Chapter IX: Part II: Rashness justly punished (5)

Nihil certe ultra rei in Italia ab Hannibale gestum. Nam ad eum quoque legati ab Carthagine vocantes in Africam eis forte diebus, quibus ad Magonem, venerunt. Frendens gemensque ac vix lacrimis temperans dicitur legatorum verba audisse. {5} Postquam edita sunt mandata, 'Iam non perplexe,' inquit, 'sed palam revocant, qui vetando supplementum et pecuniam mitti iam pridem trahebant. Vicit ergo Hannibalem non populus Romanus totiens caesus fugatusque, sed senatus Carthaginiensis {10} obtrectatione atque invidia; neque hac deformitate reditus mei tam P. Scipio exsultabit atque efferet sese quam Hanno, qui domum nostram, quando alia re non potuit, ruina Carthaginis oppressit.' Iam hoc ipsum praesagiens animo praeparaverat {15} ante naves. Itaque inutili militum turba praesidii specie in oppida Bruttii agri, quae pauca magis metu quam fide continebantur, dimissa, quod roboris in exercitu erat in Africam transvexit. Raro quemquam alium, patriam exilii causa relinquentem, {20} tam maestum abisse ferunt quam Hannibalem, hostium terra excedentem.

LIVY, xxx. 19, 20.

+Context.+ Scipio (204 B.C.) landed in Africa and won such decisive victories over the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco, that ii was necessary in 203 B.C. to recall both Mago and Hannibal.

[Linenotes:
3-4. +ad Magonem.+ Mago, H.'s youngest brother, had in 205 B.C. been
despatched from Carthage with considerable reinforcements for H. He
took Genoa, again roused the Gauls against Rome, and in 203 B.C.
fought an indecisive action with the Romans. Mago was severely
wounded, and died at sea before he reached Africa.
6. +Iam non perplexe+ = _now in no veiled manner_ (lit. _not
obscurely_).
8. +iam pridem trahebant+ = _began long ago to try to pull me back_.
--Rawlins.
11. +obtrectatione+ = _by disparagement_.
13. +Hanno+, the leader of the aristocratic (peace) party at
Carthage, and the persistent opponent of Hamilcar Barca and his
sons.]

+Hannibal's Speech.+ ll. 6-15. This is purely imaginary and illustrates the bitter hatred of the Romans for H. They alleged that H. was personally responsible for the war, and that he undertook it for selfish and party ends. Also that Carthage, unable to prevent the war, withheld supplies and reinforcements. Ihne says 'The whole course of the war is a sufficient refutation of these charges.'

C38

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Zama, 202 B.C._ (1) _Before the Battle._

Ita infecta pace ex colloquio ad suos cum se recepissent, frustra verba praelata renuntiant: armis decernendum esse habendamque eam fortunam, quam dei dedissent. In castra ut est ventum, pronuntiant ambo, arma expedirent milites animosque ad {5} supremum certamen, non in unum diem sed in perpetuum, si felicitas adesset, victores. Roma an Carthago iura gentibus daret, ante crastinam noctem scituros; neque enim Africam aut Italiam, sed orbem terrarum victoriae praemium fore; par {10} periculum praemio, quibus adversa pugnae fortuna fuisset. Nam neque Romanis effugium ullum patebat in aliena ignotaque terra et Carthagini supremo auxilio effuso adesse videbatur praesens excidium. Ad hoc discrimen procedunt postero die duorum {15} opulentissimorum populorum duo longe clarissimi duces, duo fortissimi exercitus, multa ante parta decora aut cumulaturi eo die aut eversuri. Anceps igitur spes et metus miscebant animos; contemplantibus modo suam modo hostium aciem, cum non oculis {20} magis quam ratione pensarent vires, simul laeta simul tristia obversabantur.

LIVY, xxx. 31, 32.

[Linenotes:
1-2. +Ita infecta pace ... renuntiant+, referring to Livy's
picturesque account of the personal interview between Scipio and
Hannibal, and the fruitless negotiations for peace.
7-10. +Roma an Carthago ... praemium fore.+ 'By the victory of Zama
it was decided that the states of the ancient world should be welded
into one great empire, and that this empire should be founded by
Rome and not by Carthage.' --Ihne.
14. +effuso+ = _dispersed_, i.e. _defeated_.
15. +discrimen+ = _decisive point_, _decision_.
18. +aut cumulaturi aut eversuri+ = _either to augment_ (lit. _heap
up_) _or overthrow_.
21. +pensarent vires+ = _they estimated (weighed) their strength_.]

+The Battle of Zama.+ 'Here, too, the elephants proved disastrous to their own side. Some ran down the spaces between the Roman maniples (see +C+ 39, B. note), and were of no further use; while others, driven aside by the Roman skirmishers, threw H.'s Carthaginian cavalry into such disorder that they were unable to resist the attack of Scipio's horse. The first Roman line threw H.'s mercenaries back upon their reserves of the second line, and in the confusion that ensued Scipio advanced with his second and third lines. The combat raged long and fiercely until Scipio's Roman and Numidian cavalry, returning from their pursuit of H.'s horse, fell upon the enemy's rear and decided the battle.' --Ihne.

C39

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Zama, 202 B.C._ (2) _The Order of Battle._

A. Hannibal adversus Scipionem, post elephantos lxxx, qui in prima fronte positi hostium turbarent aciem, auxiliares Gallos et Ligures et Baliares Maurosque posuit, ut neque fugere possent Poenis a tergo stantibus et hostem oppositi, si non infestarent, {5} at certe fatigarent: tum suis et Macedonibus, qui iam fessos Romanos integri exciperent, in secunda acie collocatis, novissimos Italicos constituit, quorum et timebat fidem et segnitiam verebatur, quoniam plerosque eorum ab Italia invitos extraxerat. {10}

+Hannibal's Army.+ It consisted broadly of five classes:

1. His veteran army of Italy, on which he could thoroughly rely, partly Carthaginian, partly Italian (mostly Bruttians).

These he placed in his _third_ line.

2. A newly raised force of Carthaginian and Libyan militia.

These he placed in his _second_ line.

3. Mercenaries, consisting of Moors, Gauls, Ligurians, the Balearic contingent, and the Spaniards.

These he placed in his _first_ line.

4. Carthaginian and Numidian cavalry.

These he placed on his _wings_.

5. 80 elephants. These he placed on his _front_, to open the attack.

B. Scipio adversus hanc formam robur legionis triplici acie in fronte ordinatum per hastatos et principes et triarios opposuit: nec continuas construxit cohortes, sed manipulis inter se distantibus spatium dedit, per quod elephanti ab hostibus acti {15} facile transmitti sine perturbatione ordinum possent. Ea ipsa intervalla expeditis velitibus implevit, ne interluceret acies, dato his praecepto, ut ad impetum elephantorum vel retro vel in latera concederent. Equitatum deinde in cornua divisit et dextro Romanis {20} equitibus Laelium, sinistro Numidis Masinissam praeposuit: quae tam prudens ordinatio non dubie causa victoriae fuit.

FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 3. 16.

+Scipio's order of battle.+ Instead of drawing up his manipuli like the black squares of a chessboard--the usual order, so that, in advancing, the manipuli of the three lines could form one unbroken line--he placed them one behind the other, like the rounds of a ladder, so as to leave spaces in the lines, through which the elephants might pass without trampling down or throwing into confusion the infantry battalions, e.g.:

+not+ +but+
* * * * * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * *

FORMATION OF EMPIRE BEYOND ITALY.

C40

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (1)

_Battle of Cynoscephalae, 197 B.C._

Non dubia res fuit; extemplo terga vertere Macedones, terrore primo bestiarum aversi. Et ceteri quidem hos pulsos sequebantur; unus e tribunis militum, ex tempore capto consilio, cum viginti signorum militibus, relicta ea parte suorum, quae {5} haud dubie vincebat, brevi circuitu dextrum cornu hostium aversum invadit. Nullam aciem ab tergo adortus non turbasset; ceterum ad communem omnium in tali re trepidationem accessit, quod phalanx Macedonum, gravis atque immobilis, nec {10} circumagere se poterat, nec hoc, qui a fronte, paulo ante pedem referentes, tunc ultro territis instabant, patiebantur. Ad hoc loco etiam premebantur, quia iugum, ex quo pugnaverant, dum per proclive pulsos insequuntur, tradiderant hosti ad terga sua circumducto. {15} Paulisper in medio caesi, deinde omissis plerique armis capessunt fugam. Philippus cum paucis peditum equitumque primo tumulum altiorem inter ceteros cepit, ut specularetur, quae in laeva parte suorum fortuna esset; deinde, postquam fugam {20} effusam animadvertit et omnia circa iuga signis atque armis fulgere, tum et ipse acie excessit.

LIVY, xxxiii. 9, 10.

+Context.+ Philip V, King of Macedon, had made a treaty with Hannibal in 215 B.C., and provoked the first Macedonian War (214-205 B.C.) by an attack on Apollonia in Illyria, and the capture of the port of Oricum in Epirus. The Romans now resolved to make Philip suffer for the trouble he had caused them by interfering in the war with Hannibal. A _casus belli_ was soon found in the Athenian Embassy to Rome (201 B.C.) asking for help against Philip.

[Linenotes:
3-4. +unus ... militum.+ Ihne says 'He seized the favourable
opportunity to shape the battle which had begun without plan into a
brilliant victory for Rome.'
5. +signorum+ (= _manipulorum_) = _companies_, i.e. with some 3500
men.
13. +loco premebantur+ = _they_ (i.e. _the phalanx_) _began to feel
the disadvantage of position_. --Rawlins.
16. +in medio caesi+ = _cut down from both sides_. --R.]

+Cynoscephalae+ (_Dog's Heads_), a low chain of hills between Pherae and Scotussa in Thessaly.

+Results of the Battle.+ 'The Romans lost only 700 men. That was the price paid for a victory which laid the Monarchy of Alexander the Great in the dust.' --Ihne.

+Terms of Peace+, 196 B.C. Macedonia to remain an independent state, but, like Carthage, to lose all her foreign possessions, and to be sunk to the level of a vassal state.

C41

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (2)

_Flamininus proclaims the Freedom of Greece, 196 B.C._

Isthmiorum statum ludicrum aderat, semper quidem et alias frequens cum propter spectaculi studium insitum genti, quo certamina omnis generis artium viriumque et pernicitatis visuntur, tum quia propter opportunitatem loci, per duo diversa maria {5} omnium rerum usus ministrantis humano generi, concilium Asiae Graeciaeque is mercatus erat; tum vero non ad solitos modo usus undique convenerant, sed exspectatione erecti, qui deinde status futurus Graeciae, quae sua fortuna esset. Ad spectaculum {10} consederant, et praeco cum tubicine, ut mos est, in mediam aream, unde sollemni carmine ludicrum indici solet, processit et, tuba silentio facto, ita pronuntiat: 'Senatus Romanus et T. Quinctius imperator, Philippo rege Macedonibusque devictis, {15} liberos, immunes, suis legibus esse iubet Corinthios, Phocenses, Locrensesque omnes et insulam Euboeam et Magnetas, Thessalos, Perrhaebos, Achaeos Phthiotas.' ... Esse aliquam in terris gentem, quae sua impensa, suo labore ac periculo bella gerat pro {20} libertate aliorum. Una voce praeconis liberatas omnes Graeciae atque Asiae urbes; hoc spe concipere audacis animi fuisse, ad effectum adducere et virtutis et fortunae ingentis.

LIVY, xxxiii. 32, 33 (sel.)

[Linenotes:
1. +Isthmiorum statum ludicrum+ = _time fixed_ (+statum+) _for the
Isthmian Games_ (celebrated at Corinth every two years).
3-4. +quo certamina ... visuntur+ = _which makes them go to see
contests of every kind of artistic performance_ (+artium+) _and of
feats of strength and agility_. --Rawlins.
7. +concilium is mercatus erat ...+ = _that gathering was the
general rendezvous_ (+mercatus+) _of_ ... +mercatus+ = i. _trade_,
or _mart_; ii. _a festival assemblage_ (#panêguris#).
11. +in mediam aream+ = _into the centre of the open space (of the
stadium)_.
17. +Locrensesque omnes+, i.e. E. & W. Locris.
18. +Perrhaebos+, N. of Thessaly.
+Achaeos Phthiotas+ = the Achaeans who inhabited Phthiotis (S.E. of
Thessaly).
19-24. +Esse aliquam ... ingentis:+ in these words the Greeks
express their astonishment and gratitude at the greatness of the
boon conferred upon them.]

+The Freedom of Greece.+ 'The Greeks believed with a childlike simplicity that the Romans really cared for their freedom, and that they had crossed the sea with no other object than to deliver Greece from a foreign yoke. . . . Flamininus was a skilful diplomatist, and particularly qualified to sift and settle the affairs of Greece; for he understood the Greek character, and was not inaccessible, like so many other Romans, to Greek views and opinions.' --Ihne.

C42

WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS OF SYRIA, 191-190 B.C.

A. _Battle of Thermopylae, 191 B.C. Victory due to Cato._

Acilius Glabrio consul adversus Antiochi regis aciem, quam is in Achaia pro angustiis Thermopylarum direxerat, iniquitatibus loci non irritus tantum, sed cum iactura qnoque repulsus esset, nisi circummissus ab eo Porcius Cato, qui tum, iam {5} consularis, tribunus militum a populo factus in exercitu erat, deiectis iugis Callidromi mentis Aetolis, qui praesidio ea tenebant, super imminentem castris regiis collem a tergo subitus apparuisset: quo facto perturbatis Antiochi copiis utrimque irrupere Romani {10} et fusis fugatisque castra ceperunt.

FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 4. 4.

+Context.+ In 192 B.C. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, accepted the invitation of the Aetolians, who, since the Peace of 196 B.C., had been snubbed by the Romans, to come to liberate Greece from the tyranny of Rome.

B. _Battle of Magnesia, 190 B.C._

Tum consule Scipione, cui frater, ille modo victor Carthaginis Africanus, aderat voluntaria legatione, debellari regem placet. Et iam toto cesserat mari, sed nos imus ulterius. Maeandrum {15} ad amnem montemque Sipylum castra ponuntur. Hic rex, incredibile dictu quibus auxiliis, quibus copiis, consederat. Trecenta milia peditum, equitum falcatorumque curruum non minor numerus. Elephantis ad hoc immensae magnitudinis, auro purpura {20} argento et suo ebore fulgentibus aciem utrimque vallaverat. Sed haec omnia praepedita magnitudine sua, ad hoc imbre, qui subito superfusus mira felicitate Persicos arcus corruperat. Primum trepidatio, mox fuga, deinde triumphus fuerunt. {25}

FLORUS, i. 24. 14-18.

+Context.+ In 190 B.C. Lucius Scipio was appointed to carry the war into Asia. Scipio Africanus, who accompanied his brother as Chief of Staff, fell ill at Elaea, the port of Pergamum. His place was taken by Cn. Domitius, an experienced officer.

[Linenotes:
14-15. +Et iam toto cesserat mari+, as the result of the decisive
defeat, in 190 B.C., of the Syrian fleet off +Myonnesus+.
15-16. +Maeandrum ... ponuntur.+ The battle was fought near Magnesia
(N.W. of Lydia) at the foot of Mt. Sipylus.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, xxxvii. 39-44, 'The +Battle of Magnesia+ decided the fate of the Syrian Empire, as the battles of +Zama+ and +Cynoscephalae+ had decided the fate of Carthage and Macedonia.' --Ihne.

C43

_Deaths of Three Great Men, 183 B.C._

Hannibal, postquam est nuntiatum milites regios in vestibulo esse, postico fugere conatus, ut id quoque occursu militum obsaeptum sensit et omnia circa clausa custodiis dispositis esse, venenum, quod multo ante praeparatum ad tales habebat casus, {5} poposcit. 'Liberemus,' inquit, 'diuturna cura populum Romanum, quando mortem senis exspectare longum censent. Nec magnam nec memorabilem ex inermi proditoque Flamininus victoriam feret.' Exsecratus deinde in caput regnumque {10} Prusiae, et hospitales deos violatae ab eo fidei testes invocans, poculum exhausit. . . . Trium clarissimorum suae cuiusque gentis virorum non tempore magis congruente comparabilis mors videtur esse, quam quod nemo eorum satis dignum splendore {15} vitae exitum habuit. Nam primum omnes non in patrio solo mortui nec sepulti sunt. Veneno absumpti Hannibal et Philopoemen; exsul Hannibal, proditus ab hospite, captus Philopoemen in carcere et in vinculis exspiravit. Scipio etsi non exsul neque {20} damnatus, die tamen dicta, ad quam non adfuerat reus, absens citatus, voluntarium non sibimet ipse solum sed etiam funeri suo exsilium indixit.

LIVY, xxxix, 51, 52 (sel.)

+Context.+ After Zama Hannibal held the highest office (_Suffete_ = L. _praetura_) at Carthage, and effected useful democratic reforms. However, his political enemies denounced him to Rome _as making plans for a new war_, and in 195 B.C. he was forced to flee from Carthage and took refuge with Antiochus. After Magnesia, H. found for seven years a safe asylum with Prusias, king of Bithynia; but the Romans could not be at ease so long as H. lived, and Flamininus the Liberator of Greece undertook the inglorious quest of demanding the surrender of Hannibal.

[Linenotes:
13-15. +non tempore magis congruente quam+ = _not so much in
coincidence of_ (+congruente+, lit. _agreeing with_) _date as_. --R.
18. +Philopoemen+, the heroic chief of the Achaean League, was taken
prisoner by Dinocrates, imprisoned in a dungeon at Messene (+in
carcere+, l. 19), and compelled to drink poison.
20-23. +Scipio+ was accused, at the instigation of Cato, by the
tribune Naevius (185 B.C.) of having been bribed by Antiochus to
procure for him favourable conditions of peace. Too proud to defend
himself against such a charge, Scipio retired to his country-seat at
Liternum, where _by a voluntary act he consigned both himself and
his grave to exile_ (+voluntarium ... indixit+).
'_Ingrata patria, ne ossa quidem mea habes._'
Epitaph of Scipio, written by himself.]

C44

_M. Porcius Cato, 234-149 B.C._ (1)

At Cato, censor cum L. Valerio Flacco, severe praefuit ei potestati. Nam et in complures nobiles animadvertit et multas res novas in edictum addidit, qua re luxuria reprimeretur, quae iam tum incipiebat pullulare. Circiter annos octoginta, usque ad extremam {5} aetatem ab adolescentia, rei publicae causa suscipere inimicitias non destitit. A multis tentatus non modo nullum detrimentum existimationis fecit, sed, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit.

In omnibus rebus singulari fuit industria: nam {10} et agricola sollers et peritus iuris consultus et magnus imperator et probabilis orator et cupidissimus litterarum fuit. Quarum studium etsi senior arripuerat, tamen tantum progressum fecit, ut non facile reperiri posset neque de Graecis neque de {15} Italicis rebus, quod ei fuerit incognitum. Ab adulescentia confecit orationes. Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum sunt libri vii. Primus continet res gestas regum populi Romani, secundus et tertius unde quaeque civitas orta sit Italica, ob quam rem omnes {20} Origines videtur appellasse.

NEPOS, _Cato_, ii., iii.

[Linenotes:
1. +Censor+, 184 B.C., with L. Valerius Flaccus, his great friend
and patron, by whom he was introduced to political life.
3. +in edictum.+ The Censors, on their entrance upon office, issued
a _proclamation_ or _edict_, setting forth the principles upon which
they intended to act. Cato set forth in his edict that he intended
to use his power for the suppression of luxury.
5. +pullulare+ = _to spread, increase_; lit. _to put forth_, of
plants and animals. Cf. _pull-us_ (our _pullet_), _pu-er_, #pôlos#
(= _a foal_).]
+octoginta.+ This is an exaggeration. He was only eighty-five when
he died 149 B.C.
6-7. +rei publicae ... non destitit.+ Seneca says: _Scipio cum
hostibus nostris bellum, Cato cum moribus gessit._
7-9. Cato was accused no less than 44 times, but each time
acquitted.
11. +iuris consultus+ = _lawyer_.
12. +magnus imperator+, e.g. in the 2nd Punic War, and the decisive
victory at Thermopylae (191 B.C.) was mainly due to Cato.
+probabilis orator+ = _a tolerable, acceptable orator_. Oscar
Browning.
17-21. His two great works were his treatise +De Re Rustica+ (or +De
Agri Cultura+), the earliest extant work in Latin prose, and his
+Origines+, or accounts of the rise and growth of the Italian
nation, the earliest history in Latin prose. 'It was Cato's great
merit that he asserted the rights of his native language for
literary prose composition.' --Ihne.]

+Cato the Censor.+ 'He deserves our highest respect for the defiant and manly spirit that animated him in his untiring contest with the vices of the age.' --Ihne.

C45

_M. Porcius Cato._ (2)

Iam pauca aratro iugera regiae
Moles relinquent, undique latius
Extenta visentur Lucrino
Stagna lacu platanusque caelebs 4
Evincet ulmos: tum violaria et
Myrtus et omnis copia narium
Spargent olivetis odorem
Fertilibus domino priori; 8
Tum spissa ramis laurea fervidos
Excludet ictus. Non ita Romuli
Praescriptum et intonsi Catonis
Auspiciis veterumque norma. 12
Privatus illis census erat brevis,
Commune magnum: nulla decempedis
Metata privatis opacam
Porticus excipiebat Arcton. 16
Nec fortuitum spernere caespitem
Leges sinebant, oppida publico
Sumptu iubentes et deorum
Templa novo decorare saxo. 20

HORACE, _Odes_, II. xv.

+Argument.+ 'Our palaces and fish-ponds and ornamental gardens are supplanting the cultivation of corn and vines and olives. +This is not the spirit of Romulus or of Cato.+ Their rule was private thrift, public magnificence; private houses of turf, public buildings and temples of hewn stone.' --W.

[Linenotes:
1. +Iam+ = _presently_.
1-2. +regiae moles+ = _princely piles_. +moles+, lit. _masses_, of
_huge buildings_.
2-4. +undique ... lacu+ = _and fish-ponds_ (+stagna+) _of wider
extent than the L. lake will be sights to see_
(+visentur+).--Wickham.
4. +platanus caelebs+ = _the bachelor plane_, so called because
vines were not _wedded to it_ (i.e. trained upon it).--Gow.
6. +omnis copia narium+ = _all that is sweet to smell_. Lit. _all
the fulness of the nostrils_.
10. +ictus+ (sc. _solis_). The point is that formerly trees were
stripped to admit the sun to the vines and olives: nowadays the sun
is excluded. --Gow.
11. +intonsi+ (= _antiqui_) = _old-fashioned_. Cf. Cic.'s use of
_barbatus_.
13. +census erat brevis+ = _list of property was short_.
14. +commune+ (= #to koinon#) = _the common (public) stock_.
14-15. +decempedis metata privatis+ = _measured with ten-foot rods
for private owners_. In old days the +porticûs+ were always
_publicae_.
17. +fortuitum caespitem+ = _the chance-cut (handy) turf_.
20. +novo saxo+ = _with fresh-hewn stone_, i.e. hewn on purpose.
--W.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Livy xxxix. 6. 40. 41; Sallust, _Catiline_ 12, 13.

'Cato saw the greatness of Rome in the olden time, and he endeavoured without success to bring this old time back.' --Ihne.

C46

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.

_Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C._ (1)

Movebat imperii maiestas, gloria viri, ante omnia aetas, quod maior sexaginta annis iuvenum munia in parte praecipua laboris periculique capessebat. Intervallum, quod inter caetratos at phalanges erat, implevit legio, atque aciem hostium interrupit. A {5} tergo caetratis erat, frontem adversus clipeatos habebat: chalcaspides appellabantur. Secundam legionem L. Albinus consularis ducere adversus leucaspidem phalangem iussus; ea media acies hostium fuit. In dextrum cornu, unde circa fluvium {10} commissum proclium erat, elephantos inducit et alas sociorum; et hinc primum fuga Macedonum est orta. Nam sicut pleraque nova commenta mortalium in verbis vim habent, experiendo, cum agi, non quemadmodum agatur edisseri oportet, sine ullo {15} effectu evanescunt, ita tum elephantorum impetum sustinere non poterant, et commenta Macedonum nomen tantum sine usu fuerunt. Elephantorum impetum subsecuti sunt socii nominis Latini, pepuleruntque laevum cornu. {20}

LIVY, xliv. 41.

+Context.+ Perseus, son of Philip, became King of Macedonia on the death of his father in 179 B.C. He did all he could to prepare for the inevitable struggle with Rome by strengthening Macedonia, posing as the Liberator of Greece, and forming marriage alliances with Seleucus of Syria (the successor of Antiochus), and Prusias of Bithynia. In 174 B.C., the Romans were informed that Perseus was secretly negotiating with Carthage, and after fruitless embassies war was declared. The Senate, after three years of unsuccessful warfare (171-168 B.C.), appointed L. Aemilius Paulus (son of the hero who died at Cannae) to the supreme command in Macedonia.

[Linenotes:
4. +caetratos+ = _Targeteers_, armed with the _small_ round shield.
5-7. +A tergo ... habebat+ (sc. +legio prima+) = _the (first)
Legion thus took the Targeteers in the rear, while it faced towards
the Shieldmen_. --Rawlins.
6. +clipeatos+ = _Shieldmen_, armed with the _large_ round shield.
7. +chalcaspides+ = _Brazen Shields_, Right Division of phalanx.
9. +leucaspidem+ = _White Shields_, Left Division of phalanx.
10. +in dextrum cornu+ (sc. +Romanum+), i.e. nearest to the sea.
13-15. +commenta ... oportet+ = lit. _the contrivances of men,
though in theory_ (+in verbis+) _they had some importance_ (+vim+)
_yet upon trial_ (+experiendo+) _when there is need of action and
not of discussion_ (+edisseri+) _how to act_. . . .
17. +commenta Macedonum.+ Perh. with reference to Perseus'
contrivances (e.g. by the use of _dummy_ elephants) to prepare his
men and horses to make a stand against _real_ elephants.]

C47

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.

_Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C._ (2)

In medio secunda legio immissa dissipavit phalangem; neque ulla evidentior causa victoriae fuit, quam quod multa passim proelia erant, quae fluctuantem turbarunt primo, deinde disiecerunt phalangem, cuius confertae et intentis horrentes {5} hastis intolerabiles vires sunt; si carptim aggrediendo circumagere immobilem longitudine et gravitate hastam cogas, confusa strue implicantur: si vero aut ab latere aut ab tergo aliquid tumultus increpuit, ruinae modo turbantur. Sicut tum adversus catervatim {10} incurrentes Romanos et interrupta multifariam acie obviam ire cogebantur, et Romani, quacumque data intervalla essent, insinuabant ordines suos. . . . Diu phalanx a fronte, a lateribus, ab tergo caesa est; postremo, qui ex hostium manibus elapsi erant, {15} inermes ad mare fugientes, quidam aquam etiam ingressi, manus ad eos, qui in classe erant tendentes, suppliciter vitam orabant; et cum scaphas concurrere undique ab navibus cernerent, ad excipiendos sese venire rati, ut caperent potius quam occiderent, {20} longius in aquam, quidam etiam natantes, progressi sunt. Sed cum hostiliter e scaphis caederentur, retro, qui poterant, nando repetentes terram, in aliam foediorem pestem incidebant. Elephanti enim, ab rectoribus ad litus acti, exeuntes obterebant {25} elidebantque.

LIVY, xliv. 41, 42.

[Linenotes:
1. +In medio ... immissa+ = _On the centre the second legion
charged_ (+immissa+), i.e. into the interstices of the phalanx,
which was not preserving its usual close order. --Rawlins.
4-6. +fluctuantem ... vires sunt+ = _first demoralised the phalanx
so as to make it waver_, (+fluctuantem+), _and then shattered it.
Its (aggressive) force, so long as it keeps close order and bristles
with couched_ (+intentis+) _spears, is irresistible_
(+intolerabiles+).
6. +carptim aggrediendo+ = _by repeated harassing attacks_.
10. +ruinae modo+ = _in hopeless confusion_. --R.
17. +classe.+ The Roman fleet under Octavius was co-operating with
the army.]

+Results of the Battle+. Perseus was captured, and his kingdom was divided into four independent parts. The Macedonian phalanx had fought its last great battle.

+Character of Paulus+. 'He was a model of the Roman of the best time. He was not, like his contemporary Cato, a onesided worshipper of everything old; but he was a Conservative in the best sense of the word, anxious to preserve old institutions, but at the same time to improve them.' --Ihne.

C48

THIRD PUNIC WAR, 149-146 B.C.

_Destruction of Carthage, 146 B.C._

Manilio deinde consule terra marique fervebat obsidio. Operti portus, nudatus est primus et sequens, iam et tertius murus, cum tamen Byrsa, quod nomen arci fuit, quasi altera civitas resistebat. Quamvis profligato urbis excidio tamen fatale Africae nomen {5} Scipionum videbatur. Igitur in alium Scipionem conversa respublica finem belli reposcebat. Sed quem ad modum maxime mortiferi morsus solent esse morientium bestiarum, sic plus negoti fuit cum semiruta Carthagine quam cum integra. Compulsis {10} in unam arcem hostibus portum quoque mari Romanus obstruxerat. Illi alterum sibi portum ab alia urbis parte foderunt, nec ut fugerent; sed qua nemo illos nec evadere posse credebat, inde quasi enata subito classis erupit, cum interim iam diebus, {15} iam noctibus nova aliqua moles, nova machina, nova perditorum hominum manus quasi ex obruto incendio subita de cineribus flamma prodibat. Deploratis novissime rebus triginta sex milia virorum se dederunt quod minus credas--duce Hasdrubale. {20}

FLORUS, II. xv. 11-17 (sel.).

+Context.+ An Embassy was sent from Rome in 157 B.C. to inquire into the affairs of Africa. Among its members was M. Porcius Cato, who, astonished and alarmed at the flourishing condition of Carthage, returned to Rome with the firm conviction that Carthage must be destroyed--_delenda est Carthago_. A pretext was soon found in the war (151 B.C.) between Carthage and Masinissa, King of Numidia, the ally of Rome. Though the Carthaginians surrendered all their arms and munitions of war, Rome declared that they would have to leave their city and settle ten miles from the sea. The Carthaginians resolved to die rather than give up the sacred soil of their country.

[Linenotes:
5. +profligato+ = _almost finished_.
6. +in alium Scipionem+, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus
Minor, the younger son of Aemilius Paulus (of Pydna) and adopted by
P. Scipio, the son of the conqueror of Hannibal.
12. +alterum portum+, i.e. they pierced the narrow strip of land
separating the round naval port (Cothon) from the sea.
18. +deploratis+ = _was looked upon as lost_, lit. _wept for
bitterly_.
20. +duce Hasdrubale:+ 'Hasdrubal seems to have deserved the name of
_the last Carthaginian_ in the best sense of the word, as a
representative of the intensity of the strength, endurance, and
patriotism of his race.' --Ihne.]

'The plough was drawn over the site of destroyed Carthage, and a solemn curse was pronounced against anyone who should ever undertake to build a new town on that spot.' --Ihne.

+Africa made a Roman Province.+

C49

WAR WITH ANDRISCUS AND THE ACHAEANS, 148-146 B.C.

_Destruction of Corinth (L. Mummius Achaicus), 146 B.C._

Eodem anno, quo Carthago concidit, L. Mummius Corinthum post annos DCCCCLII, quam ab Alete Hippotis filio erat condita, funditus eruit. Uterque imperator devictae a se gentis nomine honoratus, alter Africanus, alter appellatus est Achaicus; nec {5} quisquam ex novis hominibus prior Mummio cognomen virtute partum vindicavit. Diversi imperatoribus mores, diversa fuere studia: quippe Scipio tam elegans liberalium studiorum omnisque doctrinae et auctor et admirator fuit, ut Polybium Panaetiumque, {10} praecellentes ingenio viros, domi militiaeque secum habuerit. Neque enim quisquam hoc Scipione elegantius intervalla negotiorum otio dispunxit semperque aut belli aut pacis serviit artibus: semper inter arma ac studia versatus aut corpus periculis {15} aut animum disciplinis exercuit. Mummius tam rudis fuit, ut capta Corintho cum maximorum artificum perfectas manibus tabulas ac statuas in Italiam portandas locaret, iuberet praedici conducentibus, si eas perdidissent, novas eos reddituros. {20}

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, i. 13.

+Context.+ In 149 B.C. an adventurer named Andriscus claimed to be Philip, the son of Perseus, and mastered Macedonia and part of Thessaly. He totally defeated the praetor Juventius, but in 148 B.C. his army was routed and himself taken prisoner by Q. Caecilius Metellus. The Romans, _no longer needing the help of Greek troops_, determined to break up the Achaean League. A last desperate struggle for freedom ensued, but the Greeks were easily defeated (146 B.C.) by L. Mummius on the Isthmus, and Corinth itself was plundered and destroyed.

[Linenotes:
2-3. +quam ... condita.+ Aletes, son of Hippotes and a descendant of
Heracles, is said to have taken possession of Corinth by the help of
the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and therefore named the city #Dios
Korinthos#.
10. +Panaetium+, a native of Rhodes and a celebrated Stoic
philosopher, settled in Rome, where he became the intimate friend of
Laelius and Scipio Africanus Minor.
13. +dispunxit+ = _he devoted, gave up_ (lit. _marked off_).
19. +locaret+ = _he hired_ (lit. _place out_, i.e. _give out on
contract_).
+conducentibus+ = _to the contractors_.]

+The Destruction of Corinth.+ 'The flames which consumed Miletus (destroyed by the Persians 494 B.C.) and Athens (burnt by Xerxes 480 B.C.) were the signal for the great rising of the people, the dawn of a magnificent day of Greek splendour: after the fall of Corinth came the long dark night.' --Ihne.

+Macedonia made a Roman Province. Greece placed under the control of the Roman governor of Macedonia+.

C50

WAR WITH VIRIATHUS IN SPAIN, 149-140 B.C.

_The Lusitanian Hannibal._

Sed tota certaminum moles cum Lusitanis fuit et Numantinis. Quippe solis gentium Hispaniae duces contigerunt. Lusitanos Viriathus erexit, vir calliditatis acerrimae. Qui ex venatore latro, ex latrone subito dux atque imperator et, si fortuna {5} cessisset, Hispaniae Romulus, non contentus libertatem suorum defendere, per quattuordecim annos omnia citra ultraque Hiberum et Tagum igni ferroque populatus, castra etiam praetoria et praesidia aggressus Claudium Unimanum paene ad internecionem {10} exercitus cecidit et insignia trabeis et fascibus nostris quae ceperat in montibus suis tropaea fixit. Tandem eum iam Fabius Maximus consul oppresserat; sed a successore Popilio violata victoria est. Quippe qui conficiendae rei cupidus, fractum ducem et extrema {15} deditionis agitantem per fraudem et insidias et domesticos percussores aggressus hanc hosti gloriam dedit ut videretur aliter vinci non posse.

FLORUS, II. xvii. 13-17 (sel.).

+Context.+ After the defeat of Perseus (168 B.C.) and before the outbreak of the third Punic War (149 B.C.) a suitable opportunity seemed to present itself to Rome for continuing the interrupted conquest of Spain; but 'for eight long years Viriathus, although a barbarian and of humble origin, defied the armies of Rome, and thereby secured for himself a position in history almost equal to that of Hannibal and Mithridates.' Ihne.

[Linenotes:
1. +cum Lusitanis.+ The Lusitani (S. of the R. Tagus = mod.
Portugal, and part of Estremadura and Toledo) were not finally
subdued till after the capture of Numantia by Scipio in 133 B.C.
6. +cessisset+ (= _concessisset_) = _had permitted._
10-12. +Claudium Unimanum ... fixit+, i.e. in 147 B.C. 'The captured
fasces of the lictors were exhibited, with other trophies (e.g.
+trabeis+, l. 11), far and wide on the Spanish mountains.' --Ihne.
13. +Fabius Maximus consul+, i.e. Quintus Fabius Maximus
Servilianus, who allowed himself to be decoyed into an ambush 141
B.C., and was compelled to grant an honourable peace, which Rome
soon found a pretext for breaking.
17. +percussores+ = _assassins_, lit. _strikers_ (_per + cutio_ =
_quatio_). Cf. the fate of Sertorius, 72 B.C.]

+The War with Viriathus.+ 'It was sad and disgraceful for the Roman arms, but in a far higher degree for Roman morals. It sowed, moreover, the seeds of the Numantine War, in which both the warlike ability and the moral virtues of the Roman nation appear more deteriorated than even in the war with Viriathus.' --Ihne.

C51

NUMANTINE WAR, 143-133 B.C.

_Destruction of Numantia, 133 B.C._

Tanti esse exercitum quanti imperatorem vere proditum est. Sic redacto in disciplinam milite a Scipione commissa acies, quodque nemo visurum se umquam speraverat, factum ut fugientes Numantinos quisquam videret. Dedere etiam se volebant, {5} si toleranda viris imperarentur. Cum fossa atque lorica quattuorque castris circumdatos fames premeret, a duce orantes proelium, ut tamquam viros occideret, ubi non impetrabant, placuit eruptio. Sic conserta manu plurimi occisi, et cum urgueret {10} fames, novissime consilium fugae sedit; sed hoc quoque ruptis equorum cingulis uxores ademere, summo scelere per amorem. Itaque deplorato exitu in ultimam rabiem furoremque conversi, postremo Rhoecogene duce se suos patriam ferro veneno {15} subiecto igne undique peregerunt. Macte fortissimam et meo iudicio beatissimam in ipsis malis civitatem! Asseruit cum fide socios, populum orbis terrarum viribus fultum sua manu aetate tam longa sustinuit. Novissime maximo duce oppressa civitas nullum de {20} se gaudium hosti reliquit. Unus enim vir Numantinus non fuit qui in catenis duceretur; praeda, ut de pauperrimis, nulla: arma ipsa cremaverunt. Triumphus fuit tantum de nomine.

FLORUS, II. xviii. 11-17 (sel.).

+Context.+ In 143 B.C. the Celtiberians (of Middle Spain), encouraged by the successes of the Lusitanians, took up arms once more. Their most important town was Numantia, situated near the sources of the R. Durius (Douro), strongly fortified by nature and by art. Consul after consul failed to take it, until in 134 B.C. Scipio Africanus Minor, the conqueror of Carthage, was sent out to Spain to reduce the stubborn city.

[Linenotes:
2-3. +Sic redacto ... a Scipione.+ 'Scipio's first task, when he
arrived in Spain, was to accustom the army which he found there,
once more to Roman discipline. Luxury and indulgence were rife, and
cowardice--the most unroman of all vices--had begun to creep in.'
--Ihne.
7. +lorica+ = _a breastwork_, serving as _a screen_. Usu. = _a
cuirass_.
11. +sedit+ = _was decided on_, lit. _settled_.
16. +Macte+ = _a blessing on_ or _hail to thee_. +Mactus+ prob. from
[Rt]#mak#, e.g. in #mak-ar# = _blessed_, but cf. _mag-nus_.
18. +Asseruit+ = _it protected_. +assero+ (_ad + sero_) = lit.
_join-to_.]

+Destruction of Numantia.+ Scipio, of his own accord, razed the town to the ground, and received the added surname of +Numantinus+.

+Roman Province in Spain.+

C52

_Rome the Invincible._

Dixitque tandem perfidus Hannibal:
'Cervi, luporum praeda rapacium,
Sectamur ultro, quos opimus
Fallere et effugere est triumphus. 52
Gens, quae cremato fortis ab Ilio
Iactata Tuscis aequoribus sacra
Natosque maturosque patres
Pertulit Ausonias ad urbes, 56
Duris ut ilex tonsa bipennibus
Nigrae feraci frondis in Algido,
Per damna, per caedes ab ipso
Ducit opes animumque ferro 60
Non Hydra secto corpore firmior
Vinci dolentem crevit in Herculem,
Monstrumve submisere Colchi
Maius Echioniaeve Thebae. 64
Merses profundo: pulchrior evenit;
Luctere: multa proruet integrum
Cum laude victorem geretque
Proelia coniugibus loquenda.' 68

HORACE, _Odes_, IV. iv. 49-68.

[Linenotes:
51. +ultro+ = _aggressively, needlessly_. --Wickham.
51-52. +opimus triumphus+ = _a rare_ (lit. _rich, noble_) _triumph_.
Cf. _spolia opima_.
53-56. 'This stanza is a _résumé_ of the story of the _Aeneid_.' --W.
53. +gens+ (sc. +illa+), i.e. the Roman stock.
57-60. 'The idea of this stanza is that their very calamities only
gave them fresh heart and vigour. They rise like the Phoenix from
its pyre.' --W.
58. +frondis+ with +feraci+. Cf. _fertilis frugum_.
59-60. +ab ipso ... ferro+ = _from the very edge of the steel
itself, the holm-oak_ (= _the Roman stock_) _draws fresh power and
spirit_.
61-62. Cf. the saying of Pyrrhus, recorded by Floras i. 18, 'I see
that I was born under the constellation of Hercules, since so many
heads of enemies, that were cut off, arise upon me afresh out of
their own blood, as if from the Lernaean serpent.'
63-64. i.e. of the armed warriors which sprang from the dragon's
teeth sown by Jason at Colchis or by Cadmus at Thebes.
63. +submisere+ = _produced, raised_.
64. +Echioniae Thebae.+ Echion was one of the five survivors of the
#Spartoi# (sown men). He helped Cadmus to found Thebes.
65. +Merses+ (= +si mersaris+) = _plunge it if you will_.
+evenit+ = _it emerges (comes forth)_.
66-67. +multa cum laude+ = _amid loud applause_, of a feat in a
wrestling match. --W.
68. +coniugibus+ = i. _by Roman wives_ or ii. _by Carthaginian
widows_. So Conington, 'Whose story widow'd wives shall tell.']

CIVIL STRIFE IN ITALY, AND FOREIGN WARS, ENDING IN REVOLUTION 133-44 B.C.

B1

THE GRACCHI.

Nam postquam Tiberius et C. Gracchus, quorum maiores Punico atque aliis bellis multum rei publicae addiderant, vindicare plebem in libertatem et paucorum celera patefacere coepere, nobilitas noxia atque eo perculsa, modo per socios et nomen Latinum, {5} interdum per equites Romanos, quos spes societatis a plebe dimoverat, Gracchorum actionibus obviam ierat, et primo Tiberium, dein paucos post annos eadem ingredientem Gaium, tribunum alterum, alterum triumvirum coloniis deducendis, cum M. {10} Fulvio Flacco ferro necaverat. Et sane Gracchis cupidine victoriae haud satis moderatus animus fuit. Sed bono vinci satius est quam malo more iniuriam vincere. Igitur ea victoria nobilitas ex lubidine sua usa multos mortales ferro aut fuga exstinxit plusque {15} in reliquum sibi timoris quam potentiae addidit. Quae res plerumque magnas civitates pessum dedit, dum alteri alteros vincere quovis modo et victos acerbius ulcisci volunt.

SALLUST, _Jugurtha_, 42.

[Linenotes:
1-3. +quorum maiores ... addiderant+, e.g. their grandfather P.
Scipio Africanus Maior, and their father Tib. Sempronius Gracchus
(in Spain and Sardinia).
3-4. +paucorum scelera ... coepere.+ (i) Tib. Gracchus by his
Agrarian Law tried to counteract the selfish land-grabbing of the
ruling class (in excess of the 500 _iugera_ limit of the Licinian
Laws, 367 B.C.). (ii) C. Gracchus exposed the corrupt Senatorian
Courts, transferred their judicial power to the Equites, and carried
the Sempronian Law, 'one of the cornerstones of individual liberty.'
5. +per socios ... Latinum+, by working on Roman jealousy against
the Italians, for whom equality was claimed.
6. +spes societatis+, i.e. the hope of sharing with the nobility in
office, and in provincial appointments.
10. +triumvirum c. d.+, one of the three Commissioners for
establishing Colonies of Roman citizens on the _ager publicus_.
11. +Fulvio Flacco+, slain with C. Gracchus, 121 B.C.
17. +pessum dedit+ = _has destroyed_. _pessum_ (prob.) = _pedis_ +
_versum_ = _towards the feet, to the ground_, cf. _pessum ire_.]

+The aim of the Gracchi.+ 'Their object was to reduce the excessive power of the nobility, and to make the sovereignty of the people, which had become merely nominal, a reality.' --Ihne.

+Their political mistake.+ 'Their error consisted in the belief that such a change was possible by returning to the simple forms of the old Comitia. They overlooked the necessity of +remodelling the Roman people itself+ by giving the popular assemblies a form which would in reality make them represent the people.' --Ihne.

B2

CICERO ON THE GRACCHI.

A. _On the Death of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B.C._

Nec plus Africanus, singularis et vir et imperator, in exscindenda Numantia rei publicae profuit quam eodem tempore P. Nasica privatus, cum Ti. Gracchum interemit.

_De Off._ i. 76.

[Linenotes:
2. +Numantia+, destroyed by P. Scipio Africanus Minor Numantinus,
133 B.C.
3. +P. Nasîca+, a partisan leader of the Senate. +privatus+ = _not
in office_. Cicero speaks very differently of the Gracchi when it
suits his purpose, e.g. in _de lege agraria_, ii. § 10, _duos
(Gracchos) clarissimos, ingeniosissimos, amantissimos plebei Romanae
viros ... quorum consiliis, sapientia, legibus multas esse video
partes constitutas_.]

B. _On the Lex Frumentaria of C. Gracchus, 123 B.C._

Et quidem C. Gracchus, cum largitiones maximas {5} fecisset et effudisset aerarium, verbis tamen defendebat aerarium. Quid verba audiam, cum facta videam? L. Piso ille Frugi semper contra legem frumentariam dixerat. Is lege lata consularis ad frumentum accipiendum venerat. Animum advertit {10} Gracchus in contione Pisonem stantem: quaerit audiente populo Romano qui sibi constet, cum ea lege frumentum petat, quam dissuaserit. 'Nolim' inquit 'mea bona, Gracche, tibi viritim dividere libeat, sed si facias, partem petam.' Parumne declaravit vir {15} gravis et sapiens lege Sempronia patrimonium publicum dissipari? Lege orationes Gracchi, patronum aerari esse dices.

_Tusc. Disput._ iii. 20, 48.

[Linenotes:
8. +L. Piso ille Frugi+ = L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi (the man of
_worth_), a convinced and honourable opponent of C. Gracchus.
8-9. +legem frumentariam+, by which corn was sold to Roman citizens
at about half the market price. 'One of the worst measures ever
proposed by a well-meaning statesman.' --Ihne.
12. +qui+ = _how_, old abl. of _qui_.]

C. _On C. Gracchus as an Orator._

Sed ecce in manibus vir et praestantissimo ingenio et flagranti studio et doctus a puero, C. Gracchus. Noli enim putare quemquam. Brute, pleniorem et uberiorem ad dicendum fuisse.

_Brutus_, 125.

[Linenote:
20. +doctus a puero.+ CORNELIA MATER GRACCHORUM (inscribed upon her
statue erected by the Roman people), the daughter of the Conqueror
of Zama, was mainly responsible for their training and education;
so Cic. _Brut._ 104 _Fuit Tib. Gracchus diligentia matris a puero
doctus et Graecis literis eruditus_. 'From her they had received
that sensitive nature and that sympathy with the weak and suffering,
which animated their political action.' --Ihne.]

B3

THE JUGURTHINE WAR, 111-106 B.C.

_The Betrayal of Jugurtha, 106 B.C._

Postea, tempore et loco constituto, in colloquium uti de pace veniretur, Bocchus Sullam modo, modo Iugurthae legatum appellare, benigne habere, idem ambobus polliceri. Illi pariter laeti ac spei bonae pleni esse. Sed nocte ea, quae proxuma fuit ante {5} diem colloquio decretum, Maurus, adhibitis amicis ac statim immutata voluntate remotis, dicitur secum ipse multa agitavisse, voltu et oculis pariter atque animo varius: quae scilicet tacente ipso occulta pectoris patefecisse. Tamen postremo Sullam accersi {10} iubet et ex illius sententia Numidae insidias tendit. Deinde ubi dies advenit et ei nuntiatum est Iugurtham haud procul abesse, cum paucis amicis et quaestore nostro quasi obvius honoris causa procedit in tumulum facillumum visu insidiantibus. Eodem {15} Numida cum plerisque necessariis suis inermis, uti dictum erat, accedit; ac statim signo dato undique simul ex insidiis invaditur. Ceteri obtruncati, Iugurtha Suilae vinctus traditur et ab eo ad Marium deductus est. {20}

SALLUST, _Jugurtha_, 113.

[Linenotes:
2. +Bocchus+, King of Mauretania, and father-in-law of Jugurtha,
coveted the West of Numidia, and was ready to accept it either from
the Romans or from Jugurtha, as the price of his alliance.
+Sullam+, appointed Quaestor 107 B.C. by Marius, who superseded
Metellus in the conduct of the Jugurthine War.
9. +quae scilicet ... patefecisse+, i.e. the external signs of
his irresolution,--the calling and then dismissing his people
(+adhibitis ... remotis+, ll. 6, 7), and the changes of his
countenance (+voltu ... varius+, ll. 8, 9). +Scilicet+ is here used
with the Infinitive +patefecisse+, the verbal sense of the word
(= _scire_ + _licet_) being prominent.
10. +accersi+ (= _arcessiri_), frequent in Sallust.
16. +necessariis+ (_necesse_) = _friends_. Cf. #anankaioi# (#anankê#).
19. +Iugurtha Sullae ... traditur.+ Sulla is said to have been so
proud of this stratagem that he had the scene engraved upon a
signet-ring, an act of vainglory which estranged Marius from him.
(Plutarch, _Sulla_, 3.)]

+Jugurtha.+ 'Having resisted the whole power of the great Republic for six years, having kept his ground against the best generals of the time, against a Metellus, a Marius, and a Sulla, he was deluded by treacherous promises of peace and betrayed by his own ally and father-in-law.' --Ihne.

B4

A. _Arpinum--Birthplace of Cicero and Marius._

Hic novus Arpinas, ignobilis et modo Romae 237
Municipalis eques, galeatum ponit ubique
Praesidium attonitis et in omni monte laborat.
. . . . . . . . . . . . Sed Roma parentem, 243
Roma patrem patriae Ciceronem libera dixit.
Arpinas alius Volscorum in monte solebat 245
Poscere mercedes alieno lassus aratro,
Nodosam post haec frangebat vertice vitem,
Si lentus pigra muniret castra dolabra;
Hic tamen et Cimbros et summa pericula rerum
Excipit et solus trepidantem protegit urbem. 250

JUVENAL, _Sat._ viii. 237-239, 243-250.

[Linenotes:
239. +in omni monte+, i.e. in every part of Rome, on each of the seven
hills.
244. +patrem patriae:+ under the Empire the title _pater patriae_
became a formal one, always accorded to the new Emperor.
+libera+ = _while yet free_, emphatic. The State was no longer free
when Augustus received this title, 2 B.C.--Duff.
247. +frangebat vertice vitem+ = _he had the vine-switch (rattan)
broken on his head_, i.e. served as a common soldier. --D.
248. +dolabra+ = half-hatchet for cutting stakes, and half-pickaxe
for digging the fossa. For +dolabra+, cf. _Dolabella_.
249. +Cimbros+, annihilated by Marius and Catulus near Vercellae,
101 B.C.
250. +Excipit+ = _faced_ (lit. _is ready to receive_); metaphor from
field-sports. --D.]

B. _From a poem by Cicero on his fellow-townsman Marius._

Hic Iovis altisoni subito pinnata satelles
Arboris e trunco serpentis saucia morsu
Surrigit ipsa feris transfigens unguibus anguem
Semianimum et varia graviter cervice micantem. 4
. . . . . . .
Hanc ubi praepetibus pennis lapsuque volantem
Conspexit Marius, divini numinis augur,
Faustaque signa suae laudis reditusque notavit,
Partibus intonuit caeli pater ipse sinistris:
Sic aquilae clarum firmavit Iuppiter omen.

[Linenotes:
1. +Iovis pinnata satelles+, i.e. the Eagle. Cf. Pindar, _Pyth._
i. 6: #heudei d' ana skaptô (= skêptrô) Dios aietos#, _and sleeps on
the staff of Zeus his eagle_.
3. +Surrigit+ (= _surgit_) = _raises up_; very rare in this sense.
The _v.l._ +Sûbigit+ (for _s[)u]bigit_) = _carries aloft_.]

Compare Plutarch's story of the eagle's nest, with seven young ones in it, which fell into the lap of Marius when a boy, predicting (so the diviners said) that Marius would be seven times Consul.

B5

_The Annihilation of the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae, 102 B.C._

Cimbri et Teutones ab extremis Germaniae profugi, cum terras eorum inundasset Oceanus, novas sedes toto orbe quaerebant, exclusique et Gallia et Hispania cum in Italiam demigrarent, misere legatos in castra Silani, inde ad Senatum {5} petentes ut populus Martius aliquid sibi terrae daret. Sed quas daret terras populus Romanus, agrariis legibus inter se dimicaturus? Repulsi igitur, quod nequiverant precibus, armis petere coeperunt. Sed nec primum impetum barbarorum Silanus, nec {10} secundum Mallius, nec tertium Caepio sustinere potuerunt: omnes fugati, exuti castris. Actum erat, nisi Marius illi saeculo contigisset. . . . Ille mira statim velocitate occupatis compendiis praevenit hostem, prioresque Teutones sub ipsis Alpium radicibus {15} adsecutus in loco quem Aquas Sextias vocant, proelio oppressit. Vallem fluviumque medium hostes tenebant, et nostris aquarum nulla erat copia. Consultone id egerit imperator an errorem in consilium verterit, dubium; certe necessitate acta virtus {20} victoriae causa fuit. Nam flagitante aquam exercitu, 'Si viri estis' inquit, 'en, illic habetis.' Itaque tanto ardore pugnatum est, ea caedes hostium fuit ut victor Romanus cruento flumine non plus aquae biberit quam sanguinis barbarorum. {25}

FLORUS, III. iii. 1-9 (sel).

[Linenotes:
5. +Silani+ = M. Junius Silanus, defeated by Cimbri, 109 B.C.
11. +Mallius--Caepio+, defeated by Cimbrians at Arausio, on the
Rhone, 105 B.C.
Plutarch, _Lucullus_ 27, says: 'The 6th Oct., on which day the
battle was fought, was marked in the calendar as a black day, like
the fatal day of the Allia, 390 B.C.'
12. +Actum erat+, sc. _de republica_.
14. +compendiis+ = _short ways_; cf. our _compendium_ = _an
abridgement_.
16. +Aquas Sextias+, founded by Sextius Calvinus 122 B.C. = Aix, 18
miles N. of Marseilles.
23. +caedes hostium.+ 150,000 (Vell.) and 200,000 (Liv. Ep.
lxviii.).
'By the great victories of Aquae Sextiae and of Vercellae (over the
Cimbri, 101 B.C.), the movement of the German races southward was
for the present stopped. Rome was saved, and the saviour of Rome was
Marius, the champion of the people.' --Ihne.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Propert. IV. iii. 41-44; Livy Ep. lxviii.

+References.+ Plutarch, _Marius_, 15. Ihne, _Hist. Rome_, vol. v. pp. 98-105.

B6

MARIUS, 157-86 B.C.

A. _His Flight from Sulla: Consul for the 7th time._

Atque aliquis magno quaerens exempla timori,
'Non alios,' inquit, 'motus tum fata parabant,
Cum post Teutonicos victor Libycosque triumphos
Exsul limosa Marius caput abdidit ulva. 70
Stagna avidi texere soli laxaeque paludes
Depositum, Fortuna, tuum: mox vincula ferri
Exedere senem longusque in carcere paedor.
Consul et eversa felix moriturus in urbe
Poenas ante dabat scelerum. Mors ipsa refugit 75
Saepe virum, frustraque hosti concessa potestas.
Sanguinis invisi: primo qui caedis in ictu[35]
Deriguit ferrumque manu torpente remisit;
Viderat immensum tenebroso in carcere lumen
Terribilesque deos scelerum Mariumque futurum 80
Audieratque pavens: "Fas haec contingere non est
Colla tibi: debet multas his legibus aevi
Ante suam mortes: vanum depone furorem."
Si libet ulcisci deletae funera gentis,
Hunc, Cimbri, servate senem.' 85

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 67-85.

[Footnote 35: Postgate, _actu_.]

[Linenotes:
67. +exempla timori+ = _precedents to hear out his fears_. --Haskins.
70. +Exsul.+ 88-7 B.C. For details see Plut. _Marius_, caps. 38-40.
72. +Fortuna+, i.e. the _evil_ destiny of Rome, protecting him
because the gods were angry with Rome. Cf. 16-17 _debet ... mortes_.
73. +in carcere+, i.e. at Minturnae, S.E. of Latium. There were
extensive marshes in the neighbourhood.
+paedor+ = _filth_.
82. +legibus aevi+ = _the laws that govern time_ = _fatis_. --H.]

B. _Marius outlived his fame._

Quid illo cive tulisset
Natura in terris, quid Roma beatius umquam,
Si circumducto captivorum agmine et omni 280
Bellorum pompa animam exhalasset opimam,
Cum de Teutonico vellet descendere curru?

JUVENAL, _Sat._ x. 278-282.

_Marius outlived his powers and his reputation._

'Had he now died, he would have gone down to posterity as one of the greatest men of his people, as a second Romulus or Camillus, unstained with any blood save that of foreign foes.' --Ihne.

+Parallel Passages.+ Ov. _P. Ep._ iv. 3. 45-48; Juv. x. 276-278.

+References.+ Plut. _Marius_, caps. 38-end. Ihne, vol. iv. pp. 336-7, vol. v. pp. 111-12.

B7

_Cicero on Civil Strife._

Etenim recordamini, Quirites, omnes civiles dissensiones, non solum eas quas audistis, sed et has quas vosmetipsi meministis atque vidistis. L. Sulla P. Sulpicium oppressit: ex Urbe eiecit C. Marium, custodem huius urbis, multosque fortes viros partim {5} eiecit ex civitate, partim interemit. Cn. Octavius consul armis ex Urbe collegam suum expulit: omnis his locus acervis corporum et civium sanguine redundavit. Superavit postea Cinna cum Mario: tum vero, clarissimis viris interfectis, lumina civitatis {10} exstincta sunt. Ultus est huius victoriae crudelitatem postea Sulla: ne dici quidem opus est, quanta deminutione civium et quanta calamitate reipublicae. . . . Atque illae tamen omnes dissensiones, quae non ad delendam, sed ad commutandam rempublicam {15} pertinebant--non illi nullam esse rempublicam, sed in ea quae esset se esse principes, neque hanc urbem conflagrare, sed se in hac urbe florere voluerunt--eius modi fuerunt, ut non reconciliatione concordiae, sed internecione civium diiudicatae sint. {20}

CICERO, _In Cat._ iii. 10.

[Linenotes:
4. +P. Sulpicium+, distinguished orator, bought over by Marius. As
Tribunus Plebis 88 B.C. carried the Leges Sulpiciae.
6. +Cn. Octavius+, one of Sulla's chief supporters. Consul 87 B.C.
Expelled his colleague Cinna. Murdered in his curule chair.
9-11. +Superavit ... exstincta sunt+, i.e. 87-6 B.C. The Reign of
Terror. Marius Consul for the 7th time. Cf. Vell. Pat. ii. 22 'Nihil
illa victoria fuisset crudelius, nisi mox Sullana esset secuta.'
10. +lumina civitatis+, e.g. the Consuls Cn. Octavius and L. Merula;
Q. Catulus, the conqueror (with Marius) in the Cimbric War; the
orator M. Antonius; the brothers L. and C. Caesar.
11-13. The victims of the Sullanian proscriptions. Cf. Vell. Pat.
ii. 28 'Primus ille (Sulla), et utinam ultimus, exemplum
proscriptionis invenit.']

+Parallel Passages.+ Horace, _Epodes_ vii. and xvi. 1-14.

+The Sullanian Proscriptions.+ Sulla was not like Marius swayed by feelings of revenge alone. His main object was the public good, which in his conviction was to be realised by a return to the older institutions of the republic. This he believed could be accomplished only by the utter annihilation of his opponents. The Proscriptions were not however intended to be an encouragement to indiscriminate murder, but rather a barrier against the rage of over-zealous partisans.

B8

_Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 B.C._

Deinde interiectis paucis annis tribunatum iniit M. Livius Drusus, vir nobilissimus, eloquentissimus, sanetissimus, meliore in omnia ingenio animoque quam fortuna usus. Qui cum senatui priscum restituere cuperet decus et indicia ab equitibus ad {5} eum transferre ordinem ... in eis ipsis, quae pro senatu moliebatur, senatum habuit adversarium non intellegentem, si qua de plebis commodis ab eo agerentur, veluti illiciendae multitudinis causa fieri, ut minoribus perceptis maiora permitteret. Denique {10} ea fortuna Drusi fuit, ut malefacta collegarum quamvis optime ab ipso cogitatis senatus probaret magis. . . . Tum conversus Drusi animus, quando bene incepta male cedebant, ad dandam civitatem Italiae: quod cum moliens revertisset e foro, immensa {15} illa et incondita, quae eum semper comitabatur, cinctus multitudine in area domus suae cultello percussus, qui affixus lateri eius relictus est, intra paucas horas decessit. Sed cum ultimum redderet spiritum, intuens circumstantium macrentiumque {20} frequentiam, effudit vocem convenientissimam conscientiae suae: ecquandone, inquit, propinqui amicique, similem mei civem habebit res publica? Hunc finem clarissimus iuvenis vitae habuit.

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 13-14.