Chapter III: Introduction

+1. Heading.+--The selections in this book are in most cases intelligible apart from their context. In cases where this is not so, you will find it a valuable exercise to endeavour to arrive at the context for yourself. In all cases, however, you should pay attention to the +Heading+, which will give you a useful clue to the meaning of the passage,

+2. Author.+--When you see the author's name, try to remember what you know about him. For example, +Livy+, the historian of Rome and friend of Augustus, the contemporary of Vergil and Ovid. The short Lives, pp. 293-345, will tell you the chief facts about the authors from whom the selections are taken, and will give you a brief summary of their chief works. Also, if you refer to Appendix VII., pp. 347-363, you will gain some idea of the time in which the authors lived and of their contemporaries.

+3. Read the Passage through, carefully.+--As you read--

(1) Notice all +allusions+ and +key-words+ that may help you to the sense of the passage.

(2) +Pay special attention to the opening sentence.+ In translating a passage much depends on getting the first sentence right.

(3) Notice especially the connectives which introduce sentences and clauses +marked off by commas+. In this way you will be able to distinguish between a +Principal Sentence+ and a +Subordinate Clause+.

(For List of Conjunctions see Appendix I. pp. 274-276.)

HELPS TO VOCABULARY.

+4. Through English Derivatives.+--English derivatives, if used in the proper way, may give you valuable help in inferring meanings. The reason why you must generally +not+ translate the Latin word by the derived English word is that, as you probably know, many English derivatives have come from Latin words which had wholly or in part lost their earlier classical meaning, or from Latin words not found at all in classical Latin. Yet in such cases the English word may be far from useless. You must take care to let it suggest to you the original or root-meaning, leaving the correct meaning of the Latin, whether the same as the English word or not, to be determined by the context.

For example, +sê-cûr-us+ does not mean _secure_, but (like _secure_ in Shakespeare and Milton) _care-less_.

'This happy night the Frenchmen are _secure_,
Having all day caroused and banqueted.'

SHAKESPEARE, _Hen. VI._ Part 1. II. i. 11.

+In-crêd-ib-il-is+, on the other hand, often cannot be better translated than by _incredible_, and +im-plâcâ-bilis+ by _implacable_.

Notice, too, how often in the case of verbs the +supine stem+ will suggest to you the meaning of the Latin through some English derivative, which the present stem conceals.

For example:--

+pingo+ +pictum+ _picture_ suggests _to paint_.
+caveo+ +cautum+ _caution_ " " _beware_.
+colo+ +cultum+ _culture_ " " _till_.
+fallo+ +falsum+ _false_ " " _deceive_.

+5. Through French Derivatives.+--Sometimes, when you cannot think of an English derivative, a French word that you know will help you to the meaning of the Latin.

For example:--

_L._ _F._
+pontem+ +pont+ suggests _bridge_.
+gustum+ +goût+ " _taste_.
+prâtum+ +pré+ " _meadow_.
+tâlem+ +tel+ " _such_.
+b[)i]b[)e]re+ +boire+ " _to drink_.

But, in order to make French derivatives a real help to you, you must know something of the origin of the French language and of the chief rules that govern the pronunciation (and therefore the spelling) of French. Without going too much into detail, it may help you to remember that--

(1) +French+ has taken many words from +colloquial Latin+, which in the days of Cicero was very different from classical Latin.

For example:--

_Literary Latin._ _Popular Latin._ _French._

+equus+ +caballus+ +cheval+ _horse_.
+pugna+ +batalia+ +bataille+ _battle_.
+os+ +bucca+ +bouche+ _mouth_.

(2) +Unaccented+ syllables are usually dropped.

For example:--

+cérv-um+ +cerf+ _stag_.
+bonitátem+ +bonté+ _goodness_.

(3) The general tendency of French is towards smoothness and contraction.

For example:--

_L._ _F._
+bestiam+ +bête+ _beast_.
+fact-um+ +fait+ _deed_.
+spiss-um+ +épais+ _thick_.
+coll-um+ +cou+ _neck_.

In fact, bearing in mind the caution given you, it is an excellent rule to try to think out the meaning of the Latin by the help of English and French derivatives.

+6. Compound Words.+--When you come to a word which you cannot translate, and in regard to which English and French derivatives do not help you, +break up the word+, if a compound, into its simple elements of +Prefix+, +Stem+, +Suffix+. Then from the meaning of its root or stem and from the force of the prefix and suffix, and by the help of the context, try to arrive at an English word to suit the sense.

In order to be able to do this you should have some knowledge of--

(1) A few simple rules for the +vowel changes of verbs in composition+. Thus:

+a+ before two consonants (except +ng+) often changes to +e+.

_E.g._ s{a}cr-o, con-s{e}cr-o; d{a}mn-o, con-d{e}mn-o.

+a+ before one consonant and before +ng+ often changes to +i+.

_E.g._ f{a}c-io, ef-f{i}c-io; c{[)a]}d-o, ac-c{i}d-o;
t{a}ng-o, con-t{i}ng-o.
But gr{[)a]}d-ior, ag-gr{[)e]}d-ior.

+a+ before +l+ and another consonant changes to +u+.

_E.g._ s{a}lt-are, in-s{u}lt-are.

+[)e]+ changes to +[)i]+ (but not +e+ before two consonants) and +ae+ to +i+.

_E.g._ t{e}n-ere, ob-t{i}n-ere; qu{ae}r-ere, in-qu{i}r-ere.

+au+ changes to +u+.

_E.g._ cl{au}d-ere, in-cl{u}d-ere.

(2) +Prefixes:+--To help you to detach the prefix more readily, notice these simple euphonic changes, all of which result in making the pronunciation smoother and easier. Thus:--

(i.) +The last consonant of a Latin prefix is often made the same as, or similar to, the first consonant of the stem.+

_E.g._ {ad}-fero = affero; {ob}-pono = {op}-pono;
{com}(={cum})-tendo = {con}-tendo.

(ii.) +The final consonant of a prefix is often dropped before two consonants.+

_E.g._ {ad}-scendo = {a}-scendo.

Notice also that the prepositional prefixes to verbs express different ideas in different combinations.

Thus, sometimes the prefix has a somewhat +literal prepositional+ force.

_E.g._ {per}-currere = to run +through+.

But sometimes an +intensive+ force.

_E.g._ {per}-terrere = to +thoroughly+ frighten.

In all such cases you must be partly guided by the context.

(For List of Important Prefixes, see Appendix II. pp. 277--281.)

(3) +Suffixes+ (other than grammatical inflexions).

A knowledge of the most important suffixes will often help you to the correct meaning of a Latin word, the root of which is familiar to you.

Thus from the [Rt]ag = _drive, move_, we have--

by addition of +-tor+ (= _agent or doer_ of an action),
+actor+ = _a doer_, _agent_.
" " " +-men+ (= _acts or results of acts_),
+agmen+ = _a course_, _line of march_, &c.
" " " +-ilis+ (= _belonging to, able to_),
+agilis+ = _easily moved_, _agile_.
" " " +-ito+ (= _forcible or repeated action_),
+agito+ = _put in action_, _agitate_.

(For List of Important Suffixes, see Appendix III. pp. 282--286.)

(4) +Cognates+, that is, words +related in meaning+ through a common root. You will find it very useful to make for yourself lists of cognate words.

Thus from the [Rt]+gna, gno+ = _know_, we have--

+gna-rus+ = _knowing_.
+i-gnarus+ (= +in + gnarus+) = _ignorant_.
+nos-co+ (= +gno-sco+) = _to get a knowledge of_.
+i-gno-sco+ = _not to know_, _pardon_.
+no-bilis+ (= +gno-bilis+) = _that can be known_, _famous_, _noble_.
+no-men+ (= +gno-men+) = _a name_.

To group together in this manner words of common origin and words closely associated in meaning is one of the best ways in which you can increase your vocabulary.

(For additional Examples of Cognates, see Appendix IV. pp. 287-8.)

HELPS TO TRANSLATION.

You have now read the passage through carefully, and thought out the vocabulary to the best of your ability. Begin then to translate the opening sentence, and pay great attention to these

+7. General Rules.+--(1) Underline the +Principal Verb+, +Subject+ (if expressed), and +Object+ (if any).

(2) If the sentence contains +only one finite verb+, all you have to do is to group round Subject, or Verb, or Object the words and phrases that belong to each of the three.

(3) Translate the sentence literally. Do this mentally, without writing it down.

(4) Then write down the best translation you can.

For example:--

+At GERMANI celeriter, consuetudine sua phalange facta, IMPETUS
gladiorum EXCEPERUNT.+

_But the Germans quickly formed into a phalanx, as was their custom,
and received the attacks of the swords_ (i.e. of the Romans with
drawn swords).

(5) If the sentence contains one or more subordinate clauses, +consider each subordinate clause as if it were bracketed off separately+, and then deal with each clause as if it were a principal sentence, finding out its Subject, Verb, Object, and adding to each its enlargements. Then return to the sentence as a whole, and group round its Subject, Predicate, and Object the various subordinate clauses which belong to each.

+8. Help through Analysis.+--Very often analysis will help you to find out the +proper relation of the subordinate clauses+ to the three parts of the Principal Sentence. You need not always analyse on paper, but do it +always in your mind+. You will find an example of a simple method of analysis at the close of Demonstrations I and IV, pp. 23, 47.

When analysing, notice carefully that:--

(1) An enlargement of a Noun may be

(a) An adjective +TERTIAM aciem.+
(b) A noun in apposition +Publius Crassus ADULESCENS.+
(c) A dependent genitive +impetus GLADIORUM.+
(d) A participle or participial +nostris LABORANTIBUS.+
phrase
(e) An adjectival clause +Publius Crassus QUI EQUITATUI
PRAEERAT.+

(2) An enlargement of a Verb may be

(a) An adverb +CELERITER exceperunt.+
(b) A prepositional phrase +EX CONSUETUDINE SUA exceperunt.+
(c) An ablative absolute +PHALANGE FACTA exceperunt.+
(d) An adverbial clause +ID CUM ANIMADVERTISSET,
Publius Crassus misit.+

+9. Help through Punctuation.+--Though only the full-stop was used by the ancients, the punctuation marks which are now used in all printed texts should be carefully noticed, especially in translating long and involved sentences.

Thus in Demonstrations III and IV notice how the subordinate clauses are for the most part enclosed in commas.

+10. Help through Scansion and Metre.+--A knowledge of this is indispensable in translating verse. To scan the lines will help you to determine the grammatical force of a word, and a knowledge of metre will enable you to grasp the poet's meaning as conveyed by the position which he assigns to the various words, and the varying emphasis which results from variation of metre. For example:--

(1) _A grammatical help._--You know that final +-a+ is _short_ in nom. and voc. sing. 1st Decl., and in neut. plural, and is _long_ in abl. sing. 1st Decl. and 2nd Imperat. 1st Conj.

Thus in Demonstration II (p. 24) you can easily determine the grammatical form of finals in +-a+.

In Sentence IV +agn[)a]+, in VI +cerv[)a]+, in VIII +iunct[)a] columb[)a]+, in IX +Cynthi[)a]+ are all short and nom. sing.

In Sentence V +umbrâ unâ+ are long and abl. sing. in agreement.

(2) _A help to the poet's meaning._--The more you know of the principles of scansion, the better able you will be to understand and appreciate the skill with which a great poet varies his metre and chooses his words.

+11. Help through a Study of the Period in Latin.+--One great difference between English and Latin Prose is that, while modern English is to a great extent a language of short, detached sentences, Latin +expresses the sense by the passage as a whole+, and holds the climax in suspense until the delivery of the last word. 'This mode of expression is called a +PERIOD+ (a +circu[)i]tus+ or +amb[)i]tus verborum+), because the reader, in order to collect together the words of the Principal Sentence, must make a _circuit_, so to say, round the inserted clauses,'[2] 'Latin possesses what English does not, a mode of expression by means of which, +round one main idea are grouped all its accessory ideas+, and there is thus formed a single harmonious whole, called the +PERIOD+.'[3]

[Footnote 2: Potts, _Hints_, p. 82.]

[Footnote 3: Postgate, _Sermo Latinus_, p. 45.]

A +PERIOD+ then is a sentence containing only one main idea (the Principal Sentence) and several Subordinate Clauses. The Periodic style is generally used for History and Description, and is best seen in Cicero and Livy.

The following is a good example of the PERIOD in Latin:--

[4]+VOLSCI exiguam spem in armis, alia undique abscissa, cum
tentassent, praeter cetera adversa loco quoque iniquo ad pugnam
congressi, iniquiore ad fugam, cum ab omni parte caederentur,
ad preces a certamine versi, dedito imperatore traditisque armis,
sub iugum missi, cum singulis vestimentis ignominiae cladisque pleni
DIMITTUNTUR.+

_The +VOLSCIANS+ found that now they were severed from every
other hope, there was but little in prolonging the conflict.
In addition to other disadvantages they had engaged on a spot
ill-adapted for fighting and worse for flight. Cut to pieces
on every side they abandoned the contest and cried for quarter.
After surrendering their commander and delivering up their arms,
they passed under the yoke, and with one garment each +WERE SENT+
to their homes covered with disgrace and defeat._

[Footnote 4: Potts, _Hints_, p. 85.]

Notice here that

(1) There is only one main idea, that of _the ignominious return of the Volscians to their homes_.

(2) The rest describes the attendant circumstances of the surrender and of the causes that led to it.

(3) In English we should translate by at least four separate sentences.

(4) The Latin contains only forty-eight words, while the English contains eighty-one.

Professor Postgate ('Sermo Latinus,' p. 45) gives the following example of the way in which a Latin +PERIOD+ may be built up:--

+BALBUS vir optimus, dux clârissimus et multis mihi beneficiis carus,
rogitantibus Arvernis ut populi Romani mâiestâtem ostentâret
suîque simul imperi monumentum eis relinqueret, MÛRUM laterîcium,
vîginti pedes lâtum, sexâginta altitûdine et ita in immensum
porrectum ut vix tuis ipse oculis crêderes tantum esse, nêdum aliis
persuâderes, non sine adverso suo rûmore ut qui principâtum
adfectaret AEDIFICAVIT.+

_+BALBUS+, an excellent man and most distinguished commander,
who had endeared himself to me by numerous kindnesses,
was requested by the Arverni to make a display of the power
and greatness of Rome, and at the same time to leave behind him
a memorial of his own government. He accordingly +BUILT+ a +WALL+
of bricks, twenty feet wide, sixty high, and extending to such
a prodigious length that you could hardly trust your own eyes
that it was so large, still less induce others to believe it.
But he did not escape the malign rumour that he had designs
upon the imperial crown._

Here, as in the previous example,

(1) There is only one main idea,

+BALBUS MURUM AEDIFICAVIT+.

(2) The rest consists of--

(a) Enlargements of +BALBUS+--+vir optimus ... carus+;
placed, therefore, directly _after_ +BALBUS+.

(b) Enlargements of +MURUM+--+laterîcium ... persuaderes+;
placed, therefore, directly _after_ +MURUM+.

(c) Enlargements of +AEDIFICAVIT+

+rogitantibus ... relinqueret+ = the _cause_ of the building of
the wall.

+(murum) non sine ... adfectaret+ = the _attendant circumstances_
of the building of the wall; placed, therefore, _before_
+AEDIFICAVIT+.

(3) In English we must translate by at least three separate sentences, and, where necessary, translate participles as finite verbs, and change dependent clauses into independent sentences.

It has been well said: 'An English sentence does not often exhibit the structure of the Period. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose; but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage:--

"High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat."'

MILTON, _Paradise Lost_, ii. 1-5.

+12. Help through a Knowledge of the Order of Words in Latin.+--If you study the examples already given of the Period you will see that the +Order of Words in English+ differs very much from the +Order of Words in Latin+.

Dr. Abbott writes as follows: 'The main difference between English and Latin is that in English the _meaning_ depends mainly on the _order_ of words, and the _emphasis_ mainly on the _voice_, while in Latin the _meaning_ depends almost entirely on the _inflexions_, and the _emphasis_ upon the _order_.'

Thus, if we take the English sentence, _Caesar conquered the Gauls_, we cannot invert the order of _Caesar_ and _Gauls_ without entirely changing the meaning. In Latin, however, we may write (since each Latin word has its own proper inflexion, serving almost as a label)

+Caesar vicit Gallos+: +Gallos Caesar vicit+: +Caesar Gallos vicit+, without any change of meaning except that of shifting the emphasis from one word to another.

The usual order of words in a Latin Prose Sentence may be said to be

(1) Particles, or phrases of connection (with some exceptions, _e.g._ +vero+, +autem+, +quidem+, +enim+, which stand second).

(2) Subject.

(3) Words, phrases, clauses, as enlargements of Subject.

(4) Adverbial enlargements of Predicate (though an Ablative Absolute must generally stand first).

(5) Indirect Object (if any) and its enlargements.

(6) Direct Object (if any) and its enlargements.

(7) The Principal Verb.

To take a simple example:--

[5]+LIVIUS, imperator fortissimus, quamquam adventus hostium
non ubi oportuit nuntiatus est, PERICULUM illa sua in rebus dubiis
audacia facile EVASIT.+

_+LIVIUS+, a most excellent commander, although the enemy's
arrival was not reported when it should have been, easily
+ESCAPED+ the +DANGER+ by his well-known daring in perilous
positions._

[Footnote 5: Postgate, _Sermo Latinus_, p. 38.]

To take another example:--

[6]+Archimedis EGO quaestor ignoratum ab Syracusanis, cum esse
omnino negarent, saeptum undique et vestitum vepribus et dumetis,
INDAGAVI SEPULCRUM.+

_When I was Quaestor, +I WAS ABLE TO TRACE OUT+ the +TOMB+ of
Archimedes, overgrown and hedged in with brambles and brushwood.
The Syracusans knew nothing of it, and denied its existence._

[Footnote 6: Demonstration VI. Sent. 1. p. 55.]

Notice here the following special points of order:--

(1) The two most important positions in the sentence are the beginning and the end.

(2) Special emphasis is expressed by placing a word in an unusual or prominent position.

E.g. here, the unusual position of +Archimedis+ and +sepulcrum+.

(3) In the middle of the sentence the arrangement is such that the words most closely connected in meaning stand nearest together.

E.g. here, +ignoratum ... dumetis+ is all logically connected with the object +sepulcrum+, which for the sake of emphasis is put in an unusual position at the end of the sentence.

+13. Additional Hints.+--(1) Remember that Latin is often +concrete+ where English is +abstract+.

E.g.--

+ingeniosi+ (men of genius) = _genius_.
+eruditi+ } (learned men) = _learning_.
+docti+ }
+viri summo ingenio praediti, saepe invidia opprimuntur.+
_The most exalted genius is frequently overborne by envy._
+omnes immemorem benefici oderunt.+
_The world regards ingratitude with hatred._

(2) The same Latin word may stand for different English words. Take, for example, the various uses of the word +RES+ in the following passage of Livy, xlv. 19:--

[7]+Ut RES docuit . . . animo gestienti REBUS secundis . . .
speculator RERUM quae a fratre agerentur . . . REM prope prolapsam
restituit . . . aliis alia regna crevisse REBUS dicendo.+

_As the +FACT+ showed . . . spirits running riot from +PROSPERITY+
. . . to watch the +COURSE+ pursued by his brother . . . he restored
what was almost a lost +CAUSE+ . . . by saying that kingdoms grow
by various +MEANS+._

[Footnote 7: Postgate, _Sermo Latinus_, p. 34.]

In translating +RES+, +avoid at all costs+ the word +THING+, or +THINGS+, and let the context guide you to the appropriate English word.

(3) You may often translate a +Latin Active by an English Passive+. Latin prefers the Active because it is more direct and vivid.

For example:--

+Liberas aedes coniurati sumpserunt.+
_An empty house had been occupied by the conspirators._

(4) Use great care in translating Latin +Participles+, and make clear in your translation the relation of the participial enlargements to the action of the main Verb.

For example:--

concessive: +Romani, non ROGATI, auxilium offerunt.+
_The Romans, +though they were not asked+, offer help._

final: +Fortuna superbos interdum RUITURA levat.+
_Fortune sometimes raises the proud, only +to dash
them down+._

causal: +S. Ahala Sp. Maelium regnum APPETENTEM interemit.+
_S. Ahala killed Sp. Maelius +for aiming at+ the royal
power._

Notice also:--

+Pontem captum incendit+
_He took and burned the bridge._
+Nescio quem prope adstantem interrogavi.+
_I questioned someone who was standing by._
+Haec dixit moriens+
_He said this while dying._
+Nuntiata clades+
_The news of the disaster._

(5) In translating, try to bring out the exact force of the +Ablative Absolute+, by which a Latin writer shows the time or circumstances of the action expressed by the Predicate. The Ablative Absolute is an adverbial enlargement of the Predicate, and is not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence. It is, therefore, called +absolutus+ (i.e. _freed from_ or _unconnected_). It should very seldom be translated literally. Your best plan will be to consider carefully what the Ablative Absolute seems to suggest about the action of the Principal Verb.

For example:--

+Capta Troia, Graeci domum redierunt.+
_The Greeks returned home after the capture of Troy._

+Regnante Romulo, Roma urbs erat parva.+
_When Romulus was reigning, Rome was a small city._

+Exercitu collecto in hostes contenderunt.+
_They collected an army and marched against the enemy._

+Nondum hieme confecta in fines Nerviorum contendit.+
_Though the winter was not yet over, he hastened to the territory
of the Nervii._

+Tum salutato hostium duce, ad suos conversus, subditis equo
calcaribus, Germanorum ordines praetervectus est, neque expectatis
legatis, nec respondente ullo.+
_Thereupon, after saluting the enemy's general, he turned to his
companions, and setting spurs to his horse, rode past the ranks
of the Germans, without either waiting for his staff, or receiving
an answer from anyone._

HELPS TO STYLE.

Though Style cannot perhaps be taught, it can certainly be formed and improved. There are several ways of improving your Style. For example:--

+14. Through the Best English Literature.+--+Read good Literature+, the best English Authors in prose and verse. You will know something, perhaps, of Shakespeare and Scott, of Macaulay and Tennyson. Though you may not be able to attack the complete works of any great author, you ought not to have any difficulty in finding good books of selections from the English Classics.

+15. Through good Translations.+--Study a few +good English Versions+ of passages from the best Latin writers. You may often have a good version of the passage you translate read to you in your Division after your mistakes have been pointed out to you, and to this you should pay great attention. You will thus learn eventually to suit your style to the Author you are translating, while at the same time you render the passage closely and accurately.

+16. Be Clear.+--Remember that the first characteristic of a good style is +clearness+--that is, to say what you mean and to mean what you say. Quintilian, the great critic, says that the aim of the translator should be, not that the reader may understand if he will, but that he _must_ understand whether he will or not. The more you read the greatest Authors the more you will see that, as Coleridge says, 'there is a reason assignable not only for every word, but for the position of every word.'

+17. Be Simple.+--With clearness goes simplicity--that is, use no word you do not understand, +avoid fine epithets+, and do not choose a phrase for its sound alone, but for its sense.

+18. Avoid Paraphrase.+--You are asked to translate, not to give a mere general idea of the sense. What you have to do is to +think out the exact meaning+ of every word in the sentence, and to express this in as good and correct English as you can.

+19. Pay attention to Metaphors.+--The subject of Metaphor is of great importance in good translation. You will find that every language possesses its own special Metaphors in addition to those which are common to most European languages. As you become familiar with Latin Authors you must try to +distinguish the Metaphors common+ to English and Latin and those +belonging only+ to English or to Latin.

For example:--

(1) Metaphors +identical+ in Latin and English--

+Progreditur res publica naturali quodam itinere et cursu.+
_The State advances in a natural path and progress._

(2) Metaphors +differing+ in Latin and English--

+cedant arma togae+
_let the sword yield to the pen._
+ardet acerrime coniuratio+
_the conspiracy is at its height._
+rex factus est+
_he ascended the throne._
+conticuit+
_he held his peace._

+20. Careful Translation a Help to Style.+--In conclusion. Nothing will help your style more than to +do your translations as well as you possibly can+, and to +avoid repeating the same mistakes+. The Latins themselves knew the value of translation as a help to style.

For example, Pliny the Younger says:--

'As useful as anything is the practice of translating either your Greek into Latin or your Latin into Greek. By practising this you will acquire propriety and dignity of expression, an abundant choice of the beauties of style, power in description, and gain in the imitation of the best models a facility of creating such models for yourself. Besides, what may escape you when you read, cannot escape you when you translate.'

DEMONSTRATIONS

in

UNSEEN TRANSLATION

NOTE

The use of a personal mode of address in the following Demonstrations is explained by the fact that they are written primarily for the use of boys. It is hoped, however, that they may be found useful to masters also, and that the fulness with which each passage is treated may supply some helpful suggestions.

DEMONSTRATION I.

_Fierce encounter with the Germans._

(a) Reiectis pilis cominus gladiis pugnatum est. |II| At Germani celeriter, ex consuetudine sua, phalange facta, impetus gladiorum exceperunt. |III| Reperti sunt complures nostri milites, qui in phalangas insilirent, et scuta manibus revellerent, et desuper vulnerarent. |IV| Cum hostium acies a sinistro cornu pulsa atque in fugam conversa esset, a dextro cornu vehementer multitudine suorum nostram aciem premebant. |V| Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus adulescens, qui equitatui praeerat, quod expeditior erat quam hi qui inter aciem versabantur, tertiam aciem laborantibus nostris subsidio misit. |VI| Ita proelium restitutum est. ||

CAESAR.

_Fierce encounter with the Germans._

(b) Reiectis pilis cominus gladiis +pugnatum est+. {II} At +Germani+ celeriter, ex consuetudine sua, phalange facta, +impetus+ gladiorum +exceperunt+. {III} +Reperti sunt+ complures nostri +milites+ [_qui in phalangas insilirent, et scuta manibus revellerent, et desuper vulnerarent_.] {IV} [_Cum hostium acies a sinistro cornu pulsa atque in IV fugam conversa esset,_] a dextro cornu vehementer multitudine suorum nostram +aciem premebant+. {V} [_Id cum animadvertisset +Publius Crassus+ adulescens,_] [_qui equitatui praeerat,_] [_quod expeditior erat quam hi qui inter aciem versabantur,_] tertiam +aciem+ laborantibus nostris subsidio +misit+. {VI} Ita proelium +restitutum est+.

CAESAR.

DEMONSTRATION I.

CAESAR, _B. G._ i. 52. _Reiectis pilis ... restitutum est._

_Heading and Author._--This tells you enough for working purposes, even if you do not remember the outline facts of Caesar's campaign against Ariovistus, the chief of the Germans, called in by the Gauls in their domestic quarrels, who conquered and ruled them until he was himself crushed by the Romans.

_Read through the passage carefully._--As you do this, notice all allusions and key-words that help you to the sense of the passage, _e.g._ +Germani+, +nostri milites+, +Publius Crassus+. The general sense of the passage should now be so plain (_i.e._ an incident in a battle between the Germans and the Romans) that you may begin to translate sentence by sentence.

+I.+ +Reiectis pilis cominus gladiis pugnatum est.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Reiectis+ = +re + iacio+ = _throw back_ or _away_. The context will tell you which is the better meaning for +re-+. Notice the force of all prefixes in composition, whether separate or inseparable as here. For +re-+, see pp. 280, 281. [[Appendix II.II: Separable Particles]]

+pilis+ = the +pîlum+, the distinctively _Roman_ missile weapon.

+cominus+ = +comminus+: _i.e._ +con (= cum) + manus+ = _hand to hand._ N.B.--In composition _a_ often becomes _i_, cf. +iacio+, +re-icio+; and cf. +e-minus+ = _at a distance_.

(ii.) _Translation._--

+PUGNATUM EST+. The only finite verb in the sentence, and the principal one. The form shows you it is a so-called impersonal verb, and therefore the subject must be sought from the verb itself in connection with the context. Here, clearly, you must translate _the battle was fought_.

+cominus+ tells us _how_, i.e. _hand to hand_.

+reiectis pilis+. You will recognise this as an _ablative absolute_ phrase. But do not translate this literally _their javelins having been thrown away_, for this is not English. Let the principal verb and the sense generally guide you to the force of the phrase. Thus you can see here that the Roman soldiers had no use for their javelins, and so threw them away as a useless encumbrance. (The context tells us that the Roman soldiers had no time to hurl their javelins against the foe.) You can now translate the whole sentence--_(and so) the Romans threw away their javelins and fought hand to hand with swords_.

+II.+ +At Germani celeriter, ex consuetudine sua, phalange facta, impetus gladiorum exceperunt.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+ex consuetudine sua + = _according to their custom_. You will probably have met with +consuetudo+, or +consuesco+, or +suesco+. Our own word _custom_ comes from it through the French _coutume_. For this use of +ex+ cf. +ex sententia+, +ex voluntate+.

+phalange+ = _phalanx_. If you learn Greek, you will readily think of the famous Macedonian phalanx.

+impetus+ = _attacks_ = +in + peto+ (= _aim at_). Cf. our _impetus_, _impetuous_.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence contains only one finite verb, the principal one.

+EXCEPERUNT+ = _(they) received_. _Who_ received? Clearly

+GERMANI+ = _the Germans_. Received _what_?

+IMPETUS+ = _the attacks_. +impetûs+ must be Acc. Plur.

All you now have to do is to assign to their proper places the words and phrases that remain. Of these

1. +celeriter+ }
2. +ex consuetudine sua+ }
3. +phalange facta+ }
modify the action of +exceperunt+, telling us _when_ and _how_
they received, and
4. +gladiorum+
belongs to +impetûs+.

Now translate the whole sentence. _But the Germans quickly formed into a phalanx, as was their custom, and received the attacks of the swords_ (i.e. _of the Romans with drawn swords_).

+III.+ +Reperti sunt complures nostri milites, qui in phalangas insilirent, et scuta manibus revellerent, et desuper vulnerarent.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+insilirent+ = +in + salio+ = _leap-on_. And cf. our _insult_. Notice the usual phonetic change of vowel from _a_ to _i_. (English derivatives will often help you to the meaning of a Latin word, though, for reasons that are explained to you in the Introduction, pp. 1, 2, § 4, you must let them lead you up to the _root-meaning_ of the Latin word rather than to an exact translation.)

+revellerent+ = +re + vello+ = _pluck-away_. If you forget the meaning of +vello+, the supine +vulsum+ through some English derivative--e.g. _re-vulsion_, _con-vulsion_--will probably help you to the root-meaning.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence contains four finite verbs. As you read it through, underline the principal verb, clearly +REPERTI SUNT+, and bracket +qui+ to +vulnerarent+. You cannot doubt which verbs to include in your bracket, for +qui+, which is a subordinate conjunction as well as a relative pronoun, serves as a sure signpost. Also +revellerent+ and +vulnerarent+ are joined by +et--et+ to +insilirent+, so your bracket includes all from +qui+ to +vulnerarent+. The commas in the passage will often help you to the beginning and end of a subordinate clause. Now begin with the principal verb +REPERTI SUNT+ and its subject +complures nostri MILITES+, _many of our soldiers were found_.

+qui ... vulnerarent+. This subordinate clause describes, just as an adjective does, _the character_ of these +complures nostri+, so that +qui = tales ut+--i.e. _brave enough to leap upon the phalanxes, and pluck away the shields (of the Germans) and wound them from above_.

+IV.+ +Cum hostium acies a sinistro cornu pulsa atque in fugam conversa esset, a dextro cornu vehementer multitudine suorum nostram aciem premebant.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+[)a]cies+ = _line of battle_.

[Rt]+ac+ = _sharp_ (cf. +âcer+), perhaps thought of as the _edge_ of a sword.

+cornu+ = _horn_; so, figuratively, _the wing of an army_.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence contains three finite verbs. Underline +PREMEBANT+, clearly the principal verb, and bracket +cum+ to +conversa esset+. Here the signpost is the subordinate conjunction +cum+. Next find the subject of +premebant+: obviously no word from +a dextro+ to +aciem+ can be the subject; it is implied in +premebant+--i.e. _they_, which as context shows = +Germani+. Now find the object = +nostram aciem+ = _our line_.

Thus you have as the backbone of the whole sentence:--

_They (the Germans) were pressing our line._

All the rest of the sentence will now take its proper place, as in some way modifying the action of +premebant+.

Thus:--

+cum ... conversa esset+ tells us _when_ they were pressing.
+a dextro cornu+ " " _where_ " "
+vehementer+ " " _how_ " "
+multitudine suorum+ " " _how or why_ " "

N.B.--+suorum+, reflexive, must be identical with the subject of +premebant+.

Now translate _{Though}{When} the enemy's line had been routed
and put to flight on their left wing, on their right wing, owing to
their great numbers, they were pressing hard upon our line._

+V.+ +Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus adulescens, qui equitatui praeerat, quod expeditior erat quam hi qui inter aciem versabantur, tertiam aciem laborantibus nostris subsidio misit.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+animadvertisset+ = +animum + ad + verto+ = _to turn the mind to, to observe_.

+adulescens+ = here like our _junior_, to distinguish him from his father, Marcus Crassus the triumvir.

+expeditior+ = _more free_ (+ex + pes+ = _foot-free_; so +impeditus+ = _hampered_, _hindered_).

+versabantur+--(+verso+ frequent. of +verto+) = _turn this way and that_; so +verso-r+ dep. = _turn oneself_, _engage in_, _be_, according to the context.

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence is more involved, 'periodic'[8] in style. You will see on p. 23 how much help can be given by a more detailed analysis. [[Demonstration I: Table]]

[Footnote 8: See Introduction, pp. 7-9, § 11.]
[[Introduction 11. Help through a Study of the Period in Latin.]]

Now, as before, bracket the subordinate clauses thus:--

+1.+ +Id ... adulescens+
+2.+ +qui ... praeerat+
+3.+ +quod ... versabantur+

and then the only principal verb is +MISIT+. Underline this. Next underline the principal subject, clearly +P. CRASSUS+, which is also the subject of clause 1. Then, _outside the brackets_, the only possible object is +ACIEM+: underline this.

Now analyse, as on p. 23. [[Demonstration I: Table]]

(a) Write down +CRASSUS+, +MISIT+, +ACIEM+.

(b) Place alongside these their proper enlargements.

(c) If necessary, analyse separately all subordinate clauses--_e.g._ A1, A2, A3 in example on p. 23.

You should now be able to translate without any difficulty; only take care to arrange the enlargements so as to make the best sense and the best English. Thus: _When Publius Crassus the younger, who was in command of the cavalry, had observed this, he sent the third line to the help of our men who were hard pressed, as he was more free to act than those who were engaged in action._

+VI.+ +Ita proelium restitutum est.+ _In this way the battle was restored._

_Final Hints._

Remember that +one passage mastered+ is worth a great many hurriedly translated. So before you leave this passage notice carefully in the

I. _Vocabulary._--

(i.) Any words that are quite new to you. Look them out in the dictionary, and notice their derivation and use; if you do not do this you will find the same word new to you the next time you meet with it.

(ii.) _English Derivatives._--As you have seen, these will often help you to the root-meaning of a word. Thus:--

+reiectis+ = _reject, throw away_
+insilirent+ = _insult, jump on_

and in the case of verbs, as these two examples show, derivatives are most easily found from the _supine_ stem.

N.B.--This must be done very carefully, because many such English derivatives have come from Latin words after they had wholly, or in part, lost their classical meaning, or from Latin words not found at all in classical Latin.

A great many other English words are derived from the Latin of this passage--e.g. _pugnacious_, (with) _celerity_, _fact_, _except_, _military_, _manual_, _super_-sede, _vulnerable_, _hostile_, _sinister_, uni-_corn_, and many others.

(iii.) _Prefixes._--Notice especially the force of prepositions and inseparable particles in composition, e.g.:--

+re-+ in +re-iectis+, +re-vellerent+, +restitutum+.
+in-+ in +impetus+, +insilirent+.
+ex-+ in +exceperunt+, +expeditior+.

(iv.) _Simple Phonetic Changes in Composition_, e.g.:--

+a+ to +i+ in +insilirent+, +cominus+ (+con + manus+).

(v.) _Groups of Related Words._

Thus +acies+ [Rt]+ac+ = _sharp_, is related to +[)a]c-er+, sharp; +[)a]c-ervus+, a heap; +[)a]c-utus+, sharp, &c.

+expeditior+ [Rt]+ped+ = _tread, go_, is related to +pes+, a foot; +impedio+ = entangle; +impedimentum+ = hindrance, etc.

II. _Historical and other Allusions._--

(i.) Read a summary of Caesar's campaign against Ariovistus.

(ii.) _Terms relating to War._--Thus notice:--

+pilum+, the distinctively _Roman_ infantry weapon, and see a good illustration.

_phalanx_; cf. the Roman +testudo+.

+tertiam aciem+--_i.e._ the line of reserves, kept for just such emergencies. Read, if necessary, some short account of the +triplex acies+, the usual Roman order of battle.

III. _Some Authorities._--

(i.) _Caesar_, Allen and Greenough, published by Ginn & Co. (an admirable edition).

(ii.) Froude's _Caesar_, p. 50.

(iii.) Mommsen's _History of Rome_, vol. iv. p. 295.

(iv.) Napoleon's _Caesar_, vol. ii. cap. 4, and vol. ii. p. 405.

DEMONSTRATION I.

CAESAR, _B. G._ i. 52: '_Reiectis pilis ... restitutum est._'

SENTENCE

Kind of Sentence
CONNECTIVE
SUBJECT
_Simple_
_Enlarged_
PREDICATE
_Simple_
_Enlarged_
OBJECT
_Simple_
_Enlarged_

A. Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus adulescens, qui equitatui praeerat, quod expeditior rat quam hi ui inter aciem versabantur, tertiam aciem laborantibus nostris subsidio misit.

PRINCIPAL (complex)
+CRASSUS+
1. Publius
2. adulescens
3. qui ... praeerat
+MISIT+
1. Id cum ... adulescens (= _when_)
2. quod ... versabantur (= _why_)
3. laborantibus ... subsidio (= _how_)
+ACIEM+
tertiam

A1. Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus adulescens

Subordinate
_adverbial_ to +MISIT+ in +A+
cum
Crassus
Publius
animadvertisset
--
id
--

A2. qui equitatui praeerat

Subordinate
_adjectival_ to +CRASSUS+ in +A+
qui
qui (= Crassus)
--
praeerat
equitatui
--
--

A3. quod expeditior erat quam hi qui inter aciem versabantur

Subordinate
_adverbial_ to +MISIT+ in +A+
quod
(Crassus)
--
erat expeditior
quam ... hi versabantur
--
--

DEMONSTRATION II.

_The Music of Arion._

(a) Quod mare non novit, quae nescit Ariona tellus? I
Carmine currentes ille tenebat aquas. II
Saepe, sequens agnam, lupus est a voce retentus; III
Saepe avidum fugiens restitit agna lupum; IV 4
Saepe canes leporesque umbra cubuere sub una, V
Et stetit in saxo proxima cerva leae: VI
Et sine lite loquax cum Palladis alite cornix VII
Sedit, || et accipitri iuncta columba fuit. VIII 8
Cynthia saepe tuis fertur, vocalis Arion, IX
Tamquam fraternis obstupuisse modis. 10

OVID.

_The Music of Arion._

(b) Quod +mare+ non +novit+, quae +nescit Ariona tellus+? I
Carmine currentes +ille tenebat aquas+. II
Saepe, sequens agnam, +lupus est+ a voce +retentus+; III
Saepe avidum fugiens +restitit agna+ lupum; IV 4
Saepe +canes leporesque+ umbra +cubuere+ sub una, V
Et +stetit+ in saxo proxima +cerva+ leae: VI
Et sine lite loquax cum Palladis alite +cornix+ VII
+Sedit+, et accipitri +iuncta columba fuit+. VIII 8
+Cynthia+ saepe tuis +fertur+, vocalis Arion, IX
Tamquam fraternis +obstupuisse+ modis. 10

OVID.

DEMONSTRATION II.

OVID, _Fasti_ ii. 83-92 (Hallam's Edition).

_Heading and Author._--The heading will probably suggest to you the well-known story of Arion and the Dolphin, and the name of the author, Ovid, will lead you to expect a beautiful version of the legend.

_Read the Passage carefully._--As you read, notice all allusions that help you to the sense of the passage. Thus the first line (which you can no doubt translate at once) tells of the fame of Arion, and the succeeding lines describe the charm of his music.

_The Form of the Passage: Elegiac Verse._--Scan[9] as you read, and mark the quantity in the verse of all finals in +-a+. You will see the value of this, as you translate.

[Footnote 9: See Introduction, pp. 6, 7, § 10.]
[[Introduction 10. Help through Scansion and Metre]]

You can now begin to translate, taking one complete sentence at a time.

+I.+ +Quod mare non nôvit, quae nescit [)A]rî[)o]n[)a] tellûs?+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--You will know all the words here, but observe +nôvit+ = _knows_, not _knew_, for +nôvi+ means _I have become acquainted with, I have learned_, and [therefore] _I know_; and notice also the important cognates from the [Rt]#gno-#, #gnô-#, +-gna+, +-gno+, #gi-gnô-skô# = _I learn to know_, cf. our _know_, _ken_, _can_, _con_--#no-os# (_mind_), +-gna-rus+ = _know-ing_; +no-sco+ (= +gno-sco+).

(ii.) _Translation._--This sentence contains no subordinates; the two finite verbs, +nôvit+, +nescit+, are both principal.

Next, the form of the sentence, with the question-mark at the end, shows that +mare+ must be the subject of +nôvit+, and +tellus+ of +nescit+. (+[)A]rî[)o]n[)a]+ cannot be nominative, for the suffix +-a+ is the usual Greek 3rd decl. Acc. Sing., where Latin has +-em+.) Also +quod+ and +quae+ are clearly interrogative and adjectival; so translate:--

_What sea does not know, what land is ignorant of Arion?_

N.B.--Try to render this line a little more poetically.

+II.+ +Carmine currentes ille tenêbat aquâs.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--You will know all these simple words.

(ii.) _Translation._--Here again there are no subordinates. The principal verb is +tenebat+, the subject +ille+, and the object +aquas+; so translate:--

_He used to stay the running waters by his song._

N.B.--Notice force of Imperfect in +tenebat+.

+III.+ +Saepe, sequens agnam, lupus est a voce retentus;+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--All you need notice here is the force of +re-+ in +retentus+ = _held back_, cf. our _re_-tain.

(ii.) _Translation._--Before you translate, notice Ovid's frequent use of _parataxis_, _i.e._ placing one thought side by side with another thought, _without any connective_, even although one thought is, in sense, clearly subordinate to another. This is one of the ways in which all great poets _heighten the effect_ of what they say, and many examples of it are to be found in Ovid's best elegiac verse. As you look through this passage you will find:

(a) Lines 1, 2, 3, 4 each form a complete sentence.

(b) In the whole passage there is not _one_ subordinate conjunction.

(c) The only expressed connective is the simplest link-word +et+.

The principal verb is +retentus est+, the subject +lupus+. +Sequens agnam+ describes +lupus+, and +saepe+ and +a voce+ tell us _when_ and _why_ the wolf _was stayed_.

_Often has the wolf in pursuit of the lamb been stayed at the sound._

(For this use of +a+ or +ab+ to express _origin_ or _source_ cf. Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 655 [V. 709]: _Pectora traiectus Lynceo Castor_ +ab ense+.)

+IV.+ +Saepe avidum f[)u]giens restitit agn[)a] lupum.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Restitit+ = _stood still_; +re + si-st-o+, _i.e._ from [Rt]sta-, strengthened by reduplication; cf. #hi-stê-mi#. Contrast carefully meaning of +re-sto+, = _stand firm_ or _be left_.

(ii.) _Translation._--Again a very simple sentence. The principal verb is +restitit+, the subject +agn[)a]+; +fugiens avidum lupum+ enlarges the subject +[)a]gna+, and +saepe+ tells us when the lamb _stood still_.

_Often has the lamb, when fleeing from the hungry wolf, stood still (stopped short in its flight)._

N.B.--Notice the _parallelism_ in this couplet, where the parallel lines express the same idea. This is a characteristic feature of Hebrew poetry, e.g.:

'Seek ye the Lord while He may be found:
Call ye upon Him while He is near.'

Is. lv. 6.

and is frequently employed by Ovid.[10]

[Footnote 10: E.g.:
Plena fuit vobis omni concordia vita,
Et stetit ad finem longa tenaxque fides.
_Amores_ ii. 6. 13-14.]

+V.+ +Saepe c[)a]nes lep[)o]resque umbrâ c[)u]buêre sub unâ.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Lep[)o]res+ = _hares_. As this is closely connected by +-que+ with +c[)a]nes+, you are not likely to confuse it with +l[)e]por+ (+lepos+; cf. #lampô#) = _a charm_, _grace_.

+Cubuere+ = _lay down_. Cp. +-cumbo+ in composition, and our _recumbent_, _succumb_, and _cub_-icle.

(ii.) _Translation._--Another simple sentence about which there can be no doubt. The metre shows that +umbrâ+ must be taken with +sub unâ+:--

_Often have the dogs and the hares reclined beneath the same shade._

+VI.+ +Et stetit in saxo proxim[)a] cerv[)a] leae.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Leae+ = _lioness_. +Lea+ (poetical form of +leaena+) suggests +leo+.

(ii.) _Translation._--The metre shows +proxim[)a]+ must be taken with +cerv[)a]+. But to translate _the nearest stag (hind)_ makes nonsense, and renders +leae+ untranslatable, while _the hind very close to the lioness_ makes good sense.

_And the hind has stood still on the crag close beside the lioness._

+VII.+ +Et s[)i]ne lîte l[)o]quax cum Palladis âlite cornix sêdit.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Lîte+ = _strife_. To _litigate_ = contest in law (+lit + agere+) may help you to the root-meaning.

+Loquax+ = _talkative_, clearly connected with +l[)o]q-uor+, and _loq_-uacious. +Alite+ = _a bird_, lit. _winged_; cf. +âl-a+, a _wing_.

+Cornix+ = _a crow_, probably from [Rt]#kar#; cf. our _croak_, and #korax#, +cor-vus+, a _raven_.

+Palladis.+ You have no doubt heard of #Pallas Athênê#, the virgin goddess of war and of wisdom.

(ii.) _Translation._--The force of the illustration lies in the strong contrast between the chattering, tale-bearing crow and the wise, silent owl sacred to the goddess of wisdom. Two such opposites, under the spell of Arion's music, forget to quarrel, though for the time in close company.

_And the chattering crow has without strife sat in company with the bird of Pallas._

+VIII.+ +Et accipitri iunct[)a] c[)o]lumb[)a] fuit.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Accipitri+ = _hawk_ (a general name for birds of prey), probably from [Rt]#pet-#, +pet-+ = _move quickly_; cf. #pet-omai# = _fly about_; +p[)e]t-o+ = _fall upon_, _attack_, _seek_.

So +accipiter+ = +ac + p[)e]t-+, _swift + flying_; cf. #ôkupteros# = _swift-winged_.

(ii.) _Translation._--The metre shows that +columb[)a]+ and +iunct[)a]+ must be taken together:--

_And the dove has-been-joined-to (has consorted with) the hawk._

+IX.+

+Cynthia saepe tuis fertur, vôcalis [)A]rîôn,
Tamquam fraternis obst[)u]puisse m[)o]dis.+

(i.) _Vocabulary._--

+Cynthia+ = _Diana_ (_Artemis_), so called from Mt. Cynthus, in Delos, where she and Apollo were born.

+Fertur+ = _is said_, _asserted_; cf. +f[)e]runt+ = _they say_.

+Vôcalis+ = _tuneful_, clearly from same root as +vox+, +v[)o]c-o+, &c., of our _vocal_. For change of quantity cf. +rex+, +rêgis+, from +r[)e]go+.

+Obst[)u]puisse+ = _to have been spell-bound_; +st[)u]p-eo+, +st[)u]p-idus+, and our _stupefy_, _stupid_ will suggest the root-meaning.[11]

+M[)o]dis+ = _measures_, especially of verse, or, as here, of music.

[Footnote 11: Notice this word, which is often employed to express
the ideas of _entránce_, _enthrall_, _strike dumb_, _amaze_.]

(ii.) _Translation._--You will remember that Apollo, the god who brings back light and sunshine in spring, is also the god of music and of poetry. Ovid skilfully implies that Arion's playing was so beautiful that even Diana, Apollo's own sister, mistakes Arion's playing for her brother's.

This sentence takes up a whole couplet, but is in form quite simple. Thus +fertur+ is the incomplete predicate, and +obstupuisse saepe tuis modis tamquam fraternis+ completes the predicate, _i.e._ tells us all that is said of the subject +Cynthia+.

+Vôcalis [)A]rîon+ is clearly vocative, or nominative of address.

_O tuneful Arion, often is Cynthia said to have been spell-bound by thy strains, as by those of her brother (Apollo)._

_Final Suggestions._

You have now learnt how to translate this passage, but you must do more before you can master it. Thus in these simple but beautiful lines notice:--

(i.) _Vocabulary._--This is easy and familiar, but even if you know the meaning of the words study their _cognates_--_i.e._ related words--as pointed out to you in the vocabulary, _e.g._ under +nôvit+, p. 25, sentence I. [[Demonstration II.ii]]

(ii.) _English Derivatives._--Remember that often, where you cannot think of an English derivative, some very familiar _French_ word will help you to the root-meaning of the Latin. Thus:--

Latin. French. English.
+Carmine+ _Charme_ _Charm_ (_Song_)
+Agnam+ _Agneau_ _Lamb_
+Lupus+ _Loup_ _Wolf_
+Cerva+ _Cerf_ _Stag_ (_Hind_)

and notice that where the English word, e.g. _charm_, differs in spelling from the Latin, it is because it comes to us through a French channel. Cf. _feat_ from Fr. _fait_ = L. _factum_.

(iii.) _Allusions and Parallel Passages._--In verse these are often numerous and important. Poetry is naturally full of imagery, and borrows from many sources. Thus, for ll. 1-8, compare Hor. _Od._ I. xii. 5:

'Aut in umbrosis Heliconis oris
. . . .
Arte materna rapidos morantem
Fluminum lapsus . . .'

and Verg. _G._ iv. 510:

'Mulcentem tigris et agentem carmine quercus.'

Shakesp. _Hen. VIII._ III. i.:

'Orpheus with his lute made trees,
And the mountain-tops that freeze,
Bow themselves when he did sing';

or read Tennyson's poem 'Amphion.'

_Lines 5, 6._--Cf. Isaiah xi. 6: 'The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid; and the calf and the young lion and the fatling together; and a little child shall lead them.'

(iv.) _Hints for Verses._--Ovid is the acknowledged master of elegiac verse. Therefore, whenever you have a passage of his elegiacs to translate, you should, if possible, learn it by heart. (The Arion story as told by Ovid is well worth a place in any collection of _Ediscenda_.) If you cannot do this, notice useful phrases and turns of expression, e.g.:--

_Line 1._--A question, instead of a bare statement, where no answer is expected.

Cf. 'Quod crimen dicis praeter amasse meum?'

(Dido to Aeneas, Ov. _Her._ vii. 164.)

_Lines 3, 4._--Parataxis and repetition of idea.

_Line 9._--+Vocalis Arion+, apostrophe.

_Line 2._--Simplicity; alliteration.

(v.) _The Poem as Literature._--Ovid here depicts in language purposely exaggerated the power of music over the hearts of men, and even over nature, animate and inanimate. This gives point to the strong contrast in the lines which follow, where greed dominates all the feelings. Shakespeare refers to the love of music as a test of character:--

'The man that hath no music in himself,
Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,
Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils.'

DEMONSTRATION III.