific.

Guatemala:
Guatemala was freed of Spanish colonial rule in 1821.
During the second half of the 20th century, it experienced a variety
of military and civilian governments as well as a 36-year guerrilla
war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreement formally
ending the conflict, which had led to the death of more than 100,000
people and had created some 1 million refugees.

Guernsey:
The island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islands
represent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy,
which held sway in both France and England. The islands were the
only British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.

Guinea:
Independent from France since 1958, Guinea did not hold
democratic elections until 1993 when Gen. Lansana CONTE (head of the
military government) was elected president of the civilian
government. He was reelected in 1998. Unrest in Sierra Leone has
spilled over into Guinea, threatening stability and creating a
humanitarian emergency.

Guinea-Bissau:
In 1994, 20 years after independence from Portugal,
the country's first multiparty legislative and presidential
elections were held. An army uprising that triggered a bloody civil
war in 1998, created hundreds of thousands of displaced persons. The
president was ousted by a military junta in May 1999. An interim
government turned over power in February 2000 when opposition leader
Koumba YALLA took office following two rounds of transparent
presidential elections. Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracy
will be complicated by a crippled economy devastated by civil war
and the military's predilection for governmental meddling.

Guyana:
Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966 and became
a republic in 1970. In 1989 Guyana launched an Economic Recovery
Program, which marked a dramatic reversal from a state-controlled,
socialist economy towards a more open, free market system. Results
through the first decade have proven encouraging.

Haiti:
One of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti
has been plagued by political violence for most of its history. Over
three decades of dictatorship followed by military rule ended in
1990 when Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE was elected president. Most of his
term was usurped by a military takeover, but he was able to return
to office in 1994 and oversee the installation of a close associate
to the presidency in 1996. ARISTIDE won a second term as president
in 2000, and took office early the following year.

Heard Island and McDonald Islands:
These uninhabited, barren islands
were transferred from the UK to Australia in 1947. Populated by
large numbers of seal and bird species, the islands have been
designated a nature preserve.

Holy See (Vatican City):
Popes in their secular role ruled much of
the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until the mid
19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by the newly
united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings were further
circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes between a
series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 by three
Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state of Vatican
City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy. In 1984,
a concordat between the Vatican and Italy modified certain of the
earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of Roman
Catholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of the
Holy See include the failing health of Pope John Paul II,
interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, and the adjustment of
church doctrine in an era of rapid change and globalization. About 1
billion people worldwide profess the Catholic faith.

Honduras:
Part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Honduras
became an independent nation in 1821. After two and one-half decades
of mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government came
to power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven for
anti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Government
and an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting against leftist
guerrillas.

Hong Kong:
Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded
by China the following year; various adjacent lands were added later
in the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China and
the UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In this
agreement, China has promised that, under its "one country, two
systems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not be
practiced in Hong Kong and that Hong Kong will enjoy a high degree
of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for
the next 50 years.

Howland Island:
Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, the
island was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and British
companies mined for guano until about 1890. Earhart Light is a day
beacon near the middle of the west coast that was partially
destroyed during World War II, but has since been rebuilt; it is
named in memory of famed aviatrix Amelia EARHART. The island is
administered by the US Department of the Interior as a National
Wildlife Refuge.

Hungary:
Hungary was part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire,
which collapsed during World War I. The country fell under communist
rule following World War II. In 1956, a revolt and announced
withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met with a massive military
intervention by Moscow. In the more open GORBACHEV years, Hungary
led the movement to dissolve the Warsaw Pact and steadily shifted
toward multiparty democracy and a market-oriented economy. Following
the collapse of the USSR in 1991, Hungary developed close political
and economic ties to Western Europe. It joined NATO in 1999 and is a
frontrunner in a future expansion of the EU.

Iceland:
Settled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)
immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Iceland
boasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, the
Althing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Iceland
was subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askja
volcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and caused
widespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of the
island's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limited
home rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independence
attained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesion
are first-rate by world standards.

India:
The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the
world, goes back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the
northwest invaded about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier
inhabitants created classical Indian culture. Arab incursions
starting in the 8th century and Turkish in 12th were followed by
European traders beginning in the late 15th century. By the 19th
century, Britain had assumed political control of virtually all
Indian lands. Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under
Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU led to independence in 1947.
The subcontinent was divided into the secular state of India and the
smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third war between the two
countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate
nation of Bangladesh. Fundamental concerns in India include the
ongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation,
environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic strife, all
this despite impressive gains in economic investment and output.

Indian Ocean:
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's
five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger
than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important
access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb
(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of
Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the International
Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth
ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Ocean
south of 60 degrees south.

Indonesia:
The world's largest archipelago, Indonesia achieved
independence from the Netherlands in 1949. Current issues include:
implementing IMF-mandated reforms of the banking sector, effecting a
transition to a popularly elected government after four decades of
authoritarianism, addressing charges of cronyism and corruption,
holding the military accountable for human rights violations, and
resolving growing separatist pressures in Aceh and Irian Jaya. On 30
August 1999 a provincial referendum for independence was
overwhelmingly approved by the people of Timor Timur. Concurrence
followed by Indonesia's national legislature, and the name East
Timor was provisionally adopted. The independent status of East
Timor - now under UN administration - has yet to be formally
established.

Iran:
Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in
1979 after the ruling shah was forced into exile. Conservative
clerical forces subsequently crushed westernizing liberal elements.
Militant Iranian students seized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4
November 1979 and held it until 20 January 1981. During 1980-88,
Iran fought a bloody, indecisive war with Iraq over disputed
territory. The key current issue is how rapidly the country should
open up to the modernizing influences of the outside world.

Iraq:
Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq became an
independent kingdom in 1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958,
but in actuality a series of military strongmen have ruled the
country since then, the latest being SADDAM Husayn. Territorial
disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war
(1980-1988). In August 1990 Iraq seized Kuwait, but was expelled by
US-led, UN coalition forces during January-February 1991. The
victors did not occupy Iraq, however, thus allowing the regime to
stay in control. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN Security
Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass
destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification
inspections. UN trade sanctions remain in effect due to incomplete
Iraqi compliance with relevant UNSC resolutions.

Ireland:
A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several
years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence
from the UK for the 26 southern counties; the six northern counties
(Ulster) remained part of Great Britain. In 1948 Ireland withdrew
from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in
1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of
Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A
peace settlement for Northern Ireland, approved in 1998, was
implemented the following year.

Israel:
Following World War II, the British withdrew from their
mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and
Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,
the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending
the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories occupied by
Israel since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country
profile, unless otherwise noted. In keeping with the framework
established at the Madrid Conference in October 1991, bilateral
negotiations are being conducted between Israel and Palestinian
representatives (from the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip)
and Israel and Syria, to achieve a permanent settlement. On 25 April
1982, Israel withdrew from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979
Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Outstanding territorial and other
disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994
Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. On 25 May 2000, Israel withdrew
unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupied since 1982.

Italy:
Italy became a nation-state belatedly - in 1861 when the
city-states of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were
united under King Victor EMMANUEL. An era of parliamentary
government came to a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI
established a Fascist dictatorship. His disastrous alliance with
Nazi Germany led to Italy's defeat in World War II. A democratic
republic replaced the monarchy in 1946 and economic revival
followed. Italy was a charter member of NATO and the European
Economic Community (EEC). It has been at the forefront of European
economic and political unification, joining the European Monetary
Union in 1999. Persistent problems include illegal immigration, the
ravages of organized crime, corruption, high unemployment, and the
low incomes and technical standards of southern Italy compared with
the more prosperous north.

Jamaica:
Jamaica gained full independence within the British
Commonwealth in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditions during the
1970s led to recurrent violence and a dropoff in tourism. Elections
in 1980 saw the democratic socialists voted out of office.
Subsequent governments have been open market oriented. Political
violence marred elections during the 1990s.

Jan Mayen:
This desolate, mountainous island was named after a Dutch
whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614 (earlier
claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal hunters
and trappers over the following centuries, the island came under
Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Beerenberg volcano
resumed activity in 1970; it is the northernmost active volcano on
earth.

Japan:
While retaining its time-honored culture, Japan rapidly
absorbed Western technology during the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. After its devastating defeat in World War II, Japan
recovered to become the second most powerful economy in the world
and a staunch ally of the US. While the emperor retains his throne
as a symbol of national unity, actual power rests in networks of
powerful politicians, bureaucrats, and business executives. The
economy experienced a major slowdown in the 1990s following three
decades of unprecedented growth.

Jarvis Island:
First discovered by the British in 1821, the
uninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in
1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the island
in 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. The
US occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. Abandoned after World
War II, the island is currently a National Wildlife Refuge
administered by the US Department of the Interior; a day beacon is
situated near the middle of the west coast.

Jersey:
The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent
the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway
in both France and England. These islands were the only British soil
occupied by German troops in World War II.

Johnston Atoll:
Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed
Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano
deposits until the late 1880s. The US Navy took over the atoll in
1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948. The
site was used for high altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and
1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage
and disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is now
complete, and cleanup and closure of the facility is progressing.

Jordan:
For most of its history since independence from British
administration in 1946, Jordan was ruled by King HUSSEIN
(1953-1999). A pragmatic ruler, he successfully navigated competing
pressures from the major powers (US, USSR, and UK), various Arab
states, Israel, and a large internal Palestinian population, through
several wars and coup attempts. In 1989 he resumed parliamentary
elections and gradually permitted political liberalization; in 1994
a formal peace treaty was signed with Israel. King ABDALLAH II - the
eldest son of King HUSSEIN and Princess MUNA - assumed the throne
following his father's death in February 1999. Since then, he has
consolidated his power and established his domestic priorities.

Juan de Nova Island:
Named after a famous 15th century Spanish
navigator and explorer, the island has been a French possession
since 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.
Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorological
station.

Kazakhstan:
Native Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic
tribes who migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely
united as a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the
18th century and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During
the 1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet
citizens were encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern
pastures. This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some
other deported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enabled
non-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence has caused many of
these newcomers to emigrate. Current issues include: developing a
cohesive national identity; expanding the development of the
country's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets;
and continuing to strengthen relations with neighboring states and
other foreign powers.

Kenya:
Revered president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTA
led Kenya from independence until his death in 1978, when current
President Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutional
succession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969
until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made
itself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal and
external pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. The
ethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from power
in elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence and
fraud, but are viewed as having generally reflected the will of the
Kenyan people. The country faces a period of political uncertainty
because MOI is constitutionally required to step down at the next
elections that have to be held by early 2003.

Kingman Reef:
The US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoon
served as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoa
flights during the late 1930s. There is no flora on the reef, which
is frequently awash, but it does support an abundant and diverse
marine fauna. In 2001, the waters surrounding the reef were
designated a National Wildlife Refuge.

Kiribati:
The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in
1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name of
Kiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited
Phoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship with
Kiribati.

Korea, North:
Following World War II, Korea was split into a
northern, communist half and a southern, Western-oriented half. KIM
Chong-il has ruled North Korea since his father and the country's
founder, president KIM Il-song, died in 1994. After decades of
mismanagement, the North relies heavily on international food aid to
feed its population, while continuing to expend resources to
maintain an army of about 1 million. North Korea's long-range
missile development and research into nuclear and chemical weapons
are of major concern to the international community.