Chapter LXI: Front Matter (61)

Korea, South:
After World War II, a republic was set up in the
southern half of the Korean Peninsula while a communist-style
government was installed in the north. The Korean War (1950-53) had
US and other UN forces intervene to defend South Korea from North
Korean attacks supported by the Chinese. An armistice was signed in
1953 splitting the peninsula at the 38th parallel known as the DMZ.
Thereafter, South Korea achieved rapid economic growth, with per
capita income rising to 13 times the level of North Korea. In 1997,
the nation suffered a severe financial crisis from which it
continues to make a solid recovery. South Korea has also maintained
its commitment to democratize its political processes. In June 2000,
a historic first south-north summit took place between the south's
President KIM Dae-jung and the north's leader KIM Chong-il. In
December 2000, President KIM Dae-jung won the Noble Peace Prize for
his lifeling committment to democracy and human rights in Asia. He
is the first Korean to win a Nobel Prize.

Kuwait:
Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990.
Following several weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led UN coalition
began a ground assault on 23 February 1991 that completely liberated
Kuwait in four days. Kuwait has spent more than $5 billion to repair
oil infrastructure damaged during 1990-91.

Kyrgyzstan:
A Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty and
proud nomadic traditions, Kyrgyzstan was annexed by Russia in 1864;
it achieved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Current
concerns include: privatization of state-owned enterprises,
expansion of democracy and political freedoms, inter-ethnic
relations, and terrorism.

Laos:
In 1975 the communist Pathet Lao took control of the
government, ending a six-century-old monarchy. Initial closer ties
to Vietnam and socialization were replaced with a gradual return to
private enterprise, an easing of foreign investment laws, and the
admission into ASEAN in 1997.

Latvia:
After a brief period of independence between the two World
Wars, Latvia was annexed by the USSR in 1940. It reestablished its
independence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.
Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of the
Russian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern to
Moscow. Latvia continues to revamp its economy for eventual
integration into various Western European political and economic
institutions.

Lebanon:
Lebanon has made progress toward rebuilding its political
institutions and regaining its national sovereignty since 1991 and
the end of the devastating 16-year civil war. Under the Ta'if Accord
- the blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese have
established a more equitable political system, particularly by
giving Muslims a greater say in the political process while
institutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since the
end of the war, the Lebanese have conducted several successful
elections, most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded, and
the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended central government
authority over about two-thirds of the country. Hizballah, the
radical Shi'a party, retains its weapons. Syria maintains about
25,000 troops in Lebanon based mainly in Beirut, North Lebanon, and
the Bekaa Valley. Syria's troop deployment was legitimized by the
Arab League during Lebanon's civil war and in the Ta'if Accord.
Damascus justifies its continued military presence in Lebanon by
citing the continued weakness of the LAF, Beirut's requests, and the
failure of the Lebanese Government to implement all of the
constitutional reforms in the Ta'if Accord. Israel's withdrawal from
its security zone in southern Lebanon in May of 2000, however, has
emboldened some Lebanese Christians and Druze to demand that Syria
withdraw its forces as well.

Lesotho:
Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon
independence from the UK in 1966. Constitutional government was
restored in 1993 after 23 years of military rule.

Liberia:
Seven years of civil strife were brought to a close in 1996
when free and open presidential and legislative elections were held.
President TAYLOR now holds strong executive power with no real
political opposition. The years of fighting coupled with the flight
of most businesses have disrupted formal economic activity. A still
unsettled domestic security situation has slowed the process of
rebuilding the social and economic structure of this war-torn
country.

Libya:
Since he took power in a 1969 military coup, Col. Muammar Abu
Minyar al-QADHAFI has espoused his own political system - a
combination of socialism and Islam - which he calls the Third
International Theory. Viewing himself as a revolutionary leader, he
used oil funds during the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology
outside Libya, even supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to
hasten the end of Marxism and capitalism. Libyan military adventures
failed, e.g., the prolonged foray of Libyan troops into the Aozou
Strip in northern Chad was finally repulsed in 1987. Libyan support
for terrorism decreased after UN sanctions were imposed in 1992.
Those sanctions were suspended in April 1999.

Liechtenstein:
The Principality of Liechtenstein was established
within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in
1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria,
but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forced
Liechtenstein to conclude a customs and monetary union with
Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remained
neutral) the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economic
growth. However, shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight have
resulted in concerns about the use of the financial institutions for
money laundering.

Lithuania:
Independent between the two World Wars, Lithuania was
annexed by the USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the
first of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but this
proclamation was not generally recognized until September of 1991
(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops
withdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently has restructured its
economy for eventual integration into Western European institutions.

Luxembourg:
Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815
and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more than
half of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a larger
measure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrun
by Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when
it entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO
the following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six
founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the
European Union) and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.

Macau:
Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was
the first European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an
agreement signed by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau
became the Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20
December 1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, two
systems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not be
practiced in Macau and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of
autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs.

Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of:
International
recognition of The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's (FYROM)
independence from Yugoslavia in 1991 was delayed by Greece's
objection to the new state's use of what it considered a Hellenic
name and symbols. Greece finally lifted its trade blockade in 1995,
and the two countries agreed to normalize relations, despite
continued disagreement over FYROM's use of "Macedonia." FYROM's
large Albanian minority and the de facto independence of neighboring
Kosovo continue to be sources of ethnic tension.

Madagascar:
Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a
French colony in 1886, but regained its independence in 1960. During
1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were
held, ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997 in the second
presidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and
1980s, was returned to the presidency.

Malawi:
Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland
became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades
of one-party rule, the country held multiparty elections in 1994
under a provisional constitution, which took full effect the
following year. National multiparty elections were held again in
1999.

Malaysia:
Malaysia was created in 1963 through the merging of Malaya
(independent in 1957) and the former British Singapore, both of
which formed West Malaysia, and Sabah and Sarawak in north Borneo,
which composed East Malaysia. The first three years of independence
were marred by hostilities with Indonesia. Singapore separated from
the union in 1965.

Maldives:
The Maldives were long a sultanate, first under Dutch and
then under British protection. They became a republic in 1968, three
years after independence. Tourism and fishing are being developed on
the archipelago.

Mali:
The Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of France
in 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only a
few months, the Sudanese Republic was renamed Mali. Rule by
dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 with a transitional
government, and in 1992 when Mali's first democratic presidential
election was held. Since his reelection in 1997, President KONARE
has continued to push through political and economic reforms and to
fight corruption. In 1999 he indicated he would not run for a third
term.

Malta:
Great Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.
The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars and
remained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. A
decade later Malta became a republic. Over the last 15 years, the
island has become a major freight transshipment point, financial
center, and tourist destination. It is an official candidate for EU
membership.

Man, Isle of:
Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until
the 13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under
the British crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the
almost extinct Manx Celtic language.

Marshall Islands:
After almost four decades under US administration
as the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under a
Compact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as a
result of US nuclear testing on some of the islands between 1947 and
1962.

Martinique:
Colonized by France in 1635, the island has subsequently
remained a French possession except for three brief periods of
foreign occupation.

Mauritania:
Independent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed the
southern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in
1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by the
Polisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.
Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in
1991. Two multiparty presidential elections since then were widely
seen as being flawed; Mauritania remains, in reality, a one-party
state. The country continues to experience ethnic tensions between
its black minority population and the dominant Maur (Arab-Berber)
populace.

Mauritius:
Discovered by the Portuguese in 1505, Mauritius was
subsequently held by the Dutch, French, and British before
independence was attained in 1968. A stable democracy with regular
free elections and a positive human rights record, the country has
attracted considerable foreign investment and has earned one of
Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather and
declining sugar prices have slowed economic growth leading to some
protests over standards of living in the Creole community.

Mayotte:
Mayotte was ceded to France along with the other Comoros in
1843. It was the only island in the archipelago that voted in 1974
to retain its link with France and forgo independence.

Mexico:
The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico came
under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence
early in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994
threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession
in over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressive
recovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low real
wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population,
inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunities
for the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southern
states.

Micronesia, Federated States of:
In 1979 the Federated States of
Micronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted a
constitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of
Free Association with the United States. Present concerns include
large-scale unemployment, overfishing, and overdependence on US aid.

Midway Islands:
The US took formal possession of the islands in
1867. The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through
the islands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and
1947, Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights.
The US naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was
one of the turning points of World War II. The islands continued to
serve as a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are
a wildlife refuge open to the public.

Moldova:
Formerly ruled by Romania, Moldova became part of the
Soviet Union at the close of World War II. Although independent from
the USSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovan
territory east of the Nistru (Dnister) River supporting the Slavic
majority population, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who have
proclaimed a "Transnistria" republic. One of the poorest nations in
Europe and plagued by a moribund economy, in 2001 Moldova became the
first former Soviet state to elect a communist as its president.

Monaco:
Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century
with a railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Since
then, the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and
gambling facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and
recreation center.

Mongolia:
Long a province of China, Mongolia won its independence in
1921 with Soviet backing. A communist regime was installed in 1924.
During the early 1990s, the ex-communist Mongolian People's
Revolutionary Party (MPRP) gradually yielded its monopoly on power.
In 1996, the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) defeated the MPRP in a
national election. Over the next four years the Coalition
implemented a number of key reforms to modernize the economy and
institutionalize democratic reforms. However, the former communists
were a strong opposition that stalled additional reforms and made
implementation difficult. In 2000, the MPRP won 72 of the 76 seats
in Parliament and completely reshuffled the government. While it
continues many of the reform policies, the MPRP is focusing on
social welfare and public order priorities.

Montserrat:
Much of this island has been devastated and two-thirds
of the population has fled abroad due to the eruption of the
Soufriere Hills volcano that began on 18 July 1995.

Morocco:
Morocco's long struggle for independence from France ended
in 1956. The internationalized city of Tangier was turned over to
the new country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western
Sahara during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of
the territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the
1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in
1997.

Mozambique:
Almost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to a
close with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites,
economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a
prolonged civil war hindered the country's development. The ruling
party formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the
following year provided for multiparty elections and a free market
economy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement with rebel forces ended the
fighting in 1992.

Namibia:
South Africa occupied the German colony of Sud-West Afrika
during World War I and administered it as a mandate until after
World War II when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the Marxist
South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla group
launched a war of independence for the area that was soon named
Namibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end
its administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entire
region. Independence came in 1990.

Nauru:
Nauru's phosphate deposits began to be mined early in the
20th century by a German-British consortium; the island was occupied
by Australian forces in World War I. Upon achieving independence in
1968, Nauru became the smallest independent republic in the world;
it joined the UN in 1999.

Navassa Island:
This uninhabited island was claimed by the US in
1857 for its guano, and mining took place between 1865 and 1898. The
lighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administration
of Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Department
of the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the island
described it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; the
following year it became a National Wildlife Refuge.

Nepal:
In 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system of
rule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system of
government. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracy
within the framework of a constitutional monarchy. The refugee issue
of some 100,000 Bhutanese in Nepal remains unresolved; 90% of these
displaced persons are housed in seven United Nations Offices of the
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps.

Netherlands:
The Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed in 1815. In
1830 Belgium seceded and formed a separate kingdom. The Netherlands
remained neutral in World War I but suffered a brutal invasion and
occupation by Germany in World War II. A modern, industrialized
nation, the Netherlands is also a large exporter of agricultural
products. The country was a founding member of NATO and the EC, and
participated in the introduction of the euro in 1999.

Netherlands Antilles:
Once the center of the Caribbean slave trade,
the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in
1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored in
the early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries to
service the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island of
Sint Maarten is shared with France; its northern portion is named
Saint Martin and is part of Guadeloupe.

New Caledonia:
Settled by both Britain and France during the first
half of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in
1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.
Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s seems to
have dissipated.

New Zealand:
The British colony of New Zealand became an independent
dominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.
New Zealand withdrew from a number of defense alliances during the
1970s and 1980s. In recent years the government has sought to
address longstanding native Maori grievances.

Nicaragua:
Settled as a colony of Spain in the 1520s, Nicaragua
gained its independence in 1821. Violent opposition to governmental
manipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 and
resulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the Marxist
Sandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftist
rebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinista
contra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990
and again in 1996 saw the Sandinistas defeated. The country has
slowly rebuilt its economy during the 1990s, but was hard hit by
Hurricane Mitch in 1998.

Niger:
Not until 1993, 33 years after independence from France, did
Niger hold its first free and open elections. A 1995 peace accord
ended a five-year Tuareg insurgency in the north. Coups in 1996 and
1999 were followed by the creation of a National Reconciliation
Council that effected a transition to civilian rule in December 1999.

Nigeria:
Following nearly 16 years of military rule, a new
constitution was adopted in 1999 and a peaceful transition to
civilian government completed. The new president faces the daunting
task of rebuilding a petroleum-based economy, whose revenues have
been squandered through corruption and mismanagement, and
institutionalizing democracy. In addition, the OBASANJO
administration must defuse longstanding ethnic and religious
tensions, if it is to build a sound foundation for economic growth
and political stability.

Niue:
Niue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguistic
differences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the rest
of the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.
The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200
in 1966 to 2,100 in 2000) with substantial emigration to New Zealand.

Norfolk Island:
Two British attempts at establishing the island as a
penal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In
1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants of
the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.

Northern Mariana Islands:
Under US administration as part of the UN
Trust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern Mariana
Islands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead to
forge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial status
began in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in political
union with the US was approved in 1975. A new government and
constitution went into effect in 1978.

Norway:
Despite its neutrality, Norway was not able to avoid
occupation by Germany in World War II. In 1949, neutrality was
abandoned and Norway became a member of NATO. Discovery of oil and
gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norway's economic
fortunes. The current focus is on containing spending on the
extensive welfare system and planning for the time when petroleum
reserves are depleted. In referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway
rejected joining the EU.

Oman:
In 1970, QABOOS bin Said Al Said ousted his father and has
ruled as sultan ever since. His extensive modernization program has
opened the country to the outside world and has preserved a
long-standing political and military relationship with the UK.
Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to maintain
good relations with all Middle Eastern countries.

Pacific Ocean:
The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's five
oceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern
Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterways
include the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, and
Torres Straits. The decision by the International Hydrographic
Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, the
Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60
degrees south.

Pakistan:
The separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslim
state of Pakistan (with two sections West and East) and largely
Hindu India was never satisfactorily resolved. A third war between
these countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan seceding and
becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. A dispute over the state
of Kashmir is ongoing. In response to Indian nuclear weapons
testing, Pakistan conducted its own tests in 1998.

Palau:
After three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of the
Pacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of the
Caroline Islands opted for independent status in 1978 rather than
join the Federated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free
Association with the US was approved in 1986, but not ratified until
1993. It entered into force the following year when the islands
gained their independence.

Palmyra Atoll:
The Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, and
the US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed the
archipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did not
include Palmyra Atoll, which is now privately owned by the Nature
Conservancy. This organization is managing the atoll as a nature
preserve. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12 nautical
mile US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish and
Wildlife service and designated a National Wildlife Refuge in
January 2001.

Panama:
With US backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 and
promptly signed a treaty with the US allowing for the construction
of a canal and US sovereignty over a strip of land on either side of
the structure (the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built by
the US Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. On 7 September
1977, an agreement was signed for the complete transfer of the Canal
from the US to Panama by the end of 1999. Certain portions of the
Zone and increasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over
in the intervening years. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA was
deposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting the
Canal, and remaining US military bases were turned over to Panama by
or on 31 December 1999.

Papua New Guinea:
The eastern half of the island of New Guinea -
second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)
and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to
Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World
War I and continued to administer the combined areas until
independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island
of Bougainville ended in 1997, after claiming some 20,000 lives.

Paracel Islands:
This archipelago is surrounded by productive
fishing grounds and potentially large oil reserves. In 1932, French
Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station on
Prattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor Vietnam.
China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troops
captured a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.
However, the islands are still claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan.

Paraguay:
In the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70),
Paraguay lost two-thirds of all adult males and much of its
territory. It stagnated economically for the next half century. In
the Chaco War of 1932-35, large, economically important areas were
won from Bolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of Alfredo
STROESSNER was overthrown in 1989, and, despite a marked increase in
political infighting in recent years, relatively free and regular
presidential elections have been held since then.

Peru:
After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to
democratic leadership in 1980. In recent years, bold reform programs
and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity and drug
trafficking have resulted in solid economic growth.

Philippines:
The Philippines were ceded by Spain to the US in 1898
following the Spanish-American War. They attained their independence
in 1946 after being occupied by the Japanese in World War II. The
21-year rule of Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986 when a widespread
popular rebellion forced him into exile. In 1992, the US closed down
its last military bases on the islands. The Philippines has had two
electoral presidential transitions since Marcos' removal by "people
power." In January 2001, the Supreme Court declared Joseph ESTRADA
unable to rule in view of mass resignations from his government and
administered the oath of office to Vice President Gloria
MACAPAGAL-ARROYO as his constitutional successor. The government
continues to struggle with ongoing Muslim insurgencies in the south.

Pitcairn Islands:
Pitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by the
British and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and their
Tahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to become
a British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige of
that empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to New
Zealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 to
about 50 today.

Poland:
Poland gained its independence in 1918 only to be overrun by
Germany and the Soviet Union in World War II. It became a Soviet
satellite country following the war, but one that was comparatively
tolerant and progressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation
of the independent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became a
political force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections and
the presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990s
enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most
robust in Central Europe, boosting hopes for acceptance to the EU.
Poland joined the NATO alliance in 1999.

Portugal:
Following its heyday as a world power during the 15th and
16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with the
destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during the
Napoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.
A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next six
decades repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, a left-wing
military coup installed broad democratic reforms. The following year
Portugal granted independence to all of its African colonies.
Portugal entered the EC in 1985.

Puerto Rico:
Discovered by Columbus in 1493, the island was ceded by
Spain to the US in 1898 following the Spanish-American War. A
popularly elected governor has served since 1948. In plebiscites
held in 1967 and 1993, voters chose to retain commonwealth status.

Qatar:
Ruled by the Al Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatar
transformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly for
pearling into an independent state with significant oil and natural
gas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatari
economy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleum
revenues by the amir who had ruled the country since 1972. He was
overthrown by his son, the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa Al Thani,
in a bloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its
longstanding border disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Oil
and natural gas revenues enable Qatar to have a per capita income
not far below the leading industrial countries of Western Europe.

Reunion:
The Portuguese discovered the uninhabited island in 1513.
From the 17th to the 19th centuries, French immigration supplemented
by influxes of Africans, Chinese, Malays, and Malabar Indians gave
the island its ethnic mix. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869
cost the island its importance as a stopover on the East Indies
trade route.

Romania:
Soviet occupation following World War II led to the
formation of a communist "peoples republic" in 1947 and the
abdication of the king. The decades-long rule of President Nicolae
CEAUSESCU became increasingly draconian through the 1980s. He was
overthrown and executed in late 1989. Former communists dominated
the government until 1996 when they were swept from power. Much
economic restructuring remains to be carried out before Romania can
achieve its hope of joining the EU.

Russia:
The defeat of the Russian Empire in World War I led to the
seizure of power by the communists and the formation of the USSR.
The brutal rule of Josef STALIN (1924-53) strengthened Russian
dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens of millions of
lives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated in the following
decades until General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91)
introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an
attempt to modernize communism, but his initiatives inadvertently
released forces that by December 1991 splintered the USSR into 15
independent republics. Since then, Russia has struggled in its
efforts to build a democratic political system and market economy to
replace the strict social, political, and economic controls of the
communist period.

Rwanda:
In 1959, three years before independence, the majority
ethnic group, the Hutus overthrew the ruling Tutsi king. Over the
next several years thousands of Tutsis were killed, and some 150,000
driven into exile in neighboring countries. The children of these
exiles later formed a rebel group, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF)
and began a civil war in 1990. The war, along with several political
and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnic tensions culminating in
April 1994 in the genocide of roughly 800,000 Tutsis and moderate
Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated the Hutu regime and ended the
killing in July 1994, but approximately 2 million Hutu refugees -
many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled to neighboring Burundi,
Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire, now called the Democratic Republic of
the Congo (DROC). Since then most of the refugees have returned to
Rwanda. Despite substantial international assistance and political
reforms - including Rwanda's first local elections in March 1999 -
the country continues to struggle to boost investment and
agricultural output and to foster reconciliation. A series of
massive population displacements, a nagging Hutu extremist
insurgency, and Rwandan involvement in two wars over the past four
years in the neighboring DROC continue to hinder Rwanda's efforts.

Saint Helena:
Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in
1502, St. Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17th
century. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE's
exile, from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as a
port of call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
Ascension Island is the site of a US Air Force auxiliary airfield;
Gough Island has a meteorological station.

Saint Kitts and Nevis:
First settled by the British in 1623, the
islands became an associated state with full internal autonomy in
1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in
1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. In 1998,
a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint Kitts fell
short of the two-thirds majority needed.

Saint Lucia:
The island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,
was contested between England and France throughout the 17th and
early 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finally
ceded to the UK in 1814. Self-government was granted in 1967 and
independence in 1979.

Saint Pierre and Miquelon:
First settled by the French in the early
17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige of
France's once vast North American possessions.

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines:
Disputed between France and Great
Britain in the 18th century, Saint Vincent was ceded to the latter
in 1783. Autonomy was granted in 1969, and independence in 1979.

Samoa:
New Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoa
at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administer
the islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,
when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablish
independence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"
from its name in 1997.

San Marino:
The third smallest state in Europe (after The Holy See
and Monaco) also claims to be the world's oldest republic. According
to tradition, it was founded by a Christian stonemason named Marinus
in 301 A.D. San Marino's foreign policy is aligned with that of
Italy. Social and political trends in the republic also track
closely with those of its larger neighbor.

Sao Tome and Principe:
Discovered and claimed by Portugal in the
late 15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to
coffee and cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation
slave labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century.
Although independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were
not instituted until the late 1980s. The first free elections were
held in 1991.

Saudi Arabia:
In 1902 Abdul al-Aziz Ibn SAUD captured Riyadh and set
out on a 30-year campaign to unify the Arabian peninsula. In the
1930s, the discovery of oil transformed the country. Following
Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia accepted the Kuwaiti
royal family and 400,000 refugees while allowing Western and Arab
troops to deploy on its soil for the liberation of Kuwait the
following year. A burgeoning population, aquifer depletion, and an
economy largely dependent on petroleum output and prices are all
major governmental concerns.

Senegal:
Independent from France in 1960, Senegal joined with The
Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in 1982.
However, the envisaged integration of the two countries was never
carried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peace
talks, a southern separatist group sporadically has clashed with
government forces since 1982. Senegal has a long history of
participating in international peacekeeping.

Seychelles:
A lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain for
the islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.
Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a close
with a new constitution and free elections in 1993.

Sierra Leone:
Since 1991, civil war between the government and the
Revolutionary United Front (RUF) has resulted in tens of thousands
of deaths and the displacement of more than 2 million people (well
over one-third of the population) many of whom are now refugees in
neighboring countries. A peace agreement, signed in July 1999,
collapsed in May 2000 after the RUF took over 500 UN peacekeepers
hostage. The RUF stepped up attacks on Guinea in December 2000,
despite a cease-fire that it signed with the Freetown government one
month earlier. As of late 2000, up to 13,000 UN peacekeepers were
protecting the capital and key towns in the south. A UK force of 750
was helping to reinforce security and train the Sierra Leone army.

Singapore:
Founded as a British trading colony in 1819, Singapore
joined Malaysia in 1963, but withdrew two years later and became
independent. It subsequently became one of the world's most
prosperous countries, with strong international trading links (its
port is one of the world's busiest) and with per capita GDP above
that of the leading nations of Western Europe.

Slovakia:
In 1918 the Slovaks joined the closely related Czechs to
form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,
Czechoslovakia became a communist nation within Soviet-ruled Eastern
Europe. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and Czechoslovakia once
more became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs agreed to separate
peacefully on 1 January 1993. Historic, political, and geographic
factors have caused Slovakia to experience more difficulty in
developing a modern market economy than some of its Central European
neighbors.

Slovenia:
In 1918 the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in
forming a new nation, renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. After World War
II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, which
though communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfied
with the exercise of power of the majority Serbs, the Slovenes
succeeded in establishing their independence in 1991. Historical
ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, and a stable democracy
make Slovenia a leading candidate for future membership in the EU
and NATO.

Solomon Islands:
The UK established a protectorate over the Solomon
Islands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War II
occurred on these islands. Self-government was achieved in 1976 and
independence two years later. Current issues include government
deficits, deforestation, and malaria control.

Somalia:
A SIAD BARRE regime was ousted in January 1991; turmoil,
factional fighting, and anarchy followed for nine years. In May of
1991, northern clans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland
which now includes the administrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi
Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognized by any
government, this entity has maintained a stable existence, aided by
the overwhelming dominance of the ruling clan and economic
infrastructure left behind by British, Russian, and American
military assistance programs. The regions of Bari and Nugaal
comprise a neighboring self-declared Republic of Puntland, which has
also made strides towards reconstructing legitimate, representative
government. Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort
(primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions,
but when the UN withdrew in 1995, having suffered significant
casualties, order still had not been restored. A Transitional
National Government (TNG) was created in October 2000 in Arta,
Djibouti which was attended by a broad representation of Somali
clans. The TNG has a three-year mandate to create a permanent
national Somali government. The TNG does not recognize Somaliland or
Puntland as independent republics but so far has been unable to
reunite them with the unstable regions in the south; numerous
warlords and factions are still fighting for control of Mogadishu
and the other southern regions.

South Africa:
After the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in
1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to found
their own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold
(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified the
subjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted British
encroachments, but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902). The
resulting Union of South Africa operated under a policy of apartheid
- the separate development of the races. The 1990s brought an end to
apartheid politically and ushered in black majority rule.

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands:
The islands lie
approximately 1,000 km east of the Falkland Islands. Grytviken, on
South Georgia, was a 19th and early 20th century whaling station.
The famed explorer Ernest SHACKLETON stopped there in 1914 en route
to his ill-fated attempt to cross Antarctica on foot. He returned
some 20 months later with a few companions in a small boat and
arranged a successful rescue for the rest of his crew, stranded off
the Antarctic Peninsula. He died in 1922 on a subsequent expedition
and is buried in Grytviken. Today, the station houses a small
military garrison. The islands have large bird and seal populations
and, recognizing the importance of preserving the marine stocks in
adjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended the exclusive fishing
zone from 12 miles to 200 miles around each island.

Southern Ocean:
A decision by the International Hydrographic
Organization in the spring of 2000 delimited a fifth world ocean -
the Southern Ocean - from the southern portions of the Atlantic
Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends
from the coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude
which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit. The Southern Ocean
is now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the
Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the
Arctic Ocean).

Spain:
Spain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuries
ultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequent
failure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions caused
the country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economic
and political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II,
but suffered through a devastating Civil War (1936-39). In the
second half of the 20th century, it has played a catch-up role in
the western international community. Continuing concerns are
large-scale unemployment and the Basque separatist movement.

Spratly Islands:
Rich fishing grounds and the potential for gas and
oil deposits have caused this archipelago to be claimed in its
entirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimed
by Malaysia and the Philippines. All five parties have occupied
certain islands or reefs, and occasional clashes have occurred
between Chinese and Vietnamese naval forces

Sri Lanka:
Occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century and the
Dutch in the 17th century, the island was ceded to the British in
1802. As Ceylon it became independent in 1948; its name was changed
in 1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil
separatists erupted in violence in the mid-1980s. Tens of thousands
have died in an ethnic war that continues to fester.

Sudan:
Military dictatorships promulgating an Islamic government
have mostly run the country since independence from the UK in 1956.
Over the past two decades, a civil war pitting black Christians and
animists in the south against the Arab-Muslims of the north has cost
at least 1.5 million lives in war- and famine-related deaths, as
well as the displacement of millions of others.

Suriname:
Independence from the Netherlands was granted in 1975.
Five years later the civilian government was replaced by a military
regime that soon declared a socialist republic. It continued to rule
through a succession of nominally civilian administrations until
1987, when international pressure finally brought about a democratic
election. In 1989, the military overthrew the civilian government,
but a democratically elected government returned to power in 1991.

Svalbard:
First discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century,
the islands served as an international whaling base during the 17th
and 18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920;
five years later it officially took over the territory.

Swaziland:
Autonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteed
by the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted
1968. Student and labor unrest during the 1990s have pressured the
monarchy (one of the oldest on the continent) to grudgingly allow
political reform and greater democracy.

Sweden:
A military power during the 17th century, Sweden has not
participated in any war in almost two centuries. An armed neutrality
was preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's long-successful economic
formula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfare
elements has recently been undermined by high unemployment, rising
maintenance costs, and a declining position in world markets.
Indecision over the country's role in the political and economic
integration of Europe caused Sweden not to join the EU until 1995,
and to forgo the introduction of the euro in 1999.

Switzerland:
Switzerland's independence and neutrality have long
been honored by the major European powers and Switzerland was not
involved in either of the two World Wars. The political and economic
integration of Europe over the past half century, as well as
Switzerland's role in many UN and international organizations, may
be rendering obsolete the country's concern for neutrality.

Syria:
Following the breakup of the Ottoman Empire during World War
I, Syria was administered by the French until independence in 1946.
In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the Golan Heights to
Israel. Since 1976, Syrian troops have been stationed in Lebanon,
ostensibly in a peacekeeping capacity. In recent years, Syria and
Israel have held occasional peace talks over the return of the Golan
Heights.

Tajikistan:
Tajikistan has experienced three changes in government
and a five-year civil war since it gained independence in 1991 from
the USSR. A peace agreement among rival factions was signed in 1997,
and implementation reportedly completed by late 1999. Part of the
agreement required the legalization of opposition political parties
prior to the 1999 elections, which occurred, but such parties have
made little progress in successful participation in government.
Random criminal and political violence in the country remains a
complication impairing Tajikistan's ability to engage
internationally.

Tanzania:
Shortly after independence, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged
to form the nation of Tanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an
end in 1995 with the first democratic elections held in the country
since the 1970s. Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popular
opposition have led to two contentious elections since 1995, which
the ruling party won despite international observers' claims of
voting irregularities.

Thailand:
A unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14th
century; it was known as Siam until 1939. Thailand is the only
southeast Asian country never to have been taken over by a European
power. A bloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional
monarchy. In alliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand
became a US ally following the conflict.

Togo:
French Togoland became Togo in 1960. General Gnassingbe
EYADEMA, installed as military ruler in 1967, is Africa's
longest-serving head of state. Despite the facade of multiparty
elections that resulted in EYADEMA's victory in 1993, the government
continues to be dominated by the military. In addition, Togo has
come under fire from international organizations for human rights
abuses and is plagued by political unrest. Most bilateral and
multilateral aid to Togo remains frozen.

Tokelau:
Originally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surrounding
island groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectorate
in 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in
1925. According to a UN report, these low-lying islands will
disappear in the 21st century, if global warming continues to raise
sea levels.

Tonga:
The archipelago of "The Friendly Islands" was united into a
Polynesian kingdom in 1845. It became a constitutional monarchy in
1875 and a British protectorate in 1900. Tonga acquired its
independence in 1970 and became a member of the Commonwealth of
Nations. It remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.

Trinidad and Tobago:
The islands came under British control in the
19th century; independence was granted in 1962. The country is one
of the most prosperous in the Caribbean thanks largely to petroleum
and natural gas production and processing. Tourism, mostly in
Tobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.

Tromelin Island:
First explored by the French in 1776, the island
came under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, it
serves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an important
meteorological station.

Tunisia:
Following independence from France in 1956, President Habib
BOURGIUBA established a strict one-party state. He dominated the
country for 31 years, repressing Islamic fundamentalism and
establishing rights for women unmatched by any other Arab nation. In
recent years, Tunisia has taken a moderate, non-aligned stance in
its foreign relations. Domestically, it has sought to diffuse rising
pressure for a more open political society.

Turkey:
Turkey was created in 1923 from the Turkish remnants of the
Ottoman Empire. Soon thereafter the country instituted secular laws
to replace traditional religious fiats. In 1945 Turkey joined the UN
and in 1952 it became a member of NATO. Turkey occupied the northern
portion of Cyprus in 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island;
relations between the two countries remain strained. Periodic
military offensives against Kurdish separatists have dislocated part
of the population in southeast Turkey and have drawn international
condemnation.

Turkmenistan:
Annexed by Russia between 1865 and 1885, Turkmenistan
became a Soviet republic in 1925. It achieved its independence upon
the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. President NIYAZOV retains
absolute control over the country and opposition is not tolerated.
Extensive hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove a boon to
this underdeveloped country if extraction and delivery projects can
be worked out.

Turks and Caicos Islands:
The islands were part of the UK's Jamaican
colony until 1962, when they assumed the status of a separate crown
colony upon Jamaica's independence. The governor of The Bahamas
oversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, the
islands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independence
was agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islands
are presently a British overseas territory.

Tuvalu:
In 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of the
Gilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the Ellice
Islands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the Gilbert
Islands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separate
British colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000,
Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name ".tv"
for $50 million in royalties over the next dozen years.

Uganda:
Uganda achieved independence from the UK in 1962. The
dictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79) was responsible for the
deaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrilla war and human rights
abuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed another 100,000 lives.
During the 1990s the government promulgated non-party presidential
and legislative elections.

Ukraine:
Richly endowed in natural resources, Ukraine has been
fought over and subjugated for centuries; its 20th-century struggle
for liberty is not yet complete. A short-lived independence from
Russia (1917-1920) was followed by brutal Soviet rule that
engineered two artificial famines (1921-22 and 1932-33) in which
over 8 million died, and World War II, in which German and Soviet
armies were responsible for some 7 million more deaths. Although
independence was attained in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR,
true freedom remains elusive as many of the former Soviet elite
remain entrenched, stalling efforts at economic reform,
privatization, and civic liberties.

United Arab Emirates:
The Trucial States of the Persian Gulf coast
granted the UK control of their defense and foreign affairs in 19th
century treaties. In 1971, six of these states - Abu Zaby, 'Ajman,
Al Fujayrah, Ash Shariqah, Dubayy, and Umm al Qaywayn - merged to
form the UAE. They were joined in 1972 by Ra's al Khaymah. The UAE's
per capita GDP is not far below those of the leading West European
nations. Its generosity with oil revenues and its moderate foreign
policy stance have allowed it to play a vital role in the affairs of
the region.

United Kingdom:
Great Britain, the dominant industrial and maritime
power of the 19th century, played a leading role in developing
parliamentary democracy and in advancing literature and science. At
its zenith, the British Empire stretched over one-fourth of the
earth's surface. The first half of the 20th century saw the UK's
strength seriously depleted in two World Wars. The second half
witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itself
into a modern and prosperous European nation. As one of five
permanent members of the UN Security Council, a founding member of
NATO, and of the Commonwealth, the UK pursues a global approach to
foreign policy; it currently is weighing the degree of its
integration with continental Europe. A member of the EU, it chose to
remain outside of the European Monetary Union for the time being.
Constitutional reform is also a significant issue in the UK.
Regional assemblies with varying degrees of power opened in
Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland in 1999.

United States:
The United States became the world's first modern
democracy after its break with Great Britain (1776) and the adoption
of a constitution (1789). During the 19th century, many new states
were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the
North American continent and acquired a number of overseas
possessions. The two most traumatic experiences in the nation's
history were the Civil War (1861-65) and the Great Depression of the
1930s. Buoyed by victories in World Wars I and II and the end of the
Cold War in 1991, the US remains the world's most powerful
nation-state. The economy is marked by steady growth, low
unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances in technology.

Uruguay:
A violent Marxist urban guerrilla movement, the Tupamaros,
launched in the late 1960s, led Uruguay's president to agree to
military control of his administration in 1973. By the end of the
year the rebels had been crushed, but the military continued to
expand its hold throughout the government. Civilian rule was not
restored until 1985. Uruguay's political and labor conditions are
among the freest on the continent.