Chapter XI: Part III: Constructions (1)

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

The preceding part of this book has been concerned chiefly with forms and vocabulary. There remain still to be learned the forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Participles, and the Gerund of the regular verb, and the conjugation of the commoner irregular verbs. These will be taken up in connection with the study of constructions, which will be the chief subject of our future work. The special vocabularies of the preceding lessons contain, exclusive of proper names, about six hundred words. As these are among the commonest words in the language, _they must be mastered_. They properly form the basis of the study of words, and will be reviewed and used with but few additions in the remaining lessons.

For practice in reading and to illustrate the constructions presented, a continued story has been prepared and may be begun at this point (see p. 204). It has been divided into chapters of convenient length to accompany progress through the lessons, but may be read with equal profit after the lessons are finished. The story gives an account of the life and adventures of Publius Cornelius Lentulus, a Roman boy, who fought in Cæsar’s campaigns and shared in his triumph. The colored plates illustrating the story are faithful representations of ancient life and are deserving of careful study.

LESSON LXI

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

«342.» In addition to the indicative, imperative, and infinitive moods, which you have learned, Latin has a fourth mood called the subjunctive. The tenses of the subjunctive are

PRESENT }
IMPERFECT } ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
PERFECT }
PLUPERFECT }

«343.» The tenses of the subjunctive have the same time values as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, and, in addition, _each of them may refer to future time_. No meanings of the tenses will be given in the paradigms, as the translation varies with the construction used.

«344.» The present subjunctive is inflected as follows:

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV
ACTIVE VOICE
SINGULAR
1. a´mem mo´neam re´gam ca´piam au´diam
2. a´mēs mo´neās re´gās ca´piās au´diās
3. a´met mo´neat re´gat ca´piat au´diat

PLURAL
1. amē´mus moneā´mus regā´mus capiā´mus audiā´mus
2. amē´tis moneā´tis regā´tis capiā´tis audiā´tis
3. a´ment mo´neant re´gant ca´piant au´diant

PASSIVE VOICE
SINGULAR
1. a´mer mo´near re´gar ca´piar au´diar
2. amē´ris moneā´ris regā´ris capiā´ris audiā´ris
(-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re)
3. amē´tur moneā´tur regā´tur capiā´tur audiā´tur

PLURAL
1. amē´mur moneā´mur regā´mur capiā´mur audiā´mur
2. amē´minī moneā´minī regā´minī capiā´minī audiā´minī
3. amen´tur monean´tur regan´tur capian´tur audian´tur

_a._ The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem.

_b._ The mood sign of the present subjunctive is «-ē-» in the first
conjugation and «-ā-» in the others. It is shortened in the usual
places (cf. §12), and takes the place of the final vowel of the
stem in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and
fourth.

_c._ The personal endings are the same as in the indicative.

_d._ In a similar way inflect the present subjunctive of «cūrō»,
«iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō».

«345.» The present subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» is inflected as follows:

{ 1. sim { 1. sīmus
SING. { 2. sīs PLURAL { 2. sītis
{ 3. sit { 3. sint

«346.» «The Indicative and Subjunctive Compared.»

1. The two most important of the finite moods are the indicative and
the subjunctive. The indicative deals with facts either real or
assumed. If, then, we wish to assert something as a fact or to inquire
after a fact, we use the indicative.

2. On the other hand, if we wish to express a _desire_ or _wish_, a
_purpose_, a _possibility_, an _expectation_, or some such notion, we
must use the subjunctive. The following sentences illustrate the
difference between the indicative and the subjunctive ideas.

INDICATIVE IDEAS SUBJUNCTIVE IDEAS

1. _He is brave_ 1. _May he be brave_
«Fortis est» «Fortis sit» (idea of wishing)
2. _We set out at once_ 2. _Let us set out at once_
«Statim proficīscimur» «Statim proficīscāmur»
(idea of willing)
3. _You hear him every day_ 3. _You can hear him every day_
«Cotīdiē eum audīs» «Cotīdiē eum audiās»
(idea of possibility)
4. _He remained until the ship_ 4. _He waited until the ship_
_arrived_ _should arrive_
«Mānsit dum nāvis pervēnit» «Exspectāvit dum nāvis
pervenīret»[1]
(idea of expectation)
5. _Cæsar sends men who find the_ 5. _Cæsar sends men_
_bridge_ _who are to find_
(or _to find_) _the bridge_
«Caesar mittit hominēs quī» «Caesar hominēs mittit quī»
«pontem reperiunt» «pontem reperiant»
(idea of purpose)

[Footnote 1: «pervenīret», imperfect subjunctive.]

NOTE. From the sentences above we observe that the subjunctive may be used in either independent or dependent clauses; but it is far more common in the latter than in the former.

«347.» EXERCISE

Which verbs in the following paragraph would be in the indicative and which in the subjunctive in a Latin translation?

There have been times in the history of our country when you might be proud of being an American citizen. Do you remember the day when Dewey sailed into Manila Bay to capture or destroy the enemy’s fleet? You might have seen the admiral standing on the bridge calmly giving his orders. He did not even wait until the mines should be removed from the harbor’s mouth, but sailed in at once. Let us not despair of our country while such valor exists, and may the future add new glories to the past.

LESSON LXII

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE

«348.» Observe the sentence

«Caesar hominēs mittit quī pontem reperiant»,
_Cæsar sends men to find the bridge_

The verb «reperiant» in the dependent clause is in the subjunctive because it tells us what Cæsar wants the men to do; in other words, it expresses his will and the purpose in his mind. Such a use of the subjunctive is called the subjunctive of purpose.

«349.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Purpose.» _The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal clause._

«350.» A clause of purpose is introduced as follows:

I. If something is wanted, by

«quī», the relative pronoun (as above)
«ut», conj., _in order that, that_
«quō» (abl. of «quī», _by which_), _in order that, that_, used when
the purpose clause contains a comparative. The ablative «quō»
expresses the measure of difference. (Cf. §317.)

II. If something is not wanted, by

«nē», conj., _in order that not, that not, lest_

«351.» EXAMPLES

1. «Caesar cōpiās cōgit quibus hostīs īnsequātur»
_Cæsar collects troops with which to pursue the foe_

2. «Pācem petunt ut domum revertantur»
_They ask for peace in order that they may return home_

3. «Pontem faciunt quō facilius oppidum capiant»
_They build a bridge that they may take the town more easily_
(lit. _by which the more easily_)

4. «Fugiunt nē vulnerentur»
_They flee that they may not_ (or _lest they_) _be wounded_

«352.» «Expression of Purpose in English.» In English, purpose clauses are sometimes introduced by _that_ or _in order that_, but much more frequently purpose is expressed in English by the infinitive, as _We eat to live_, _She stoops to conquer_. In Latin prose, on the other hand, «purpose is never expressed by the infinitive». Be on your guard and do not let the English idiom betray you into this error.

«353.» EXERCISES

I.
1. Veniunt ut { dūcant, mittant, videant, audiant,
{ dūcantur, mittantur, videantur, audiantur.
2. Fugimus nē { capiāmur, trādāmur, videāmus,
{ necēmur, rapiāmur, resistāmus.
3. Mittit nūntiōs quī { dicant, audiant, veniant,
{ nārrent, audiantur, in conciliō sedeant.
4. Castra mūniunt { sēsē dēfendant, impetum sustineant,
quō facilius { hostīs vincant, salūtem petant.

II. 1. The Helvetii send ambassadors to seek[1] peace. 2. They are setting out at daybreak in order that they may make a longer march before night. 3. They will hide the women in the forest (_acc. with_ «in») that they may not be captured. 4. The Gauls wage many wars to free[1] their fatherland from slavery. 5. They will resist the Romans[2] bravely lest they be destroyed.

[Footnote 1: Not infinitive.]

[Footnote 2: Not accusative.]

LESSON LXIII

INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

«354.» The imperfect subjunctive may be formed by adding the personal endings to the present active infinitive.

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV
ACTIVE
1. amā´rem monē´rem re´gerem ca´perem audī´rem
2. amā´rēs monē´rēs re´gerēs ca´perēs audī´rēs
3. amā´ret monē´ret re´geret ca´peret audī´ret

1. amārē´mus monērē´mus regerē´mus caperē´mus audīrē´mus
2. amārē´tis monērē´tis regerē´tis caperē´tis audīrē´tis
3. amā´rent monē´rent re´gerent ca´perent audī´rent

PASSIVE
1. amā´rer monē´rer re´gerer ca´perer audī´rer
2. amārē´ris monērē´ris regerē´ris caperē´ris audīrē´ris
(-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re)
3. amārē´tur monērē´tur regerē´tur caperē´tur audīrē´tur

1. amārē´mur monērē´mur regerē´mur caperē´mur audīrē´mur
2. amārē´minī monērē´minī regerē´minī caperē´minī audīrē´minī
3. amāren´tur monēren´tur regeren´tur caperen´tur audīren´tur

_a._ In a similar way inflect the imperfect subjunctive, active and
passive, of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō».

«355.» The imperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» is inflected as follows:

{ 1. es´sem { 1. essē´mus
SING. { 2. es´sēs PLURAL { 2. essē´tis
{ 3. es´set { 3. es´sent

«356.» The three great distinctions of time are _present_, _past_, and _future_. All tenses referring to present or future time are called «primary tenses», and those referring to past time are called «secondary tenses». Now it is a very common law of language that in a complex sentence the tense in the dependent clause should be of the same kind as the tense in the principal clause. In the sentence _He «says» that he «is» coming_, the principal verb, _says_, is present, that is, is in a primary tense; and _is coming_, in the dependent clause, is naturally also primary. If I change _he says_ to _he said_,--in other words, if I make the principal verb secondary in character,--I feel it natural to change the verb in the dependent clause also, and I say, _He «said» that he «was» coming_. This following of a tense by another of the same kind is called _tense sequence_, from _sequī_, “to follow.”

In Latin the law of tense sequence is obeyed with considerable regularity, especially when an indicative in the principal clause is followed by a subjunctive in the dependent clause. Then a primary tense of the indicative is followed by a primary tense of the subjunctive, and a secondary tense of the indicative is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive. Learn the following table:

«357.» TABLE FOR SEQUENCE OF TENSES

+-----+-------------------+-------------------------------------------+ | | PRINCIPAL VERB | DEPENDENT VERBS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE | | P | IN THE +---------------------+---------------------+ | R | INDICATIVE | _Incomplete or_ | _Completed Action_ | | I | | _Continuing Action_ | | | M +-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | A | Present | | | | R | Future | Present | Perfect | | T | Future perfect | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | S D | | | | | E A | Imperfect | | | | C R | Perfect | Imperfect | Pluperfect | | O Y | Pluperfect | | | | N- | | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

«358.» RULE. «Sequence of Tenses.» _Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses and secondary by secondary._

«359.» EXAMPLES

I. Primary tenses in principal and dependent clauses:

«Mittit» }
«Mittet» } «hominēs ut agrōs vāstent»
«Mīserit» }

{ _sends_ } { _that they may_ }
_He_ { _will send_ } _men_ { _in order to_ }
{ _will have sent_ } { _to lay waste the fields_ }

II. Secondary tenses in principal and dependent clauses:

«Mittēbat»}
«Mīsit» } «hominēs ut agrōs vāstārent»
«Mīserat» }

{ _was sending_ } { _that they might_ }
_He_ { _sent or has sent_ } _men_ { _in order to_ }
{ _had sent_ } { _to lay waste the fields_ }

«360.» EXERCISES

I.
1. Vēnerant ut {dūcerent, mitterent, vidērent, audīrent,
{dūcerentur, mitterentur, vidērentur, audirentur

2. Fugiēbat nē {caperētur, trāderētur, vidērētur,
{necārētur, raperētur, resisteret.

3. Misit nūntiōs quī {dīcerent, audīrent, venīrent
{nārrārent, audīrentur, in conciliō sedērent.

4. Castra mūnīvērunt {sēsē dēfenderent, impetum sustinērent,
quō facilius {hostīs vincerent, salūtem peterent.

II. 1. Cæsar encouraged the soldiers in order that they might fight more bravely. 2. The Helvetii left their homes to wage war. 3. The scouts set out at once lest they should be captured by the Germans. 4. Cæsar inflicted punishment on them in order that the others might be more terrified. 5. He sent messengers to Rome to announce the victory.

LESSON LXIV

THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE

«361.» The perfect and the pluperfect subjunctive active are inflected as follows:

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV
PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE
SINGULAR
1. amā´verim monu´erim rē´xerim cē´perim audī´verim
2. amā´veris monu´eris rē´xeris cē´peris audī´veris
3. amā´verit monu´erit rē´xerit cē´perit audī´verit

PLURAL
1. amāve´rimus monue´rimus rēxe´rimus cēpe´rimus audīve´rimus
2. amāve´ritis monue´ritis rēxe´ritis cēpe´ritis audīve´ritis
3. amā´verint monu´erint rē´xerint cē´perint audī´verint

PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE
SINGULAR
1. amāvis´sem monuis´sem rēxis´sem cēpis´sem audīvis´sem
2. amāvis´sēs monuis´sēs rēxis´sēs cēpis´sēs audīvis´sēs
3. amāvis´set monuis´set rēxis´set cēpis´set audīvis´set

PLURAL
1. amāvissē´mus monuissē´mus rēxissē´mus cēpissē´mus audīvissē´mus
2. amāvissē´tis monuissē´tis rēxissē´tis cēpissē´tis audīvissē´tis
3. amāvis´sent monuis´sent rēxis´sent cēpis´sent audīvis´sent

_a._ Observe that these two tenses, like the corresponding ones in
the indicative, are formed from the perfect stem.

_b._ Observe that the perfect subjunctive active is like the future
perfect indicative active, excepting that the first person singular
ends in «-m» and not in «-ō».

_c._ Observe that the pluperfect subjunctive active may be formed by
adding «-issem, -issēs», etc. to the perfect stem.

_d._ In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive
active of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō».

«362.» The passive of the perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with «sim», the present subjunctive of «sum.»

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV
PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE
SINGULAR
1. amā´tus sim mo´nitus sim rēc´tus sim cap´tus sim audī´tus sim
2. amā´tus sīs mo´nitus sīs rēc´tus sīs cap´tus sīs audī´tus sīs
3. amā´tus sit mo´nitus sit rēc´tus sit cap´tus sit audī´tus sit

PLURAL
1. amā´tī sīmus mo´nitī s. rēc´tī s. cap´tī s. audī´tī s.
2. amā´tī sītis mo´nitī s. rēc´tī s. cap´tī s. audī´tī s.
3. amā´tī sint mo´nitī sint rēc´tī sint cap´tī sint audī´tī sint

«363.» The passive of the pluperfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with «essem», the imperfect subjunctive of «sum».

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV
PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE
SINGULAR
1. amātus essem monitus essem rēctus essem captus e. audītus e.
2. amātus essēs monitus essēs rēctus essēs captus e. audītus e.
3. amātus esset monitus esset rēctus esset captus e. audītus e.

PLURAL
1. amātī essēmus monitī essēmus rēctī essēmus captī e. audītī e.
2. amātī essētis monitī essētis rēctī essētis captī e. audītī e.
3. amātī essent monitī essent rēctī essent captī e. audītī e.

_a._ In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive
passive of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō.»

«364.» The perfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» are inflected as follows:

PERFECT PLUPERFECT
fu´erim fue´rimus fuis´sem fuissē´mus
fu´eris fue´ritis fuis´sēs fuissē´tis
fu´erit fu´erint fuis´set fuis´sent

«365.» A substantive clause is a clause used like a noun, as,

_That the men are afraid_ is clear enough (clause as subject)
He ordered _them to call on him_ (clause as object)

We have already had many instances of infinitive clauses used in this way (cf. §213), and have noted the similarity between Latin and English usage in this respect. But the Latin often uses the _subjunctive_ in substantive clauses, and this marks an important difference between the two languages.

«366.» RULE. «Substantive Clauses of Purpose.» _A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as the object of verbs of «commanding», «urging», «asking», «persuading», or «advising», where in English we should usually have the infinitive._

EXAMPLES

1. _The general ordered the soldiers to run_
«Imperātor mīlitibus imperāvit ut currerent»
2. _He urged them to resist bravely_
«Hortātus est ut fortiter resisterent»
3. _He asked them to give the children food_
«Petīvit ut līberīs cibum darent»
4. _He will persuade us not to set out_
«Nōbīs persuādēbit nē proficīscāmur»
5. _He advises us to remain at home_
«Monet ut domī maneāmus»

_a._ The object clauses following these verbs all express the
purpose or will of the principal subject that something be done or
not done. (Cf. §348.)

«367.» The following verbs are used with object clauses of purpose. Learn the list and the principal parts of the new ones.

«hortor», _urge_
«imperō», _order_ (with the _dative_ of the _person_ ordered and a
_subjunctive clause_ of the _thing_ ordered done)
«moneō», _advise_
«petō», «quaerō», «rogō», _ask, seek_
«persuādeō», _persuade_ (with the same construction as imperō)
«postulō», _demand, require_
«suādeō», _advise_ (cf. «persuādeō»)

N.B. Remember that «iubeō», _order_, takes the infinitive as in English. (Cf. §213.1.) Compare the sentences

«Iubeō eum venīre», _I order him to come_
«Imperō eī ut veniat», _I give orders to him that he is to come_

We ordinarily translate both of these sentences like the first, but the difference in meaning between iubeō and imperō in the Latin requires the _infinitive_ in the one case and the _subjunctive_ in the other.

«368.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Petit atque hortātur ut ipse dīcat. 2. Caesar Helvētiīs imperāvit nē per prōvinciam iter facerent. 3. Caesar nōn iussit Helvētiōs per prōvinciam iter facere. 4. Ille cīvibus persuāsit ut dē fīnibus suīs discēderent. 5. Caesar prīncipēs monēbit nē proelium committant. 6. Postulāvit nē cum Helvētiīs aut cum eōrum sociīs bellum gererent. 7. Ab iīs quaesīvī nē proficīscerentur. 8. Iīs persuādēre nōn potuī ut domī manērent.

II. 1. Who ordered Cæsar to make the march? (_Write this sentence both with_ «imperō» _and with_ «iubeō».) 2. The faithless scouts persuaded him to set out at daybreak. 3. They will ask him not to inflict punishment. 4. He demanded that they come to the camp. 5. He advised them to tell everything («omnia»).

NOTE. Do not forget that the English infinitive expressing purpose must be rendered by a Latin subjunctive. Review §352.

LESSON LXV

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF _POSSUM_ · VERBS OF FEARING

«369.» Learn the subjunctive of «possum» (§495), and note especially the position of the accent.

«370.» «Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.» We have learned that what we want done or not done is expressed in Latin by a subjunctive clause of purpose. In this class belong also _clauses after verbs of fearing_, for we fear either that something will happen or that it will not, and we either want it to happen or we do not. If we want a thing to happen and fear that it will not, the purpose clause is introduced by «ut». If we do not want it to happen and fear that it will, «nē» is used. Owing to a difference between the English and Latin idiom we translate «ut» after a verb of fearing by _that not_, and «nē» by _that_ or _lest_.

«371.» EXAMPLES

«timeō» } { «veniat»
«timēbō» } «ut» {
«timuerō» } { «vēnerit»

_I fear_, _shall fear_, _shall have feared_, _that he will not come_, _has not come_

«timēbam» } { «venīret»
«timuī» } «ut» {
«timueram» } { «vēnisset»

_I was fearing_, _feared_, _had feared_, _that he would not come_, _had not come_

The same examples with «nē» instead of «ut» would be translated _I fear that_ or _lest he will come_, _has come_, etc.

«372.» RULE. «Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.» _Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by «ut» («that not») or «nē» («that» or «lest»)._

«373.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar verēbātur ut supplicium captīvōrum Gallīs placēret. 2. Rōmānī ipsī magnopere verēbantur nē Helvētiī iter per prōvinciam facerent. 3. Timēbant ut satis reī frūmentāriae mittī posset. 4. Vereor ut hostium impetum sustinēre possim. 5. Timuit nē impedīmenta ab hostibus capta essent. 6. Caesar numquam timuit nē legiōnēs vincerentur. 7. Legiōnēs pugnāre nōn timuērunt.[1]

II. 1. We fear that they are not coming. 2. We fear lest they are coming. 3. We feared that they had come. 4. We feared that they had not come. 5. They feared greatly that the camp could not be defended. 6. Almost all feared[1] to leave the camp.

[Footnote 1: Distinguish between what one is afraid _to do_
(complementary infinitive as here) and what one is afraid _will
take place_ or _has taken place_ (substantive clause with the
subjunctive).]

LESSON LXVI

THE PARTICIPLES

«374.» The Latin verb has the following Participles:[1]

[Transcriber’s Note:
For reasons of space, this table is given in two forms: first a
reduced version without translation, and then the complete text,
including translations, split into two elements.]

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV
ACTIVE
PRESENT amāns monēns regēns capiēns audiēns
FUTURE amātūrus monitūrus rēctūrus captūrus audītūrus

PASSIVE
PERFECT amātus monitus rēctus captus audītus
FUTURE[2] amandus monendus regendus capiendus audiendus

CONJ. I CONJ. II
ACTIVE
PRESENT amāns monēns
_loving_ _advising_
FUTURE amātūrus monitūrus
_about to love_ _about to advise_

PASSIVE
PERFECT amātus monitus
_loved, having_ _advised, having been advised_
_been loved_
FUTURE[2] amandus monendus
_to be loved_ _to be advised_

CONJ. III CONJ. IV
ACTIVE
PRESENT regēns capiēns audiēns
_ruling_ _taking_ _hearing_
FUTURE rēctūrus captūrus audītūrus
_about to rule_ _about to take_ _about to hear_

PASSIVE
PERFECT rēctus captus audītus
_ruled, having_ _taken, having_ _heard, havinh_
_been ruled_ _been taken_ _been heard_
FUTURE[2] regendus capiendus audiendus
_to be ruled_ _to be taken_ _to be heard_

[Footnote 1: Review §203.]

[Footnote 2: The future passive participle is often called the
_gerundive_.]

_a._ The present active and future passive participles are formed
from the present stem, and the future active and perfect passive
participles are formed from the participial stem.

_b._ The present active participle is formed by adding «-ns» to the
present stem. In «-iō» verbs of the third conjugation, and in the
fourth conjugation, the stem is modified by the addition of «-ē-»,
as «capi-ē-ns», «audi-ē-ns». It is declined like an adjective of one
ending of the third declension. (Cf. §256.)

«amāns», _loving_
BASE «amant-» STEM «amanti-»
SINGULAR PLURAL
MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT.
_Nom._ amāns amāns amantēs amantia
_Gen._ amantis amantis amantium amantium
_Dat._ amantī amantī amantibus amantibus
_Acc._ amantem amāns amantīs amantia
_or_ -ēs
_Abl._ amantī amantī amantibus amantibus
_or_ -e _or_ -e

(1) When used as an adjective the ablative singular ends in «-ī»;
when used as a participle or as a substantive, in «-e».

(2) In a similar way decline «monēns», «regēns», «capiēns», «audiēns».

_c._ The future active participle is formed by adding «-ūrus» to the
base of the participial stem. We have already met this form combined
with «esse» to produce the future active infinitive. (Cf. §206.)

_d._ For the perfect passive participle see §201. The future
passive participle or gerundive is formed by adding «-ndus» to the
present stem.

_e._ All participles in «-us» are declined like «bonus».

_f._ Participles agree with nouns or pronouns like adjectives.

_g._ Give all the participles of the following verbs: «cūrō»,
«iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō».

«375.» «Participles of Deponent Verbs.» Deponent verbs have the participles of the active voice as well as of the passive; consequently every deponent verb has four participles, as,

_Pres. Act._ «hortāns», _urging_
_Fut. Act._ «hortātūrus», _about to urge_
_Perf. Pass._ (in form) «hortātus», _having urged_
_Fut. Pass._ (_Gerundive_) «hortandus», _to be urged_

_a._ Observe that the perfect participle of deponent verbs is
passive in form but _active_ in meaning. _No other verbs have a
perfect active participle._ On the other hand, the future passive
participle of deponent verbs is passive in meaning as in other
verbs.

_b._ Give the participles of «cōnor», «vereor», «sequor», «patior»,
«partior».

«376.» «Tenses of the Participle.» The tenses express time as follows:

1. The present active participle corresponds to the English present
active participle in _-ing_, but can be used only of an action
occurring at the same time as the action of the main verb; as,
«mīlitēs īnsequentēs cēpērunt multōs», _the soldiers, while pursuing,
captured many._ Here the pursuing and the capturing are going on
together.

2. The perfect participle (excepting of deponents) is regularly
passive and corresponds to the English past participle with or without
the auxiliary _having been_; as, «audītus», _heard_ or _having been
heard_.

3. The future active participle, translated _about to_, etc., denotes
time after the action of the main verb.

«377.» Review §§203, 204, and, note the following model sentences:

1. «Mīlitēs currentēs erant dēfessī», _the soldiers who were running_
(lit. _running_) _were weary_.

2. «Caesar profectūrus Rōmam nōn exspectāvit», _Cæsar, when about to
set out_ (lit. _about to set out_) _for Rome, did not wait_.

3. «Oppidum captum vīdimus», _we saw the town which had been captured_
(lit. _captured town_).

4. «Imperātor trīduum morātus profectus est», _the general, since_
(_when_, or _after_) _he had delayed_ (lit. _the general, having
delayed_) _three days, set out_.

5. «Mīlitēs vīctī terga nōn vertērunt», _the soldiers, though they
were conquered_ (lit. _the soldiers conquered_), _did not retreat_.

In each of these sentences the literal translation of the participle is given in parentheses. We note, however, that its proper translation usually requires a clause beginning with some conjunction (_when, since, after, though_, etc.), or a relative clause. Consider, in each case, what translation will best bring out the thought, and do not, as a rule, translate the participle literally.

«378.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Puer timēns nē capiātur fugit. 2. Aquila īrā commōta avīs reliquās interficere cōnāta erat. 3. Mīlitēs ab hostibus pressī tēla iacere nōn potuērunt. 4. Caesar decimam legiōnem laudātūrus ad prīmum agmen prōgressus est. 5. Imperātor hortātus equitēs ut fortiter pugnārent signum proeliō dedit. 6. Mīlitēs hostīs octō milia passuum īnsecūtī multīs cum captīvīs ad castra revertērunt. 7. Sōl oriēns multōs interfectōs vīdit. 8. Rōmānī cōnsilium audāx suspicātī barbaris sēsē nōn commīsērunt. 9. Nāvis ē portū ēgressa nūllō in perīculō erat.

II.[3] 1. The army was in very great danger while marching through the enemy’s country. 2. Frightened by the length of the way, they longed for home. 3. When the scouts were about to set out, they heard the shouts of victory. 4. When we had delayed many days, we set fire to the buildings and departed. 5. While living at Rome I heard orators much better than these. 6. The soldiers who are fighting across the river are no braver than we.

[Footnote 3: In this exercise use participles for the subordinate
clauses.]

LESSON LXVII

THE IRREGULAR VERBS _VOLŌ_, _NŌLŌ_, _MĀLŌ_ THE ABLATIVE WITH A PARTICIPLE, OR ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE

«379.» Learn the principal parts and conjugation of «volō», _wish_; «nōlō» («ne» + «volō»), _be unwilling_; «mālō» («magis» + «volō»), _be more willing, prefer_ (§497). Note the irregularities in the present indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive, and in the imperfect subjunctive. (Cf. §354.)

_a._ These verbs are usually followed by the infinitive with or
without a subject accusative; as, «volunt venīre», _they wish to
come_; «volunt amīcōs venīre», _they wish their friends to come_.
The English usage is the same.[1]

[Footnote 1: Sometimes the subjunctive of purpose is used after
these verbs. (See §366.)]

[ Conjugations given in §497:

PRINCIPAL PARTS:
«volō, velle, voluī», ----, _be willing, will, wish_
«nōlō, nōlle, nōluī», ----, _be unwilling, will not_
«mālō, mālle, māluī», ----, _be more willing, prefer_

INDICATIVE
SINGULAR
_Pres._ volō nōlō mālō
vīs nōn vis māvīs
vult nōn vult māvult

PLURAL
volumus nōlumus mālumus
vultis nōn vultis māvul´tis
volunt nōlunt mālunt

_Impf._ volēbam nōlēbam mālēbam
_Fut._ volam, volēs, etc. nōlam, nōlēs, etc. mālam, mālēs, etc.
_Perf._ voluī nōluī māluī
_Plup._ volueram nōlueram mālueram
_F.P._ voluerō nōluerō māluerō

SUBJUNCTIVE
SINGULAR
_Pres._ velim nōlim mālim
velīs nōlīs mālīs
velit nōlit mālit

PLURAL
velī´mus nōlī´mus mālī´mus
velī´tis nōlī´tis mālī´tis
velint nōlint mālint

_Impf._ vellem nōllem māllem
_Perf._ voluerim nōluerim māluerim
_Plup._ voluissem nōluissem māluissem

IMPERATIVE
_Pres._ nōlī
nōlīte
_Fut._ nōlītō, etc.

INFINITIVE
_Pres._ velle nōlle mālle
_Perf._ voluisse nōluisse māluisse

PARTICIPLE
_Pres._ volēns, -entis nōlēns, -entis ----]

«380.» Observe the following sentences:

1. «Magistrō laudante omnēs puerī dīligenter labōrant», _with the
teacher praising_, or _since the teacher praises_, or _the teacher
praising, all the boys labor diligently._

2. «Caesare dūcente nēmō prōgredī timet», _with Cæsar leading_, or
_when Cæsar leads_, or _if Cæsar leads_, or _Cæsar leading, no one
fears to advance._

3. «Hīs rēbus cognitīs mīlitēs fūgērunt», _when this was known_, or
_since this was known_, or _these things having been learned, the
soldiers fled._

4. «Proeliō commissō multī vulnerātī sunt», _after the battle had
begun_, or _when the battle had begun_, or _the battle having been
joined, many were wounded._

_a._ One of the fundamental ablative relations is expressed in
English by the preposition _with_ (cf. §50). In each of the
sentences above we have a noun and a participle in agreement in
the ablative, and the translation shows that in each instance the
ablative expresses _attendant circumstance_. For example, in the
first sentence the circumstance attending or accompanying the
diligent labor of the boys is the praise of the teacher. This is
clearly a _with_ relation, and the ablative is the case to use.

_b._ We observe, further, that the ablative and its participle are
absolutely independent grammatically of the rest of the sentence.
If we were to express the thought in English in a similar way, we
should use the nominative independent or absolute. In Latin the
construction is called the Ablative Absolute, or the Ablative with a
Participle. This form of expression is exceedingly common in Latin,
but rather rare in English, so we must not, as a rule, employ the
English absolute construction to translate the ablative abolute. The
attendant circumstance may be one of _time_ (when or after), or one
of _cause_ (since), or one of _concession_ (though), or one of
_condition_ (if). In each case try to discover the precise relation,
and translate the ablative and its participle by a clause which
will best express the thought.

«381.» RULE. «Ablative Absolute.» _The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance._

NOTE 1. The verb «sum» has no present participle. In consequence we often find two nouns or a noun and an adjective in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed; as, «tē duce», _you_ (being) _leader_, _with you as leader_; «patre īnfirmō», _my father_ (being) _weak_.

NOTE 2. Be very careful not to put in the ablative absolute a noun and participle that form the subject or object of a sentence. Compare

_a._ _The Gauls, having been conquered by Cæsar, returned home_

_b._ _The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, the army returned
home_

In _a_ the subject is _The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar_, and we translate,

«Gallī ā Caesare victi domum revertērunt»

In _b_ the subject is _the army_. _The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar_ is nominative absolute in English, which requires the ablative absolute in Latin, and we translate,

«Gallīs ā Caesare victīs exercitus domum revertit»

NOTE 3. The fact that only deponent verbs have a perfect active participle (cf. §375.a) often compels a change of voice when translating from one language to the other. For example, we can translate _Cæsar having encouraged the legions_ just as it stands, because «hortor» is a deponent verb. But if we wish to say _Cæsar having conquered the Gauls_, we have to change the voice of the participle to the passive because «vincō» is not deponent, and say, _the Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar_ (see translation above).

«382.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Māvīs, nōn vīs, vultis, nōlumus. 2. Ut nōlit, ut vellēmus, ut mālit. 3. Nōlī, velle, nōluisse, mālle. 4. Vult, māvultis, ut nōllet, nōlīte. 5. Sōle oriente, avēs cantāre incēpērunt. 6. Clāmōribus audītīs, barbarī prōgredī recūsābant. 7. Caesare legiōnēs hortātō, mīlitēs paulō fortius pugnāvērunt. 8. Hīs rēbus cognitīs, Helvētiī fīnitimīs persuāsērunt ut sēcum iter facerent. 9. Labōribus cōnfectīs, mīlitēs ā Caesare quaerēbant ut sibi praemia daret. 10. Conciliō convocātō, prīncipēs ita respondērunt. 11. Dux plūrīs diēs in Helvētiōrum fīnibus morāns multōs vīcōs incendit. 12. Magnitūdine Germānōrum cognitā, quīdam ex Rōmānis timēbant. 13. Mercātōribus rogātīs, Caesar nihilō plūs reperīre potuit.

II. 1. He was unwilling, lest they prefer, they have wished. 2. You prefer, that they might be unwilling, they wish. 3. We wish, they had preferred, that he may prefer. 4. Cæsar, when he heard the rumor (_the rumor having been heard_), commanded («imperāre») the legions to advance more quickly. 5. Since Cæsar was leader, the men were willing to make the journey. 6. A few, terrified[2] by the reports which they had heard, preferred to remain at home. 7. After these had been left behind, the rest hastened as quickly as possible. 8. After Cæsar had undertaken the business (_Cæsar, the business having been undertaken_), he was unwilling to delay longer.[3]

[Footnote 2: Would the ablative absolute be correct here?]

[Footnote 3: Not «longius». Why?]

LESSON LXVIII

THE IRREGULAR VERB _FĪŌ_ · THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT

«383.» The verb «fīō», _be made, happen_, serves as the passive of «faciō», _make_, in the present system. The rest of the verb is formed regularly from «faciō». Learn the principal parts and conjugation (§500). Observe that the «i» is long except before «-er» and in «fit».

_a._ The compounds of «facio» with prepositions usually form the
passive regularly, as,

_Active_ «cōnficiō, cōnficere, cōnfēcī, cōnfectus»
_Passive_ «cōnficior, cōnficī, cōnfectus sum»

[ Conjugation given in §500:

PRINCIPAL PARTS «fīō, fierī, factus sum»

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE
_Pres._ fīō ---- fīam _2d Pers._ fī fīte
fīs ----
fit fīunt
_Impf._ fīēbam fierem
_Fut._ fīam ----

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
_Perf._ factus, -a, -um sum factus, -a, -um sim
_Plup._ factus, -a, -um eram factus, -a, -um essem
_F.P._ factus, -a, -um erō

INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES
_Pres._ fierī _Perf._ factus, -a, -um
_Perf._ factus, -a, -um esse _Ger._ faciendus, -a, -um
_Fut._ [[factum īrī]]]

«384.» Observe the following sentences:

1. «Terror erat tantus ut omnēs fugerent», _the terror was so great
that all fled._

2. «Terror erat tantus ut nōn facile mīlitēs sēsē reciperent», _the
terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover
themselves._

3. «Terror fēcit ut omnēs fugerent», _terror caused all to flee_
(lit. _made that all fled_).

_a._ Each of these sentences is complex, containing a principal
clause and a subordinate clause.

_b._ The principal clause names a cause and the subordinate clause
states the _consequence_ or _result_ of this cause.

_c._ The subordinate clause has its verb in the subjunctive, though
it is translated like an indicative. The construction is called the
_subjunctive of consequence or result_, and the clause is called a
consecutive or result clause.

_d._ In the last example the clause of result is the object of the
verb «fēcit».

_e._ The conjunction introducing the consecutive or result clause is
«ut» = _so that_; negative, «ut nōn» = _so that not_.

«385.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Result.» _Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by «ut» or «ut nōn» and have the verb in the subjunctive._

«386.» RULE. _Object clauses of result with «ut» or «ut nōn» are found after verbs of «effecting» or «bringing about»._

«387.» «Purpose and Result Clauses Compared.» There is great similarity in the expression of purpose and of result in Latin. If the sentence is affirmative, both purpose and result clauses may be introduced by «ut»; but if the sentence is negative, the purpose clause has «nē» and the result clause «ut nōn». Result clauses are often preceded in the main clause by such words as «tam», «ita», «sic» (_so_), and these serve to point them out. Compare

_a._ «Tam graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur»
_He was so severely wounded that he was captured_
_b._ «Graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur»
_He was severely wounded in order that he might be captured_

Which sentence contains a result clause, and how is it pointed out?

«388.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Fit, fīet, ut fīat, fīēbāmus. 2. Fīō, fīēs, ut fierent, fierī, fīunt. 3. Fīētis, ut fīāmus, fīs, fīemus. 4. Mīlitēs erant tam tardī ut ante noctem in castra nōn pervenīrent. 5. Sōl facit ut omnia sint pulchra. 6. Eius modī perīcula erant ut nēmō proficīscī vellet. 7. Equitēs hostium cum equitātū nostrō in itinere contendērunt, ita tamen[1] ut nostrī omnibus in partibus superiōrēs essent. 8. Virtūs mīlitum nostrōrum fēcit ut hostēs nē ūnum quidem[2] impetum sustinērent. 9. Hominēs erant tam audācēs ut nūllō modō continērī possent. 10. Spatium erat tam parvum ut mīlitēs tēla iacere nōn facile possent. 11. Hōc proeliō factō barbarī ita perterritī sunt ut ab ultimīs gentibus lēgātī ad Caesarem mitterentur. 12. Hoc proelium factum est nē lēgātī ad Caesarem mitterentur.

[Footnote 1: «ita tamen», _with such a result however_.]

[Footnote 2: «nē ... quidem», _not even_. The emphatic word is
placed between.]

II. 1. It will happen, they were being made, that it may happen. 2. It happens, he will be made, to happen. 3. They are made, we were being made, lest it happen. 4. The soldiers are so brave that they conquer. 5. The soldiers are brave in order that they may conquer. 6. The fortification was made so strong that it could not be taken. 7. The fortification was made strong in order that it might not be taken. 8. After the town was taken,[3] the townsmen feared that they would be made slaves. 9. What state is so weak that it is unwilling to defend itself?

[Footnote 3: Ablative absolute.]

LESSON LXIX

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC OR DESCRIPTION THE PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE

«389.» Akin to the subjunctive of consequence or result is the use of the subjunctive in clauses of characteristic or description.

This construction is illustrated in the following sentences:

1. «Quis est quī suam domum nōn amet?» _who is there who does not love
his own home?_

2. «Erant quī hoc facere nōllent», _there were (some) who were
unwilling to do this._

3. «Tū nōn is es quī amīcōs trādās», _you are not such a one as to_,
or _you are not the man to, betray your friends._

4. «Nihil videō quod timeam», _I see nothing to fear_ (nothing of such
as character as to fear it).

_a._ Each of these examples contains a descriptive relative clause
which tells what kind of a person or thing the antecedent is. To
express this thought the subjunctive is used. A relative clause that
merely states a fact and does not describe the antecedent uses the
indicative. Compare the sentences

_Cæsar is the man who is leading us_,
«Caesar est is quī nōs dūcit»
(mere statement of fact, no description, with the indicative)
_Cæsar is the man to lead us_,
«Caesar est is quī nōs dūcat»
(descriptive relative clause with the subjunctive)

_b._ Observe that in this construction a demonstrative pronoun and a
relative, as is «quī», are translated _such a one as to, the man
to_.

_c._ In which of the following sentences would you use the
indicative and in which the subjunctive?

_These are not the men who did this_
_These are not the men to do this_

«390.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Characteristic.» _A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the «subjunctive of characteristic or description»._

«391.» Observe the sentences

1. Rōmānī «Caesarem cōnsulem» fēcērunt,
_the Romans made «Cæsar consul»_.

2. «Caesar cōnsul» ā Rōmānīs factus est,
_«Cæsar» was made «consul» by the Romans_.

_a._ Observe in 1 that the transitive verb «fēcērunt», _made_, has
two objects: (1) the direct object, «Caesarem»; (2) a second object,
«cōnsulem», referring to the same person as the direct object and
completing the predicate. The second accusative is called a
Predicate Accusative.

_b._ Observe in 2 that when the verb is changed to the passive both
of the accusatives become nominatives, the _direct object_ becoming
the _subject_ and the _predicate accusative_ the _predicate
nominative_.

«392.» RULE. «Two Accusatives.» _Verbs of «making», «choosing», «calling», «showing», and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives._

«393.» The verbs commonly found with two accusatives are

«creo, creāre, creāvī, creātus», _choose_
«appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātus» }
«nōminō, nōmināre, nōmināvī, nōminātus» } _call_
«vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus» }
«faciō, facere, fēcī, factus», _make_

«394.» EXERCISES

I. 1. In Germāniae silvis sunt[1] multa genera ferārum quae reliquīs in locīs nōn vīsa sint. 2. Erant[1] itinera duo quibus Helvētiī domō discēdere possent. 3. Erat[1] manus nūlla, nūllum oppidum, nūllum praesidium quod sē armīs dēfenderet. 4. Tōtō frūmentō raptō, domī nihil erat quō mortem prohibēre possent. 5. Rōmānī Galbam ducem creāvērunt et summā celeritāte profectī sunt. 6. Neque erat[1] tantae multitūdinis quisquam quī morārī vellet. 7. Germānī nōn iī sunt quī adventum Caesaris vereantur. 8. Cōnsulibus occīsīs erant quī[2] vellent cum rēgem creāre. 9. Pāce factā erat nēmō quī arma trādere nōllet. 10. Inter Helvētiōs quis erat quī nōbilior illō esset?

II. 1. The Romans called the city Rome. 2. The city was called Rome by the Romans. 3. The better citizens wished to choose him king. 4. The brave soldier was not the man to run. 5. There was no one [3]to call me friend. 6. These are not the men to[4] betray their friends. 7. There were (some) who called him the bravest of all.

[Footnote 1: Remember that when the verb «sum» precedes its subject
it is translated _there is_, _there are_, _there were_, etc.]

[Footnote 2: «erant quī», _there were_ (some) _who_. A wholly
indefinite antecedent of «quī» does not need to be expressed.]

[Footnote 3: A relative clause of characteristic or description.]

[Footnote 4: See §389.b.]

* * * * *

«Eighth Review, Lessons LXI-LXIX, §§527-528»

* * * * *

LESSON LXX

THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE CONJUNCTION _CUM_ THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION

«395.» The conjunction «cum» has the following meanings and constructions:

«cum» TEMPORAL = _when_, followed by the indicative or the subjunctive
«cum» CAUSAL = _since_, followed by the subjunctive
«cum» CONCESSIVE = _although_, followed by the subjunctive

As you observe, the mood after «cum» is sometimes indicative and sometimes subjunctive. The reason for this will be made clear by a study of the following sentences:

1. «Caesarem vīdī tum cum in Galliā eram»,
_I saw Cæsar at the time when I was in Gaul_.

2. «Caesar in eōs impetum fēcit cum pācem peterent»,
_Cæsar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace_.

3. «Hoc erat difficile cum paucī sine vulneribus essent»,
_this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds_.

4. «Cum prīmī ōrdinēs fūgissent, tamen reliquī fortiter cōnsistēbant»,
_though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood
their ground_.

_a._ The underlying principle is one already familiar to you (cf.
§389.a). When the «cum» clause states a fact and simply _fixes the
time_ at which the main action took place, the indicative mood is
used. So, in the first example, «cum in Galliā eram» fixes the time
when I saw Cæsar.

_b._ On the other hand, when the «cum» clause _describes the
circumstances_ under which the main act took place, the subjunctive
mood is used. So, in the second example, the principal clause states
that Cæsar made an attack, and the «cum» clause describes the
circumstances under which this act occurred. The idea of _time_ is
also present, but it is subordinate to the idea of _description_.
Sometimes the descriptive clause is one of _cause_ and we translate
«cum» by _since_; sometimes it denotes _concession_ and «cum» is
translated _although_.

«396.» RULE. «Constructions with _Cum_». _The conjunction «cum» means «when», «since», or «although». It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means «when» and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place._

NOTE. «Cum» in clauses of description with the subjunctive is much more common than its use with the indicative.

«397.» Note the following sentences:

1. «Oppidum erat parvum magnitūdine sed magnum multitūdine hominum»,
_the town was small in size but great in population_.

2. «Homō erat corpore īnfīrmus sed validus animō»,
_the man was weak in body but strong in courage_.

_a._ Observe that «magnitūdine», «multitūdine», «corpore», and
«animō» tell _in what respect_ something is true. The relation is
one covered by the ablative case, and the construction is called the
_ablative of specification_.

«398.» RULE. «Ablative of Specification.» _The ablative is used to denote «in what respect» something is true._

«399.» IDIOMS

«aliquem certiōrem facere», _to inform some one_ (lit. _to make some
one more certain_)
«certior fierī», _to be informed_ (lit. _to be made more certain_)
«iter dare», _to give a right of way, allow to pass_
«obsidēs inter sē dare», _to give hostages to each other_

«400.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Helvētiī cum patrum nostrōrum tempore domō prefectī essent, cōnsulis exercitum in fugam dederant. 2. Cum Caesar in Galliam vēnit, Helvētiī aliōs agrōs petēbant. 3. Caesar cum in citeriōre Gallia esset, tamen dē Helvētiōrum cōnsiliīs certior fīēbat. 4. Cum Helvētiī bellō clārissimī essent, Caesar iter per prōvinciam dare recūsāvit. 5. Lēgātus cum haec audīvisset, Caesarem certiōrem fecit. 6. Cum principēs inter sē obsidēs darent, Rōmānī bellum parāvērunt. 7. Caesar, cum id nūntiātum esset, mātūrat ab urbe proficīscī. 8. Nē virtūte quidem Gallī erant parēs Germānis. 9. Caesar neque corpore neque animō īnfīrmus erat. 10. Illud bellum tum incēpit cum Caesar fuit cōnsul.

Observe in each case what mood follows «cum», and try to give the reasons for its use. In the third sentence the «cum» clause is concessive, in the fourth and sixth causal.

II. 1. That battle was fought at the time when («tum cum») I was at Rome. 2. Though the horsemen were few in number, nevertheless they did not retreat. 3. When the camp had been sufficiently fortified, the enemy returned home. 4. Since the tribes are giving hostages to each other, we shall inform Cæsar. 5. The Gauls and the Germans are very unlike in language and laws.

LESSON LXXI

VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE · THE PREDICATE GENITIVE

«401.» Review the word lists in §§510, 511.

«402.» «The Gerund.» Suppose we had to translate the sentence

_By overcoming the Gauls Cæsar won great glory_

We can see that _overcoming_ here is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in _-ing_, and that the thought calls for the ablative of means. To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has no ablative case form. Latin, however, has another verbal noun of corresponding meaning, called the «gerund», declined as a neuter of the second declension in the _genitive_, _dative_, _accusative_, and _ablative singular_, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive lacks.[1] Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun _overcoming_, we should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the other cases, as follows:

_Nom._ «superāre», _overcoming, to overcome_ INFINITIVE
_Gen._ «superandī», _of overcoming_ }
_Dat._ «superandō», _for overcoming_ }
_Acc._ «superandum», _overcoming_ } GERUND
_Abl._ «superandō», _by overcoming_ }

Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived. So the sentence given above becomes in Latin

«Superandō Gallōs Caesar magnam glōriam reportāvit»

[Footnote 1: Sometimes, however, the infinitive is used as an
accusative.]

«403.» The gerund[2] is formed by adding «-ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō», to the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown below:

PARADIGM OF THE GERUND

CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV
_Gen._ amandī monendī regendī capiendī audiendī
_Dat._ amandō monendō regendō capiendō audiendō
_Acc._ amandum monendum regendum capiendum audiendum
_Abl._ amandō monendō regendō capiendō audiendō

_a._ Give the gerund of «cūrō», «dēleō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «veniō».

_b._ Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see §493).
Give the gerund of «cōnor», «vereor», «sequor», «patior», «partior».

[Footnote 2: The gerund is the neuter singular of the future
passive participle used as a noun, and has the same formation.
(Cf. §374.d.)]

«404.» «The Gerundive.» The gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle (§374.d) when the participle approaches the meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund. It is the adjective corresponding to the gerund. For example, to translate _the plan of waging war_, we may use the gerund with its direct object and say «cōnsilium gerendī bellum»; or we may use the gerundive and say «cōnsilium bellī gerendī», which means, literally, _the plan of the war to be waged_, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with its object, and was even preferred to it.

«405.» Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive:

GERUND GERUNDIVE
_Gen._ «Spēs faciendī pācem» «Spēs faciendae pācis»
_Dat._ «Locus idōneus pugnandō» «Locus idōneus castrīs pōnendīs»
_A place suitable for _A place suitable for
fighting_ pitching camp_
_Acc._ «Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendum» «Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendōs
hostīs»
_He sent horsemen to pursue_ _He sent horsemen to pursue
the enemy_
_Abl._ «Nārrandō fābulās magister «Nārrandīs fābulīs magister
puerīs placuit» puerīs placuit»
_The teacher pleased the _The teacher pleased the
boys by telling stories_ boys by telling stories_

_a._ We observe

(1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective.
(2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an
object.
(3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in
agreement with a noun.

«406.» RULE. «Gerund and Gerundive.»

1. _The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive,
dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these
cases are in general the same as those of other nouns._

2. _The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of
gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without
a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is
more usual._

«407.» RULE. «Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose.» _The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with_ «ad», _or the genitive with «causā»[3] (= for the sake of), is used to express purpose._

GERUND GERUNDIVE
«Ad audiendum vēnērunt» or «Ad urbem videndam vēnērunt» or
«Audiendī causā vēnērunt» «Urbis videndae causā vēnērunt»
_They came to hear_ _They came to see the city_

[Footnote 3: «causā» always _follows_ the genitive.]

NOTE. These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive of purpose,--«vēnērunt ut audīrent»; «vēnērunt ut urbem vidērent.» In short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are rather more common.

«408.» We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive, as, «equus Galbae», _Galba’s horse._ If, now, we wish to express the idea _the horse is Galba’s_, Galba remains the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in the predicate, as, «equus est Galbae». Hence this is called the predicate genitive.

«409.» RULE. «Predicate Genitive.» _The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of «sum», and is then called the predicate genitive._

«410.» IDIOMS

«alīcui negōtium dare», _to employ someone_
(lit. _to give business to some one_)
«novīs rēbus studēre», _to be eager for a revolution_
(lit. _to be eager for new things_)
«reī mīlitāris perītissimus», _very skillful in the art of war_
«sē suaque omnia», _themselves and all their possessions_

«411.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Caesar cum in Galliā bellum gereret, militibus decimae legiōnis maximē fāvit quia reī mīlitāris perītissimī erant. 2. Sociīs negōtium dedit reī frumentāriae cūrandae. 3. Lēgāti nōn sōlum audiendī causā sed etiam dicendī causā vēnērunt. 4. Imperātor iussit explōrātōres locum idōneum mūnindō reperīre. 5. Nuper hae gentēs novīs rēbus studēbant; mox iīs persuādēbō ut Caesarī sē suaque omnia dēdant. 6. Iubēre est regīnae[4] et pārēre est multitūdinis.[4] 7. Hōc proeliō factō quīdam ex hostibus ad pācem petendam venērunt. 8. Erant quī arma trādere nōllent. 9. Hostēs tam celeriter prōgressī sunt ut spatium pīla in hostīs iaciendī non darētur. 10. Spatium neque arma capiendī[5] neque auxilī petendī[5] datum est.

II. 1. These ornaments [6]belong to Cornelia. 2. Men very skillful in the art of war were sent [7]to capture the town. 3. The scouts found a hill suitable for fortifying very near to the river. 4. Soon the cavalry will come [8]to seek supplies. 5. The mind of the Gauls is eager for revolution and for undertaking wars. 6. To lead the line of battle [9]belongs to the general. 7. [10]Whom shall we employ to look after the grain supply?

[Footnote 4: Predicate genitive.]

[Footnote 5: Which of these expressions is gerund and which
gerundive?]

[Footnote 6: _belong to_ = _are of_.]

[Footnote 7: Use the gerundive with «ad».]

[Footnote 8: Use the genitive with «causā». Where should «causā»
stand?]

[Footnote 9: Compare the first sentence.]

[Footnote 10: Compare the second sentence in the Latin above.]

LESSON LXXII

THE IRREGULAR VERB _EŌ_ · INDIRECT STATEMENTS

«412.» Learn the principal parts and the conjugation of «eō», _go_ (§499).

_a._ Notice that «ī-», the root of «eō», is changed to «e-» before
a vowel, excepting in «iēns», the nominative of the present
participle. In the perfect system «-v-» is regularly dropped.

[ Conjugation given in §499:

PRINCIPAL PARTS «eō, īre, iī (īvī), ĭtum» (n. perf. part.)
PRES. STEM ī-
PERF. STEM ī- or īv-
PART. STEM it-

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE
SING. PLUR.
_Pres._ eō īmus eam _2d Pers._ ī īte
īs ītis
it eunt
_Impf._ ībam īrem
_Fut._ ībō ---- _2d Pers._ ītō ītōte
_3d Pers._ ītō euntō
_Perf._ iī (īvī) ierim (īverim)
_Plup._ ieram (īveram) īssem (īvissem)
_F. P._ ierō (īverō)

INFINITIVE
_Pres._ īre
_Perf._ īsse (īvisse)
_Fut._ itūrus, -a, -um esse

PARTICIPLES
_Pres._ iēns, _gen._ euntis (§472)
_Fut._ itūrus, -a, -um
_Ger._ eundum

GERUND
_Gen._ eundī
_Dat._ eundō
_Acc._ eundum
_Abl._ eundō

SUPINE
_Acc._ [[itum]]
_Abl._ [[itū]] ]

«413.» Learn the meaning and principal parts of the following compounds of «eō» with prepositions:

«ad´eō, adī´re, ad´iī, ad´itus», _go to, visit_, with the accusative
«ex´eō, exī´re, ex´iī, ex´itus», _go forth_, with «ex» or «dē»
and the ablative of the place from which
«in´eō, inī´re, in´iī, in´itus», _begin, enter upon_,
with the accusative
«red´eō, redī´re, red´iī, red´itus», _return_, with «ad» or «in» and
the accusative of the place to which
«trāns´eō, trānsī´re, trāns´iī, trāns´itus», _cross_,
with the accusative