Chapter M: Major infectious diseases (94)

Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) achieved
independence from France in 1960. Repeated military coups during the
1970s and 1980s were followed by multiparty elections in the early
1990s. Current President Blaise COMPAORE came to power in a 1987
military coup and has won every election since then. Burkina Faso's
high population density and limited natural resources result in poor
economic prospects for the majority of its citizens. Recent unrest
in Cote d'Ivoire and northern Ghana has hindered the ability of
several hundred thousand seasonal Burkinabe farm workers to find
employment in neighboring countries.

Burma
Britain conquered Burma over a period of 62 years (1824-1886)
and incorporated it into its Indian Empire. Burma was administered
as a province of India until 1937 when it became a separate,
self-governing colony; independence from the Commonwealth was
attained in 1948. Gen. NE WIN dominated the government from 1962 to
1988, first as military ruler, then as self-appointed president, and
later as political kingpin. In September 1988, the military deposed
NE WIN and established a new ruling junta. Despite multiparty
legislative elections in 1990 that resulted in the main opposition
party - the National League for Democracy (NLD) - winning a
landslide victory, the junta refused to hand over power. NLD leader
and Nobel Peace Prize recipient AUNG SAN SUU KYI, who was under
house arrest from 1989 to 1995 and 2000 to 2002, was imprisoned in
May 2003 and subsequently transferred to house arrest. She was
finally released in November 2010. After the ruling junta in August
2007 unexpectedly increased fuel prices, tens of thousands of
Burmese marched in protest, led by prodemocracy activists and
Buddhist monks. In late September 2007, the government brutally
suppressed the protests, killing at least 13 people and arresting
thousands for participating in the demonstrations. Since then, the
regime has continued to raid homes and monasteries and arrest
persons suspected of participating in the pro-democracy protests.
Burma in early May 2008 was struck by Cyclone Nargis which official
estimates claimed left over 80,000 dead and 50,000 injured. Despite
this tragedy, the junta proceeded with its May constitutional
referendum, the first vote in Burma since 1990. Parliamentary
elections held in November 2010, considered flawed by many in the
international community, saw the junta's Union Solidarity and
Development Party garnering over 70 percent of the seats. Parliament
is constitutionally mandated to convene within 90 days of the
election; the president, two vice presidents, and ministers will be
selected at that time.

Burundi
Burundi's first democratically elected president was
assassinated in October 1993 after only 100 days in office,
triggering widespread ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi
factions. More than 200,000 Burundians perished during the conflict
that spanned almost a dozen years. Hundreds of thousands of
Burundians were internally displaced or became refugees in
neighboring countries. An internationally brokered power-sharing
agreement between the Tutsi-dominated government and the Hutu rebels
in 2003 paved the way for a transition process that led to an
integrated defense force, established a new constitution in 2005,
and elected a majority Hutu government in 2005. The new government,
led by President Pierre NKURUNZIZA, signed a South African brokered
ceasefire with the country's last rebel group in September of 2006
but still faces many challenges.

Cambodia
Most Cambodians consider themselves to be Khmers,
descendants of the Angkor Empire that extended over much of
Southeast Asia and reached its zenith between the 10th and 13th
centuries. Attacks by the Thai and Cham (from present-day Vietnam)
weakened the empire, ushering in a long period of decline. The king
placed the country under French protection in 1863 and it became
part of French Indochina in 1887. Following Japanese occupation in
World War II, Cambodia gained full independence from France in 1953.
In April 1975, after a five-year struggle, Communist Khmer Rouge
forces captured Phnom Penh and evacuated all cities and towns. At
least 1.5 million Cambodians died from execution, forced hardships,
or starvation during the Khmer Rouge regime under POL POT. A
December 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into the
countryside, began a 10-year Vietnamese occupation, and touched off
almost 13 years of civil war. The 1991 Paris Peace Accords mandated
democratic elections and a ceasefire, which was not fully respected
by the Khmer Rouge. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore
some semblance of normalcy under a coalition government. Factional
fighting in 1997 ended the first coalition government, but a second
round of national elections in 1998 led to the formation of another
coalition government and renewed political stability. The remaining
elements of the Khmer Rouge surrendered in early 1999. Some of the
surviving Khmer Rouge leaders have been tried or are awaiting trial
for crimes against humanity by a hybrid UN-Cambodian tribunal
supported by international assistance. Elections in July 2003 were
relatively peaceful, but it took one year of negotiations between
contending political parties before a coalition government was
formed. In October 2004, King Norodom SIHANOUK abdicated the throne
and his son, Prince Norodom SIHAMONI, was selected to succeed him.
Local elections were held in Cambodia in April 2007, with little of
the pre-election violence that preceded prior elections. National
elections in July 2008 were relatively peaceful.

Cameroon
The former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroon
merged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generally
enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of
agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry.
Despite slow movement toward democratic reform, political power
remains firmly in the hands of President Paul BIYA.

Canada
A land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canada
became a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to the
British crown. Economically and technologically the nation has
developed in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south across
an unfortified border. Canada faces the political challenges of
meeting public demands for quality improvements in health care and
education services, as well as responding to the particular concerns
of predominantly francophone Quebec. Canada also aims to develop its
diverse energy resources while maintaining its commitment to the
environment.

Cape Verde
The uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by
the Portuguese in the 15th century; Cape Verde subsequently became a
trading center for African slaves and later an important coaling and
resupply stop for whaling and transatlantic shipping. Following
independence in 1975, and a tentative interest in unification with
Guinea-Bissau, a one-party system was established and maintained
until multi-party elections were held in 1990. Cape Verde continues
to exhibit one of Africa's most stable democratic governments.
Repeated droughts during the second half of the 20th century caused
significant hardship and prompted heavy emigration. As a result,
Cape Verde's expatriate population is greater than its domestic one.
Most Cape Verdeans have both African and Portuguese antecedents.

Cayman Islands
The Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by the
British during the 18th and 19th centuries and were administered by
Jamaica after 1863. In 1959, the islands became a territory within
the Federation of the West Indies. When the Federation dissolved in
1962, the Cayman Islands chose to remain a British dependency.

Central African Republic
The former French colony of Ubangi-Shari
became the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. After
three tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments
- civilian rule was established in 1993 and lasted for one decade.
President Ange-Felix PATASSE's civilian government was plagued by
unrest, and in March 2003 he was deposed in a military coup led by
General Francois BOZIZE, who established a transitional government.
Though the government has the tacit support of civil society groups
and the main parties, a wide field of candidates contested the
municipal, legislative, and presidential elections held in March and
May of 2005 in which General BOZIZE was affirmed as president. The
government still does not fully control the countryside, where
pockets of lawlessness persist. Unrest in the neighboring nations of
Chad, Sudan, and the DRC continues to affect stability in the
Central African Republic as well.

Chad
Chad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, endured
three decades of civil warfare as well as invasions by Libya before
a semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. The government
eventually drafted a democratic constitution and held flawed
presidential elections in 1996 and 2001. In 1998, a rebellion broke
out in northern Chad, which has sporadically flared up despite
several peace agreements between the government and the rebels. In
2005, new rebel groups emerged in western Sudan and made probing
attacks into eastern Chad despite signing peace agreements in
December 2006 and October 2007. Power remains in the hands of an
ethnic minority. In June 2005, President Idriss DEBY held a
referendum successfully removing constitutional term limits and won
another controversial election in 2006. Sporadic rebel campaigns
continued throughout 2006 and 2007. The capital experienced a
significant rebel threat in early 2008.

Chile
Prior to the coming of the Spanish in the 16th century,
northern Chile was under Inca rule while the indigenous Mapuche
inhabited central and southern Chile. Although Chile declared its
independence in 1810, decisive victory over the Spanish was not
achieved until 1818. In the War of the Pacific (1879-83), Chile
defeated Peru and Bolivia and won its present northern regions. It
was not until the 1880s that the Mapuche Indians were completely
subjugated. After a series of elected governments, a three-year-old
Marxist government of Salvador ALLENDE was overthrown in 1973 by a
military coup led by Augusto PINOCHET, who ruled until a freely
elected president was installed in 1990. Sound economic policies,
maintained consistently since the 1980s, have contributed to steady
growth, reduced poverty rates by over half, and have helped secure
the country's commitment to democratic and representative
government. Chile has increasingly assumed regional and
international leadership roles befitting its status as a stable,
democratic nation.

China
For centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacing
the rest of the world in the arts and sciences, but in the 19th and
early 20th centuries, the country was beset by civil unrest, major
famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War
II, the Communists under MAO Zedong established an autocratic
socialist system that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed
strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of
millions of people. After 1978, MAO's successor DENG Xiaoping and
other leaders focused on market-oriented economic development and by
2000 output had quadrupled. For much of the population, living
standards have improved dramatically and the room for personal
choice has expanded, yet political controls remain tight. China
since the early 1990s has increased its global outreach and
participation in international organizations.

Christmas Island
Named in 1643 for the day of its discovery, the
island was annexed and settlement began by the UK in 1888. Phosphate
mining began in the 1890s. The UK transferred sovereignty to
Australia in 1958. Almost two-thirds of the island has been declared
a national park.

Clipperton Island
This isolated island was named for John
CLIPPERTON, a pirate who made it his hideout early in the 18th
century. Annexed by France in 1855, it was seized by Mexico in 1897.
Arbitration eventually awarded the island to France, which took
possession in 1935.

Cocos (Keeling) Islands
There are 27 coral islands in the group.
Captain William KEELING discovered the islands in 1609, but they
remained uninhabited until the 19th century. From the 1820s to 1978,
members of the CLUNIE-ROSS family controlled the islands and the
copra produced from local coconuts. Annexed by the UK in 1857, the
Cocos Islands were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.
The population on the two inhabited islands generally is split
between the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays on
Home Island.

Colombia
Colombia was one of the three countries that emerged from
the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others are Ecuador and
Venezuela). A four-decade long conflict between government forces
and anti-government insurgent groups, principally the Revolutionary
Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) heavily funded by the drug trade,
escalated during the 1990s. The insurgents lack the military or
popular support necessary to overthrow the government and violence
has been decreasing since about 2002, but insurgents continue
attacks against civilians and large areas of the countryside are
under guerrilla influence or are contested by security forces. More
than 31,000 former paramilitaries had demobilized by the end of 2006
and the United Self Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) as a formal
organization had ceased to function. In the wake of the paramilitary
demobilization, emerging criminal groups arose, whose members
include some former paramilitaries. The Colombian Government has
stepped up efforts to reassert government control throughout the
country, and now has a presence in every one of its administrative
departments. However, neighboring countries worry about the violence
spilling over their borders. In January 2011, Colombia assumed a
nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2011-12 term.

Comoros
Comoros has endured more than 20 coups or attempted coups
since gaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islands
of Anjouan and Moheli declared independence from Comoros. In 1999,
military chief Col. AZALI seized power in a bloodless coup, and
helped negotiate the 2000 Fomboni Accords power-sharing agreement in
which the federal presidency rotates among the three islands, and
each island maintains its own local government. AZALI won the 2002
presidential election, and each island in the archipelago elected
its own president. AZALI stepped down in 2006 and President SAMBI
was elected to office. In 2007, Mohamed BACAR effected Anjouan's
de-facto secession from the Union, refusing to step down in favor of
fresh Anjouanais elections when Comoros' other islands held
legitimate elections in July. The African Union (AU) initially
attempted to resolve the political crisis by applying sanctions and
a naval blockade on Anjouan, but in March 2008, AU and Comoran
soldiers seized the island. The move was generally welcomed by the
island's inhabitants.

Congo, Democratic Republic of the
Established as a Belgian colony in
1908, the Republic of the Congo gained its independence in 1960, but
its early years were marred by political and social instability.
Col. Joseph MOBUTU seized power and declared himself president in a
November 1965 coup. He subsequently changed his name - to MOBUTU
Sese Seko - as well as that of the country - to Zaire. MOBUTU
retained his position for 32 years through several sham elections,
as well as through brutal force. Ethnic strife and civil war,
touched off by a massive inflow of refugees in 1994 from fighting in
Rwanda and Burundi, led in May 1997 to the toppling of the MOBUTU
regime by a rebellion backed by Rwanda and Uganda and fronted by
Laurent KABILA. He renamed the country the Democratic Republic of
the Congo (DRC), but in August 1998 his regime was itself challenged
by a second insurrection again backed by Rwanda and Uganda. Troops
from Angola, Chad, Namibia, Sudan, and Zimbabwe intervened to
support KABILA's regime. A cease-fire was signed in July 1999 by the
DRC, Congolese armed rebel groups, Angola, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda,
and Zimbabwe but sporadic fighting continued. Laurent KABILA was
assassinated in January 2001 and his son, Joseph KABILA, was named
head of state. In October 2002, the new president was successful in
negotiating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces occupying eastern
Congo; two months later, the Pretoria Accord was signed by all
remaining warring parties to end the fighting and establish a
government of national unity. A transitional government was set up
in July 2003. Joseph KABILA as president and four vice presidents
represented the former government, former rebel groups, the
political opposition, and civil society. The transitional government
held a successful constitutional referendum in December 2005 and
elections for the presidency, National Assembly, and provincial
legislatures in 2006. The National Assembly was installed in
September 2006 and KABILA was inaugurated president in December
2006. Provincial assemblies were constituted in early 2007, and
elected governors and national senators in January 2007.

Congo, Republic of the
Upon independence in 1960, the former French
region of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quarter
century of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and a
democratically elected government took office in 1992. A brief civil
war in 1997 restored former Marxist President Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO,
and ushered in a period of ethnic and political unrest.
Southern-based rebel groups agreed to a final peace accord in March
2003, but the calm is tenuous and refugees continue to present a
humanitarian crisis. The Republic of Congo was once one of Africa's
largest petroleum producers, but with declining production it will
need new offshore oil finds to sustain its oil earnings over the
long term.

Cook Islands
Named after Captain COOK, who sighted them in 1770, the
islands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,
administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965,
residents chose self-government in free association with New
Zealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand and
government deficits are continuing problems.

Coral Sea Islands
Scattered over more than three-quarters of a
million square kilometers of ocean, the Coral Sea Islands were
declared a territory of Australia in 1969. They are uninhabited
except for a small meteorological staff on the Willis Islets.
Automated weather stations, beacons, and a lighthouse occupy many
other islands and reefs.

Costa Rica
Although explored by the Spanish early in the 16th
century, initial attempts at colonizing Costa Rica proved
unsuccessful due to a combination of factors, including: disease
from mosquito-infested swamps, brutal heat, resistance by natives,
and pirate raids. It was not until 1563 that a permanent settlement
of Cartago was established in the cooler, fertile central highlands.
The area remained a colony for some two and a half centuries. In
1821, Costa Rica became one of several Central American provinces
that jointly declared their independence from Spain. Two years later
it joined the United Provinces of Central America, but this
federation disintegrated in 1838, at which time Costa Rica
proclaimed its sovereignty and independence. Since the late 19th
century, only two brief periods of violence have marred the
country's democratic development. Although it still maintains a
large agricultural sector, Costa Rica has expanded its economy to
include strong technology and tourism industries. The standard of
living is relatively high. Land ownership is widespread.

Cote d'Ivoire
Close ties to France since independence in 1960, the
development of cocoa production for export, and foreign investment
made Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the West African
states, but did not protect it from political turmoil. In December
1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire's history -
overthrew the government. Junta leader Robert GUEI blatantly rigged
elections held in late 2000 and declared himself the winner. Popular
protest forced him to step aside and brought Laurent GBAGBO into
power. Ivorian dissidents and disaffected members of the military
launched a failed coup attempt in September 2002. Rebel forces
claimed the northern half of the country, and in January 2003 were
granted ministerial positions in a unity government under the
auspices of the Linas-Marcoussis Peace Accord. President GBAGBO and
rebel forces resumed implementation of the peace accord in December
2003 after a three-month stalemate, but issues that sparked the
civil war, such as land reform and grounds for citizenship, remained
unresolved. In March 2007 President GBAGBO and former New Force
rebel leader Guillaume SORO signed the Ouagadougou Political
Agreement. As a result of the agreement, SORO joined GBAGBO's
government as Prime Minister and the two agreed to reunite the
country by dismantling the zone of confidence separating North from
South, integrate rebel forces into the national armed forces, and
hold elections. Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of
rebel forces have been problematic as rebels seek to enter the armed
forces. Citizen identification and voter registration pose election
difficulties, and balloting planned for November 2009 was postponed
with no future date set. Several thousand UN troops and several
hundred French remain in Cote d'Ivoire to help the parties implement
their commitments and to support the peace process.

Croatia
The lands that today comprise Croatia were part of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire until the close of World War I. In 1918, the
Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdom known after 1929 as
Yugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslavia became a federal
independent Communist state under the strong hand of Marshal TITO.
Although Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991,
it took four years of sporadic, but often bitter, fighting before
occupying Serb armies were mostly cleared from Croatian lands. Under
UN supervision, the last Serb-held enclave in eastern Slavonia was
returned to Croatia in 1998. In April 2009, Croatia joined NATO; it
is a candidate for eventual EU accession.

Cuba
The native Amerindian population of Cuba began to decline after
the European discovery of the island by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1492
and following its development as a Spanish colony during the next
several centuries. Large numbers of African slaves were imported to
work the coffee and sugar plantations, and Havana became the
launching point for the annual treasure fleets bound for Spain from
Mexico and Peru. Spanish rule eventually provoked an independence
movement and occasional rebellions that were harshly suppressed. US
intervention during the Spanish-American War in 1898 assisted the
Cubans in overthrowing Spanish rule. The Treaty of Paris established
Cuban independence from the US in 1902 after which the island
experienced a string of governments mostly dominated by the military
and corrupt politicians. Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in
1959; his iron rule held the subsequent regime together for nearly
five decades. He stepped down as president in February 2008 in favor
of his younger brother Raul CASTRO. Cuba's Communist revolution,
with Soviet support, was exported throughout Latin America and
Africa during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. The country faced a
severe economic downturn in 1990 following the withdrawal of former
Soviet subsidies worth $4 billion to $6 billion annually. Cuba at
times portrays the US embargo, in place since 1961, as the source if
its difficulties. Illicit migration to the US - using homemade
rafts, alien smugglers, air flights, or via the southwest border -
is a continuing problem. The US Coast Guard intercepted 982
individuals attempting to cross the Straits of Florida in fiscal
year 2009.

Curacao
Originally settled by Arawak Indians, Curacao was seized by
the Dutch in 1634 along with the neighboring island of Bonaire. Once
the center of the Caribbean slave trade, Curacao was hard hit by the
abolition of slavery in 1863. Its prosperity (and that of
neighboring Aruba) was restored in the early 20th century with the
construction of the Isla Refineria to service the newly discovered
Venezuelan oil fields. In 1954, Curacao and several other Dutch
Caribbean possesions were reorganized as the Netherlands Antilles,
part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In referenda in 2005 and
2009, the citizens of Curacao voted to become a self-governing
country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The change in status
became effective in October of 2010 with the dissolution of the
Netherlands Antilles.

Cyprus
A former British colony, Cyprus became independent in 1960
following years of resistance to British rule. Tensions between the
Greek Cypriot majority and Turkish Cypriot minority came to a head
in December 1963, when violence broke out in the capital of Nicosia.
Despite the deployment of UN peacekeepers in 1964, sporadic
intercommunal violence continued forcing most Turkish Cypriots into
enclaves throughout the island. In 1974, a Greek
Government-sponsored attempt to seize control of Cyprus was met by
military intervention from Turkey, which soon controlled more than a
third of the island. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriot-occupied area
declared itself the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" ("TRNC"),
but it is recognized only by Turkey. The election of a new Cypriot
president in 2008 served as the impetus for the UN to encourage both
the Turkish and Cypriot Governments to reopen unification
negotiations. In September 2008, the leaders of the Greek Cypriot
and Turkish Cypriot communities started negotiations under UN
auspices aimed at reuniting the divided island. The entire island
entered the EU on 1 May 2004, although the EU acquis - the body of
common rights and obligations - applies only to the areas under the
internationally recognized government, and is suspended in the areas
administered by Turkish Cypriots. However, individual Turkish
Cypriots able to document their eligibility for Republic of Cyprus
citizenship legally enjoy the same rights accorded to other citizens
of European Union states.

Czech Republic
Following the First World War, the closely related
Czechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged to
form Czechoslovakia. During the interwar years, the new country's
leaders were frequently preoccupied with meeting the demands of
other ethnic minorities within the republic, most notably the
Sudeten Germans and the Ruthenians (Ukrainians). After World War II,
a truncated Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere of
influence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended the
efforts of the country's leaders to liberalize Communist party rule
and create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrations
the following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With the
collapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained its
freedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993,
the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two national
components, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republic
joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004.

Denmark
Once the seat of Viking raiders and later a major north
European power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nation
that is participating in the general political and economic
integration of Europe. It joined NATO in 1949 and the EEC (now the
EU) in 1973. However, the country has opted out of certain elements
of the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the European
Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), European defense cooperation, and
issues concerning certain justice and home affairs.

Dhekelia
By terms of the 1960 Treaty of Establishment that created
the independent Republic of Cyprus, the UK retained full sovereignty
and jurisdiction over two areas of almost 254 square kilometers -
Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The larger of these is the Dhekelia Sovereign
Base Area, which is also referred to as the Eastern Sovereign Base
Area.

Djibouti
The French Territory of the Afars and the Issas became
Djibouti in 1977. Hassan Gouled APTIDON installed an authoritarian
one-party state and proceeded to serve as president until 1999.
Unrest among the Afars minority during the 1990s led to a civil war
that ended in 2001 following the conclusion of a peace accord
between Afar rebels and the Issa-dominated government. In 1999,
Djibouti's first multi-party presidential elections resulted in the
election of Ismail Omar GUELLEH; he was re-elected to a second term
in 2005. Djibouti occupies a strategic geographic location at the
mouth of the Red Sea and serves as an important transshipment
location for goods entering and leaving the east African highlands.
The present leadership favors close ties to France, which maintains
a significant military presence in the country but also has strong
ties with the US. Djibouti hosts the only US military base in
sub-Saharan Africa and is a front-line state in the global war on
terrorism.

Dominica
Dominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to be
colonized by Europeans due chiefly to the fierce resistance of the
native Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763,
which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years after
independence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt and
tyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary Eugenia
CHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, who
remained in office for 15 years. Some 3,000 Carib Indians still
living on Dominica are the only pre-Columbian population remaining
in the eastern Caribbean.

Dominican Republic
Explored and claimed by Christopher COLUMBUS on
his first voyage in 1492, the island of Hispaniola became a
springboard for Spanish conquest of the Caribbean and the American
mainland. In 1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the western
third of the island, which in 1804 became Haiti. The remainder of
the island, by then known as Santo Domingo, sought to gain its own
independence in 1821 but was conquered and ruled by the Haitians for
22 years; it finally attained independence as the Dominican Republic
in 1844. In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned to the Spanish
Empire, but two years later they launched a war that restored
independence in 1865. A legacy of unsettled, mostly
non-representative rule followed, capped by the dictatorship of
Rafael Leonidas TRUJILLO from 1930-61. Juan BOSCH was elected
president in 1962 but was deposed in a military coup in 1963. In
1965, the United States led an intervention in the midst of a civil
war sparked by an uprising to restore BOSCH. In 1966, Joaquin
BALAGUER defeated BOSCH in an election to become president. BALAGUER
maintained a tight grip on power for most of the next 30 years when
international reaction to flawed elections forced him to curtail his
term in 1996. Since then, regular competitive elections have been
held in which opposition candidates have won the presidency. Former
President (1996-2000) Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna won election to a new
term in 2004 following a constitutional amendment allowing
presidents to serve more than one term, and was since reelected to a
second consecutive term.

Ecuador
What is now Ecuador formed part of the northern Inca Empire
until the Spanish conquest in 1533. Quito became a seat of Spanish
colonial government in 1563 and part of the Viceroyalty of New
Granada in 1717. The territories of the Viceroyalty - New Granada
(Colombia), Venezuela, and Quito - gained their independence between
1819 and 1822 and formed a federation known as Gran Colombia. When
Quito withdrew in 1830, the traditional name was changed in favor of
the "Republic of the Equator." Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lost
territories in a series of conflicts with its neighbors. A border
war with Peru that flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999. Although
Ecuador marked 30 years of civilian governance in 2004, the period
has been marred by political instability. Protests in Quito
contributed to the mid-term ouster of three of Ecuador's last four
democratically elected Presidents. In September 2008, voters
approved a new constitution; Ecuador's twentieth since gaining
independence. General elections, under the new constitutional
framework, were held in April 2009, and voters re-elected President
Rafael CORREA.

Egypt
The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood,
coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and
west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great
civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a series
of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last
native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were
replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who
introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who
ruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the
Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the
conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the
completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important
world transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt.
Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of
Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman
Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in
1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of the
British-backed monarchy in 1952. The completion of the Aswan High
Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the
time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology
of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab
world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue
to overtax resources and stress society. The government has
struggled to meet the demands of Egypt's growing population through
economic reform and massive investment in communications and
physical infrastructure.

El Salvador
El Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 and
from the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war,
which cost about 75,000 lives, was brought to a close in 1992 when
the government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided for
military and political reforms.

Equatorial Guinea
Equatorial Guinea gained independence in 1968
after 190 years of Spanish rule. This tiny country, composed of a
mainland portion plus five inhabited islands, is one of the smallest
on the African continent. President Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO
has ruled the country since 1979 when he seized power in a coup.
Although nominally a constitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996,
2002, and 2009 presidential elections - as well as the 1999 and 2004
legislative elections - were widely seen as flawed. The president
exerts almost total control over the political system and has
discouraged political opposition. Equatorial Guinea has experienced
rapid economic growth due to the discovery of large offshore oil
reserves, and in the last decade has become Sub-Saharan Africa's
third largest oil exporter. Despite the country's economic windfall
from oil production resulting in a massive increase in government
revenue in recent years, there have been few improvements in the
population's living standards.

Eritrea
The UN awarded Eritrea to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of a
federation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 years
later sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991
with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence was
overwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two-and-a-half-year
border war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UN
auspices in December 2000. Eritrea hosted a UN peacekeeping
operation that monitored a 25 km-wide Temporary Security Zone (TSZ)
on the border with Ethiopia. Eritrea's denial of fuel to the mission
caused the UN to withdraw the mission and terminate its mandate 31
July 2008. An international commission, organized to resolve the
border dispute, posted its findings in 2002. However, both parties
have been unable to reach agreement on implementing the decision. On
30 November 2007, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission remotely
demarcated the border by coordinates and dissolved itself, leaving
Ethiopia still occupying several tracts of disputed territory,
including the town of Badme. Eritrea accepted the EEBC's "virtual
demarcation" decision and called on Ethiopia to remove its troops
from the TSZ that it states is Eritrean territory. Ethiopia has not
accepted the virtual demarcation decision. In 2009 the UN imposed
sanctions on Eritrea after accusing it of backing anti-Ethiopian
Islamist insurgents in Somalia.

Estonia
After centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russian
rule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporated
into the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US - it
regained its freedom in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia has been free to
promote economic and political ties with Western Europe. It joined
both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.

Ethiopia
Unique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopian
monarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule with the
exception of a short-lived Italian occupation from 1936-41. In 1974,
a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE (who had
ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Torn by bloody
coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugee problems,
the regime was finally toppled in 1991 by a coalition of rebel
forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front
(EPRDF). A constitution was adopted in 1994, and Ethiopia's first
multiparty elections were held in 1995. A border war with Eritrea
late in the 1990s ended with a peace treaty in December 2000. In
November 2007, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Border Commission remotely
demarcated the border by geographical coordinates, but final
demarcation of the boundary on the ground is currently on hold
because of Ethiopian objections to an international commission's
finding requiring it to surrender territory considered sensitive to
Ethiopia.

European Union
Following the two devastating World Wars in the first
half of the 20th century, a number of European leaders in the late
1940s became convinced that the only way to establish a lasting
peace was to unite the two chief belligerent nations - France and
Germany - both economically and politically. In 1950, the French
Foreign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed an eventual union of all
Europe, the first step of which would be the integration of the coal
and steel industries of Western Europe. The following year the
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when six
members, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the
Netherlands, signed the Treaty of Paris.
The ECSC was so successful that within a few years the decision was
made to integrate other parts of the countries' economies. In 1957,
the Treaties of Rome created the European Economic Community (EEC)
and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the six
member states undertook to eliminate trade barriers among themselves
by forming a common market. In 1967, the institutions of all three
communities were formally merged into the European Community (EC),
creating a single Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and the
European Parliament. Members of the European Parliament were
initially selected by national parliaments, but in 1979 the first
direct elections were undertaken and they have been held every five
years since.
In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC took place with the
addition of Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The 1980s saw
further membership expansion with Greece joining in 1981 and Spain
and Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basis
for further forms of cooperation in foreign and defense policy, in
judicial and internal affairs, and in the creation of an economic
and monetary union - including a common currency. This further
integration created the European Union (EU). In 1995, Austria,
Finland, and Sweden joined the EU, raising the membership total to
15.
A new currency, the euro, was launched in world money markets on 1
January 1999; it became the unit of exchange for all of the EU
states except the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark. In 2002,
citizens of the 12 euro-area countries (the European Monetary Union
or EMU) began using the euro banknotes and coins. Ten new countries
joined the EU in 2004 - Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia -
and in 2007 Bulgaria and Romania joined, bringing the current
membership to 27. In order to ensure that the EU can continue to
function efficiently with an expanded membership, the Treaty of Nice
(in force as of 1 February 2003) set forth rules streamlining the
size and procedures of EU institutions. An effort to establish an EU
constitution, begun in October 2004, failed to attain unanimous
ratification. A new effort, undertaken in June 2007, created an
Intergovernmental Conference to formulate a political agreement -
initially known as the Reform Treaty but subsequently referred to as
the Treaty of Lisbon - which would serve as a constitution. Unlike
the constitution, however, the Treaty of Lisbon sought to amend
existing treaties rather than replace them. In October 2009, an
Irish referendum approved the Treaty (overturning a previous
rejection) and cleared the way for an ultimate unanimous endorsement
- the Czech Republic signed on soon after. Treaty implementation
began on 1 December 2009. In 2010, the prospect of a Greek default
on its euro-denominated debt created severe strains within the EMU
and raised the question of whether a member country might be removed.

Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
Although first sighted by an
English navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occur
until almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement
(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned over
to Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subject
of a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, then
between Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to the
islands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentina
invaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with an
expeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fierce
fighting forced an Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.

Faroe Islands
The population of the Faroe Islands is largely
descended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. The
islands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14th
century. A high degree of self government was granted the Faroese in
1948, who have autonomy over most internal affairs while Denmark is
responsible for justice, defense, and foreign affairs. The Faroe
Islands are not part of the European Union.

Fiji
Fiji became independent in 1970 after nearly a century as a
British colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two military
coups in 1987 caused by concern over a government perceived as
dominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborers
brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). The
coups and a 1990 constitution that cemented native Melanesian
control of Fiji led to heavy Indian emigration; the population loss
resulted in economic difficulties, but ensured that Melanesians
became the majority. A new constitution enacted in 1997 was more
equitable. Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in a
government led by an Indo-Fijian, but a civilian-led coup in May
2000 ushered in a prolonged period of political turmoil.
Parliamentary elections held in August 2001 provided Fiji with a
democratically elected government led by Prime Minister Laisenia
QARASE. Re-elected in May 2006, QARASE was ousted in a December 2006
military coup led by Commodore Voreqe BAINIMARAMA, who initially
appointed himself acting president but in January 2007 became
interim prime minister. Since taking power BAINIMARAMA has
neutralized his opponents, crippled Fiji's democratic institutions,
and refused to hold elections.

Finland
Finland was a province and then a grand duchy under Sweden
from the 12th to the 19th centuries, and an autonomous grand duchy
of Russia after 1809. It won its complete independence in 1917.
During World War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedom
and resist invasions by the Soviet Union - albeit with some loss of
territory. In the subsequent half century, the Finns made a
remarkable transformation from a farm/forest economy to a
diversified modern industrial economy; per capita income is now
among the highest in Western Europe. A member of the European Union
since 1995, Finland was the only Nordic state to join the euro
system at its initiation in January 1999. In the 21st century, the
key features of Finland's modern welfare state are a high standard
of education, equality promotion, and national social security
system; currently challenged by an aging population and the
fluctuations of an export-driven economy.

France
Although ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, France
suffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rank
as a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of the
most modern countries in the world and is a leader among European
nations. Since 1958, it has constructed a hybrid
presidential-parliamentary governing system resistant to the
instabilities experienced in earlier more purely parliamentary
administrations. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperation
with Germany have proved central to the economic integration of
Europe, including the introduction of a common exchange currency,
the euro, in January 1999.

French Polynesia
The French annexed various Polynesian island groups
during the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred up
widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atoll
after a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January
1996. In recent years, French Polynesia's autonomy has been
considerably expanded.

French Southern and Antarctic Lands
In February 2007, the Iles
Eparses became an integral part of the French Southern and Antarctic
Lands (TAAF). The Southern Lands are now divided into five
administrative districts, two of which are archipelagos, Iles Crozet
and Iles Kerguelen; the third is a district composed of two volcanic
islands, Ile Saint-Paul and Ile Amsterdam; the fourth, Iles Eparses,
consists of five scattered tropical islands around Madagascar. They
contain no permanent inhabitants and are visited only by researchers
studying the native fauna, scientists at the various scientific
stations, fishermen, and military personnel. The fifth district is
the Antarctic portion, which consists of "Adelie Land," a thin slice
of the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in
1840.
Ile Amsterdam: Discovered but not named in 1522 by the Spanish, the
island subsequently received the appellation of Nieuw Amsterdam from
a Dutchman; it was claimed by France in 1843. A short-lived attempt
at cattle farming began in 1871. A French meteorological station
established on the island in 1949 is still in use.
Ile Saint Paul: Claimed by France since 1893, the island was a
fishing industry center from 1843 to 1914. In 1928, a spiny lobster
cannery was established, but when the company went bankrupt in 1931,
seven workers were abandoned. Only two survived until 1934 when
rescue finally arrived.
Iles Crozet: A large archipelago formed from the Crozet Plateau,
Iles Crozet is divided into two main groups: L'Occidental (the
West), which includes Ile aux Cochons, Ilots des Apotres, Ile des
Pingouins, and the reefs Brisants de l'Heroine; and L'Oriental (the
east), which includes Ile d'Est and Ile de la Possession (the
largest island of the Crozets). Discovered and claimed by France in
1772, the islands were used for seal hunting and as a base for
whaling. Originally administered as a dependency of Madagascar, they
became part of the TAAF in 1955.
Iles Kerguelen: This island group, discovered in 1772, is made up of
one large island (Ile Kerguelen) and about 300 smaller islands. A
permanent group of 50 to 100 scientists resides at the main base at
Port-aux-Francais.
Adelie Land: The only non-insular district of the TAAF is the
Antarctic claim known as "Adelie Land." The US Government does not
recognize it as a French dependency.
Bassas da India: A French possession since 1897, this atoll is a
volcanic rock surrounded by reefs and is awash at high tide.
Europa Island: This heavily wooded island has been a French
possession since 1897; it is the site of a small military garrison
that staffs a weather station.
Glorioso Islands: A French possession since 1892, the Glorioso
Islands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (Ile
Glorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrison
operates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.
Juan de Nova Island: Named after a famous 15th century Spanish
navigator and explorer, the island has been a French possession
since 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.
Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorological
station.
Tromelin Island: First explored by the French in 1776, the island
came under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, it
serves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an important
meteorological station.

Gabon
Until recently, only two autocratic presidents had ruled Gabon
since its independence from France in 1960. The recent president of
Gabon, El Hadj Omar BONGO Ondimba - one of the longest-serving heads
of state in the world - had dominated the country's political scene
for four decades. President BONGO introduced a nominal multiparty
system and a new constitution in the early 1990s. However,
allegations of electoral fraud during local elections in 2002-03 and
the presidential elections in 2005 exposed the weaknesses of formal
political structures in Gabon. President BONGO died in June 2009.
New elections in August 2009 brought Ali Ben BONGO, son of the
former president, to power. Despite political conditions, a small
population, abundant natural resources, and considerable foreign
support have helped make Gabon one of the more prosperous and stable
African countries. In January 2010, Gabon assumed a nonpermanent
seat on the UN Security Council for the 2010-11 term.

Gambia, The
The Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965.
Geographically surrounded by Senegal, it formed a short-lived
federation of Senegambia between 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the two
nations signed a friendship and cooperation treaty, but tensions
have flared up intermittently since then. Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH led
a military coup in 1994 that overthrew the president and banned
political activity. A new constitution and presidential elections in
1996, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997, completed a
nominal return to civilian rule. JAMMEH has been elected president
in all subsequent elections including most recently in late 2006.

Gaza Strip
The September 1993 Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles
on Interim Self-Government Arrangements provided for a transitional
period of Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
Under a series of agreements signed between May 1994 and September
1999, Israel transferred to the Palestinian Authority (PA) security
and civilian responsibility for many Palestinian-populated areas of
the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Negotiations to determine the
permanent status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip stalled following
the outbreak of an intifada in September 2000. In April 2003, the
Quartet (US, EU, UN, and Russia) presented a roadmap to a final
settlement of the conflict by 2005 based on reciprocal steps by the
two parties leading to two states, Israel and a democratic
Palestine. Following Palestinian leader Yasir ARAFAT's death in late
2004, Mahmud ABBAS was elected PA president in January 2005. A month
later, Israel and the PA agreed to the Sharm el-Sheikh Commitments
in an effort to move the peace process forward. In September 2005,
Israel unilaterally withdrew all its settlers and soldiers and
dismantled its military facilities in the Gaza Strip and withdrew
settlers and redeployed soldiers from four small northern West Bank
settlements. Nonetheless, Israel still controls maritime, airspace,
and most access to the Gaza Strip; and it enforces a restricted zone
along the border inside Gaza. In January 2006, the Islamic
Resistance Movement, HAMAS, won control of the Palestinian
Legislative Council (PLC). HAMAS took control of the PA government
in March 2006, but President ABBAS had little success negotiating
with HAMAS to present a political platform acceptable to the
international community so as to lift economic sanctions on
Palestinians. Violent clashes between Fatah and HAMAS supporters in
the Gaza Strip in 2006 and early 2007 resulted in numerous
Palestinian deaths and injuries. In February 2007, ABBAS and HAMAS
Political Bureau Chief MISHAL signed the Mecca Agreement in Saudi
Arabia that resulted in the formation of a Palestinian National
Unity Government (NUG) headed by HAMAS member Ismail HANIYA.
However, fighting continued in the Gaza Strip, and in June 2007,
HAMAS militants succeeded in a violent takeover of all military and
governmental institutions in the Gaza Strip. ABBAS dismissed the NUG
and through a series of presidential decrees formed a PA government
in the West Bank led by independent Salam FAYYAD. HAMAS rejected the
NUG's dismissal, and despite multiple rounds of Egyptian-brokered
reconciliation negotiations, the two groups have failed to bridge
their differences. Late November 2007 through June 2008 witnessed a
substantial increase in Israeli-Palestinian violence. An
Egyptian-brokered truce in June 2008 between Israel and HAMAS
brought about a five-month pause in hostilities, but spiraling
end-of-year violence resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1,100 to
1,400 Palestinians and left tens of thousands of people homeless.
International donors pledged $4.5 billion in aid to rebuild the Gaza
Strip, but by the end of 2010 large-scale reconstruction had not
begun.

Georgia
The region of present day Georgia contained the ancient
kingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Roman
influence in the first centuries A.D. and Christianity became the
state religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turks
was followed by a Georgian golden age (11th-13th centuries) that was
cut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, the Ottoman
and Persian empires competed for influence in the region. Georgia
was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century.
Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russian
revolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until the
Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. An attempt by the incumbent Georgian
government to manipulate national legislative elections in November
2003 touched off widespread protests that led to the resignation of
Eduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. New elections in early
2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power along with his National
Movement party. Progress on market reforms and democratization has
been made in the years since independence, but this progress has
been complicated by Russian assistance and support to the breakaway
regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. After a series of Russian and
separatist provocations in summer 2008, Georgian military action in
South Ossetia in early August led to a Russian military response
that not only occupied the breakaway areas, but large portions of
Georgia proper as well. Russian troops pulled back from most
occupied Georgian territory, but in late August 2008 Russia
unilaterally recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South
Ossetia. This action was strongly condemned by most of the world's
nations and international organizations.