Chapter VIII: Part II: Words and Forms (3)

ACTIVE[1] PASSIVE
CONJ. SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL
I. «a´mā» amā´te amā´re, amā´minī,
_be thou loved_ _be ye loved_
II. «mo´nē» monē´te monē´re, monē´minī,
_be thou advised_ _be ye advised_
III. «re´ge» re´gite re´gere, regi´minī,
_be thou ruled _ _be ye ruled_
«ca´pe» ca´pite ca´pere, capi´minī,
_be thou taken_ _be ye taken_
IV. «au´dī» audī´te audī´re, audī´minī,
_be thou heard_ _be ye heard_

1. Observe that the second person singular of the present passive
imperative is like the present active infinitive, and that both
singular and plural are like the second person singular[2] and plural,
respectively, of the present passive indicative.

2. Give the present imperative, both active and passive, of the verbs
in §174.3.

[Footnote 1: For the sake of comparison the active is repeated from
§161.]

[Footnote 2: That is, using the personal ending «-re». A form like
«amāre» may be either _indicative_, _infinitive_, or _imperative_.]

«176.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Tum Perseus ālīs ad terrās multās volabit. 2. Mōnstrum saevum per aquās properat et mox agrōs nostrōs vāstābit. 3. Sī autem Cēpheus ad ōrāculum properābit, ōrāculum ita respondēbit. 4. Quis tēlīs Perseī superābitur? Multa mōnstra tēlīs eius superābuntur. 5. Cum cūrīs magnīs et lacrimīs multīs agricolae ex domiciliīs cārīs aguntur. 6. Multa loca vāstābantur et multa oppida dēlēbantur. 7. Mōnstrum est validum, tamen superābitur. 8. Crēdēsne semper verbīs ōrāculī? Ego iīs non semper crēdam. 9. Pārēbitne Cēpheus ōrāculō? Verba ōrāculī eī persuādēbunt. 10. Si nōn fugiēmus, oppidum capiētur et oppidānī necābuntur. 11. Vocāte puerōs et nārrāte fābulam clāram dē mōnstrō saevō.

II. 1. Fly thou, to be cared for, be ye sent, lead thou. 2. To lead, to be led, be ye seized, fortify thou. 3. To be hurled, to fly, send thou, to be found. 4. To be sent, be ye led, to hurl, to be taken. 5. Find thou, hear ye, be ye ruled, to be fortified.

LESSON XXX

SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS · THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _FROM_

[Special Vocabulary]

VERBS
«absum, abesse», irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with
separative abl.
«adpropinquō, -āre», _draw near, approach_ (propinquity), with
dative[A]
«contineō, -ēre», _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain)
«discēdō, -ere», _depart, go away, leave_, with separative abl.
«egeō, -ēre», _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl.
«interficiō, -ere», _kill_
«prohibeō, -ēre», _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit)
«vulnerō, -āre», _wound_ (vulnerable)

NOUNS
«prōvincia, -ae», f., _province_
«vīnum, -ī», n., _wine_

ADJECTIVE
«dēfessus, -a, -um», _weary, worn out_

ADVERB
«longē», _far, by far, far away_

[Footnote A: This verb governs the dative because the idea of
_nearness to_ is stronger than that of _motion to_. If the latter
idea were the stronger, the word would be used with «ad» and the
accusative.]

«177.» You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have had, as follows:[1]

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II
INDICATIVE
ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE
_Pres._ a´mō a´mor mo´neō mo´neor
_Imperf._ amā´bam amā´bar monē´bam monē´bar
_Fut._ amā´bo amā´bor monē´bo monē´bor

[Footnote 1: Synopses should be given not only in the first person,
but in other persons as well, particularly in the third singular and
plural.]

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II
IMPERATIVE
ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE
_Pres._ a´mā amā´re mo´nē monē´re

INFINITIVE
_Pres._ amā´re amā´rī monē´re monē´rī

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION III («-iō» verbs)
INDICATIVE
ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE
_Pres._ re´gō re´gor ca´piō ca´pior
_Imperf._ regē´bam regē´bar capiē´bam capiē´bar
_Fut._ re´gam re´gar ca´piam ca´piar

IMPERATIVE
_Pres._ re´ge re´gere ca´pe ca´pere

INFINITIVE
_Pres._ re´gere re´gī ca´pere ca´pī

CONJUGATION IV
INDICATIVE
ACTIVE PASSIVE
_Pres._ au´diō au´dior
_Imperf._ audiē´bam audiē´bar
_Fut._ au´diam au´diar

IMPERATIVE
_Pres._ au´dī audī´re

INFINITIVE
_Pres._ audī´re audī´rī

1. Give the synopsis of «rapiō», «mūniō», «reperiō», «doceō», «videō»,
«dīcō», «agō», «laudō», «portō», and vary the person and number.

«178.» We learned in §50 that one of the three relations covered by the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition _from._ This is sometimes called the _separative ablative_, and it has a number of special uses. You have already grown familiar with the first mentioned below.

«179.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place From.» _The place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions «ā» or «ab», «dē», «ē» or «ex»._

«Agricolae ex agrīs veniunt», _the farmers come from the fields_

_a._ «ā» or «ab» denotes _from near_ a place; «ē» or «ex», _out
from_ it; and «dē», _down from_ it. This may be represented
graphically as follows:

_________
| |
«ā» or «ab» | | «ē» or «ex»
/_____________| ___________________\
\ | Place | /
|_________|
|
| «dē»
|
V

«180.» RULE. «Ablative of Separation.» _Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning._

_a._ If the separation is _actual_ and _literal_ of one material
thing from another, the preposition «ā» or «ab», «ē» or «ex», or
«dē» is generally used. If no actual motion takes place of one thing
from another, no preposition is necessary.

(a) «Perseus terram ā mōnstrīs līberat»
_Perseus frees the land from monsters_
(literal separation--actual motion is expressed)
(b) «Perseus terram trīstitiā līberat»
_Perseus frees the land from sorrow_
(figurative separation--no actual motion is expressed)

«181.» RULE. «Ablative of the Personal Agent.» _The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition «ā» or «ab.»_

_a._ In this construction the English translation of «ā», «ab» is
_by_ rather than _from_. This ablative is regularly used with
passive verbs to indicate the _person by whom_ the act was
performed.

«Mōnstrum ā Perseō necātur», _the monster is being slain by_
(lit. _from_) _Perseus_

_b._ Note that the active form of the above sentence would be
«Perseus monstrum necat», _Perseus is slaying the monster_. In the
passive the _object_ of the active verb becomes the _subject_, and
the _subject_ of the active verb becomes the _ablative of the
personal agent_, with «ā» or «ab».

_c._ Distinguish carefully between the ablative of means and the
ablative of the personal agent. Both are often translated into
English by the preposition _by_. (Cf. §100. _b._) _Means is a
«thing»; the agent or actor is a «person»_. The ablative of means
has no preposition. The ablative of the personal agent has «ā» or
«ab». Compare

«Fera sagittā necātur», _the wild beast is killed by an arrow_
«Fera ā Diānā necātur», _the wild beast is killed by Diana_

«Sagittā», in the first sentence, is the ablative of means; «ā
Diānā», in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent.

«182.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

I. 1. Viri inopiā cibī dēfessī ab eō locō discēdent. 2. Germānī castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquābant, tamen lēgātus cōpiās ā proeliō continēbat. 3. Multa Gallōrum oppida ab Rōmanīs capientur. 4. Tum Rōmānī tōtum populum eōrum oppidōrum gladiīs pīlīsque interficient. 5. Oppidānī Rōmānīs resistent, sed defessī longō proelīo fugient. 6. Multī ex Galliā fugiēbant et in Germānōrum vicīs habitābant. 7. Miserī nautae vulnerantur ab inimīcīs[2] saevīs et cibō egent. 8. Discēdite et date virīs frūmentum et cōpiam vīnī. 9. Cōpiae nostrae ā proeliō continēbantur ab Sextō lēgatō. 10. Id oppidum ab prōvinciā Rōmānā longē aberat.

II. 1. The weary sailors were approaching a place dear to the goddess Diana. 2. They were without food and without wine. 3. Then Galba and seven other men are sent to the ancient island by Sextus. 4. Already they are not far away from the land, and they see armed men on a high place. 5. They are kept from the land by the men with spears and arrows. 6. The men kept hurling their weapons down from the high place with great eagerness.

[Footnote 2: «inimīcīs», here used as a noun. See vocabulary.]

LESSON XXXI

PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF _SUM_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
aurum, -ī, n., _gold_ (oriole)
«mora, -ae», f., _delay_
«nāvigium, nāvi´gī», n., _boat, ship_
«ventus, -ī», m., _wind_ (ventilate)

VERB
«nāvigō, -āre», _sail_ (navigate)

ADJECTIVES
attentus, -a, -um, _attentive, careful_
«dubius, -a, -um», _doubtful_ (dubious)
perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy)

ADVERB
«anteā», _before, previously_

PREPOSITION
«sine», with abl., _without_

«183.» «Principal Parts.» There are certain parts of the verb that are of so much consequence in tense formation that we call them the _principal parts._

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the present, the past, and the past participle; as _go, went, gone_; _see, saw, seen_, etc.

The principal parts of the Latin verb are the _first person singular of the present indicative_, the _present infinitive_, the _first person singular of the perfect indicative_, and _the perfect passive participle._

«184.» «Conjugation Stems.» From the principal parts we get three conjugation stems, from which are formed the entire conjugation. We have already learned about the «present stem», which is found from the present infinitive (cf. §126.a). The other two stems are the «perfect stem» and the «participial stem».

«185.» «The Perfect Stem.» The perfect stem of the verb is formed in various ways, but may always be _found by dropping «-ī» from the first person singular of the perfect_, the third of the principal parts. From the perfect stem are formed the following tenses:

THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE
THE PLUPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE (ENGLISH PAST PERFECT)
THE FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE

All these tenses express completed action in present, past, or future time respectively.

«186.» «The Endings of the Perfect.» The perfect active indicative is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. These endings are different from those found in any other tense, and are as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL
1. -ī, _I_ 1. -imus, _we_
2. -istī, _you_ 2. -istis, _you_
3. -it, _he, she, it_ 3. -ērunt or -ēre, _they_

«187.» Inflection of «sum» in the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative:

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC.
PRIN. PARTS sum esse fuī

PERFECT STEM fu-

PERFECT
SINGULAR PLURAL
fu´ī, _I have been, I was_ fu´imus, _we have been, we were_
fuis´tī, fuis´tis, _you have been, you were_
_you have been, you were_
fu´it, _he has been, he was_ fuē´runt _or_ fuē´re,
_they have been, they were_

PLUPERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-erā-»)
fu´eram, _I had been_ fuerā´mus, _we had been_
fu´erās, _you had been_ fuerā´tis, _you had been_
fu´erat, _he had been_ fu´erant, _they had been_

FUTURE PERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-eri-»)
fu´erō, _I shall have been_ fue´rimus, _we shall have been_
fu´eris, _you will have been_ fue´ritis, _you will have been_
fu´erit, _he will have been_ fu´erint, _they will have been_

1. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect.

2. Observe that the pluperfect may be formed by adding «eram», the
imperfect of «sum», to the perfect stem. The tense sign is «-erā-».

3. Observe that the future perfect may be formed by adding «erō», the
future of «sum», to the perfect stem. But the third person plural ends
in «-erint», not in «-erunt». The tense sign is «-eri-».

4. All active perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects are formed on
the perfect stem and inflected in the same way.

«188.» DIALOGUE

THE BOYS TITUS, MARCUS, AND QUINTUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289.

M. Ubi fuistis, Tite et Quīnte?
T. Ego in meō lūdō fuī et Quīntus in suō lūdō fuit. Bonī puerī fuimus.
Fuitne Sextus in vīcō hodiē?
M. Fuit. Nūper per agrōs proximōs fluviō properābat. Ibi is et
Cornēlius habent nāvigium.
T. _Nāvigium_ dīcis? Aliī[1] nārrā eam fābulam!
M. Vērō (_Yes, truly_), pulchrum et novum nāvigium!
Q. Cuius pecūniā[2] Sextus et Cornēlius id nāvigium parant? Quis iīs
pecūniam dat?
M. Amīcī Cornēlī multum habent aurum et puer pecūniā nōn eget.
T. Quō puerī nāvigābunt? Nāvigābuntne longē ā terrā?
M. Dubia sunt cōnsilia eōrum. Sed hodiē, crēdō, sī ventus erit
idōneus, ad maximam īnsulam nāvigābunt. Iam anteā ibi fuērunt.
Tum autem ventus erat perfidus et puerī magnō in perīculō erant.
Q. Aqua ventō commōta est inimīca nautīs semper, et saepe perfidus
ventus nāvigia rapit, agit, dēletque. Iī puerī, sī nōn fuerint
maximē attentī, īrātā aquā et validō ventō superābuntur et ita
interficientur.

[Footnote 1: Dative case. (Cf. §109.)]

[Footnote 2: Ablative of means.]

«189.» EXERCISE

1. Where had the boys been before? They had been in school. 2. Where had Sextus been? He had been in a field next to the river. 3. Who has been with Sextus to-day? Cornelius has been with him. 4. Who says so? Marcus. 5. If the wind has been suitable, the boys have been in the boat. 6. Soon we shall sail with the boys. 7. There[3] will be no danger, if we are (shall have been) careful.[4]

[Footnote 3: The expletive _there_ is not expressed, but the verb
will precede the subject, as in English.]

[Footnote 4: This predicate adjective must be nominative plural to
agree with _we_.]

LESSON XXXII

THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«animus, -ī», m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate)
«bracchium, bracchī», n., _forearm, arm_
«porta, -ae», f., _gate_ (portal)

ADJECTIVES
«adversus, -a, -um», _opposite; adverse, contrary_
«plēnus, -a, -um», _full_ (plenty)

PREPOSITION
«prō», with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_

ADVERB
«diū», _for a long time, long_

«190.» «Meanings of the Perfect.» The perfect tense has two distinct meanings. The first of these is equivalent to the English present perfect, or perfect with _have_, and denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking; as, _I have finished my work_. As this denotes completed action at a definite time, it is called the «perfect definite».

The perfect is also used to denote an action that happened _sometime in the past_; as, _I finished my work._ As no definite time is specified, this is called the «perfect indefinite». It corresponds to the ordinary use of the English past tense.

_a._ Note carefully the difference between the following tenses:

_I {was finishing } my work_ (imperfect, §134)
{used to finish}
_I finished my work_ (perfect indefinite)
_I have finished my work_ (perfect definite)

When telling a story the Latin uses the _perfect indefinite_ to mark the different _forward steps_ of the narrative, and the _imperfect_ to _describe situations and circumstances_ that attend these steps. If the following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used?

“Last week I went to Boston. I was trying to find an old friend of
mine, but he was out of the city. Yesterday I returned home.”

«191.» «Inflection of the Perfect.» We learned in §186 that any perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then as follows:

CONJ. I «amāvī» _I have loved_, _I loved_ or _did love_
CONJ. II «monuī» _I have advised_, _I advised_ or _did advise_
CONJ. III «rēxī» _I have ruled_, _I ruled_ or _did rule_
«cēpī» _I have taken_, _I took_ or _did take_
CONJ. IV «audīvī» _I have heard_, _I heard_ or _did hear_

PERFECT STEMS
«amāv-» «monu-» «rēx-» «cēp-» «audīv-»

SINGULAR
1. amā´vī mo´nuī rē´xī cē´pī audī´vī
2. amāvis´tī monuis´tī rēxis´tī cēpis´tī audīvis´tī
3. amā´vit mo´nuit rē´xit cē´pit audī´vit

PLURAL
1. amā´vimus monu´imus rē´ximus cē´pimus audī´vimus
2. amāvis´tis monuis´tis rēxis´tis cēpis´tis audīvis´tis
3. amāvē´runt monuē´runt rēxē´runt cēpē´runt audīvē´runt
_or_ _or_ _or_ _or_ _or_
amāvē´re monuē´re rēxē´re cēpē´re audīvē´re

1. The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the
principal parts. From this we get the perfect stem. _This shows the
absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly._

2. Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding
«-vī» to the present stem. Like «amāvī» inflect «parāvī», «vocāvī»,
«cūrāvī», «laudāvī».

3. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. Drill on it.

«192.» Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects:

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC.
dō dăre dedī _give_
dēleō dēlēre dēlēvī _destroy_
habeō habēre habuī _have_
moveō movēre mōvī _move_
pāreō pārēre pāruī _obey_
prohibeō prohibēre prohibuī _restrain, keep from_
videō vidēre vīdī _see_
dīcō dīcere dīxī _say_
discēdō discēdere discessī _depart_
dūcō dūcere dūxī _lead_
faciō facere fēcī _make, do_
mittō mittere mīsī _send_
mūniō mūnīre mūnīvī _fortify_
veniō venīre vēnī _come_

«193.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

Cēpheus, adversā fortūnā maximē commōtus, discessit et multīs cum lacrimīs populō Aethiopiae verba ōrāculī nārrāvit. Fāta Andromedae, puellae pulchrae, ā tōtō populō dēplōrābantur, tamen nūllum erat auxilium. Deinde Cēpheus cum plēnō trīstitiae animō cāram suam fīliam ex oppidī portā ad aquam dūxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dūra revīnxit. Tum amīcī puellae miserae longē discessērunt et diū mōnstrum saevum exspectāvērunt.

Tum forte Perseus, ālīs frētus, super Aethiopiam volābat. Vīdit populum, Andromedam, lacrimās, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram dēscendit. Tum Cēpheus eī tōtās cūrās nārrāvit et ita dīxit: “Pārēbō verbīs ōrāculī, et prō patriā fīliam meam dabō; sed sī id mōnstrum interficiēs et Andromedam servābis, tibi (_to you_) eam dabō.”

LESSON XXXIII

PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE

«194.» CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV
«amō» «moneō» «regō» «capiō» «audiō»
PERFECT STEMS «amāv-» «monu-» «rēx-» «cēp-» «audīv-»

PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
TENSE SIGN «-erā-»

SINGULAR
I had loved I had advised I had ruled I had taken I had heard

1. amā´veram monu´eram rē´xeram cē´peram audī´veram
2. amā´verās monu´erās rē´xerās cē´perās audī´verās
3. amā´verat monu´erat rē´xerat cē´perat audī´verat

PLURAL
1. amāverā´mus monuerā´mus rēxerā´mus cēperā´mus audīverā´mus
2. amāverā´tis monuerā´tis rēxerā´tis cēperā´tis audīverā´tis
3. amā´verant monu´erant rē´xerant cē´perant audī´verant

FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
TENSE SIGN «-eri-»

SINGULAR
I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have
loved advised ruled taken heard

1. amā´verō monu´erō rē´xerō cē´perō audī´verō
2. amā´veris monu´eris rē´xeris cē´peris audī´veris
3. amā´verit monu´erit rē´xerit cē´perit audī´verit

PLURAL
1. amāve´rimus monue´rimus rēxe´rimus cēpe´rimus audīve´rimus
2. amāve´ritis monue´ritis rēxe´ritis cēpe´ritis audīve´ritis
3. amā´verint monu´erint rē´xerint cē´perint audī´verint

1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for
formation given in §187.2-4 hold good here.

2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative
active of «dō», «portō», «dēleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discēdō»,
«faciō», «veniō», «mūniō.»

«195.» «The Perfect Active Infinitive.» The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding «-isse» to the perfect stem.

CONJ PERFECT STEM PERFECT INFINITIVE
I. amāv- amāvis´se, _to have loved_
II. monu- monuis´se, _to have advised_
III. (_a_) rēx- rēxis´se, _to have ruled_
(_b_) cēp- cēpis´se, _to have taken_
IV. audīv» audīvis´se, _to have heard_
sum fu- fuis´se, _to have been_

1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of «dō», «portō»,
«dēleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «faciō», «veniō»,
«mūniō».

«196.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Habuistī, mōvērunt, miserant. 2. Vīdit, dīxeris, dūxisse. 3. Mīsistis, pāruērunt, discesserāmus. 4. Mūnīvit, dederam, mīserō. 5. Habuerimus, dēlēvī, pāruit, fuisse. 6. Dederās, mūnīveritis, vēnerātis, mīsisse. 7. Vēnerās, fēcisse, dederātis, portāveris.

8. Quem verba ōrāculī mōverant? Populum verba ōrāculī mōverant. 9. Cui Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit? Perseō Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit. 10. Amīcī ab Andromedā discesserint. 11. Mōnstrum saevum domicilia multa dēlēverat. 12. Ubi mōnstrum vīdistis? Id in aquā vīdimus. 13. Quid mōnstrum faciet? Mōnstrum Andromedam interficiet.

II. 1. They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2. We shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3. I had departed, he has obeyed, you have sent (_sing. and plur._). 4. To have destroyed, to have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5. He had destroyed, he has moved, you have had (_sing. and plur._). 6. I have given, you had moved (_sing. and plur._), we had said. 7. You will have made (_sing. and plur._), they will have led, to have given.

8. Who had seen the monster? Andromeda had seen it. 9. Why had the men departed from[1] the towns? They had departed because the monster had come. 10. Did Cepheus obey[2] the oracle[3]? He did.

[Footnote 1: «ex». What would «ab» mean?]

[Footnote 2: _Did ... obey_, perfect tense.]

[Footnote 3: What case?]

LESSON XXXIV

REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE

[Special Vocabulary]

ADVERBS
«celeriter», _quickly_ (celerity)
«dēnique», _finally_
«graviter», _heavily, severely_ (gravity)
«subitō», _suddenly_

VERB
«reportō, -āre, -āvī», _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report)

«197.» A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the following formation:

{ PRESENT = First of the principal parts
TENSES { IMPERFECT = Present stem + -ba-m
OF THE { FUTURE = Present stem + -bō, Conj. I and II
INDICATIVE { -a-m, Conj. III and IV
{ PERFECT = Third of the principal parts
{ PLUPERFECT = Perfect stem + -era-m
{ FUTURE PERFECT = Perfect stem + -erō

«198.» The synopsis of the active voice of «amō», as far as we have learned the conjugation, is as follows:

PRINCIPAL PARTS «amō, amāre, amāvī»

PRES. STEM «amā-»

{ _Pres._ amō
INDIC. { _Imperf._ amābam
{ _Fut._ amābō
PRES. IMV. amā
PRES. INFIN. amāre

PERF. STEM «amāv-»

{ _Perf._ amāvī
INDIC. { _Pluperf._ amāveram
{ _Fut. perf._ amāverō
PERF. INFIN. amāvisse

1. Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal
parts and synopsis of «parō», «dō», «laudō», «dēleō», «habeō»,
«moveō», «pāreō», «videō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «dūcō», «mittō»,
«capiō», «muniō», «veniō».[1]

[Footnote 1: Learn to give synopses rapidly, and not only in the
first person singular but in any person of either number.]

«199.» Learn the following principal parts:[2]

PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC.

IRREGULAR VERBS
sum esse fuī _be_
ab´sum abes´se ā´fuī _be away_
dō dare dedī _give_

CONJUGATION II
contineō continēre continuī _hold in, keep_
doceō docēre docuī _teach_
egeō egēre eguī _need_
faveō favēre fāvī _favor_
iubeō iubēre iussī _order_
noceō nocēre nocuī _injure_
persuādeō persuādēre persuāsī _persuade_
respondeō respondēre respondī _reply_
sedeō sedēre sēdī _sit_
studeō studēre studuī _be eager_

CONJUGATION III
agō agere ēgī _drive_
crēdō crēdere crēdidī _believe_
fugiō fugere fūgī _flee_
iaciō iacere iēcī _hurl_
interficiō interficere interfēcī _kill_
rapiō rapere rapuī _seize_
resis´tō resis´tere re´stitī _resist_

CONJUGATION IV
repe´riō reperī´re rep´perī _find_

[Footnote 2: These are all verbs that you have had before, and the
perfect is the only new form to be learned.]

«200.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Read the whole story.

Perseus semper proeliō studēbat[3] et respondit,[3] “Verba tua sunt maximē grāta,” et laetus arma sua magica parāvit.[3] Subitō mōnstrum vidētur; celeriter per aquam properat et Andromedae adpropinquat. Eius amīcī longē absunt et misera puella est sōla. Perseus autem sine morā super aquam volāvit.[3] Subitō dēscendit[3] et dūrō gladiō saevum mōnstrum graviter vulnerāvit.[3] Diū pugnātur,[4] diū proelium est dubium. Dēnique autem Perseus mōnstrum interfēcit[3] et victōriam reportāvit.[3] Tum ad saxum vēnit[3] et Andromedam līberāvit[3] et eam ad Cēpheum dūxit.[3] Is, nūper miser, nunc laetus, ita dīxit[3]: “Tuō auxiliō, mī amīce, cāra fīlia mea est lībera; tua est Andromeda.” Diū Perseus cum Andromedā ibi habitābat[3] et magnopere ā tōtō populō amābātur.[3]

[Footnote 3: See if you can explain the use of the perfects and
imperfects in this passage.]

[Footnote 4: The verb pugnātur means, literally, _it is fought_;
translate freely, _the battle is fought_, or _the contest rages_.
The verb pugnō in Latin is intransitive, and so does not have a
personal subject in the passive. A verb with an indeterminate
subject, designated in English by _it_, is called impersonal.]

LESSON XXXV

THE PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE THE PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE

«201.» The fourth and last of the principal parts (§183) is the «perfect passive participle». _From it we get the participial stem on which are formed the future active infinitive and all the passive perfects._

1. Learn the following principal parts, which are for the first time
given in full:

CONJ. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PASS. PART.
I. amō amā´-re amā´v-ī amā´t-us
This is the model for all regular verbs of the first conjugation.
II. mo´neō monē´-re mo´nu-ī mo´nit-us
III. regō re´ge-re rēx-ī rēct-us
ca´piō ca´pe-re cēp-ī capt-us
IV. au´diō audī´-re audī´v-ī audī´t-us

2. The base of the participial stem is found by dropping «-us» from
the perfect passive participle.

«202.» In English the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses of the indicative passive are made up of forms of the auxiliary verb _to be_ and the past participle; as, _I have been loved_, _I had been loved_, _I shall have been loved._

Very similarly, in Latin, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive tenses use respectively the present, imperfect, and future of «sum» as an auxiliary verb with the perfect passive participle, as

Perfect passive, «amā´tus sum», _I have been_ or _was loved_
Pluperfect passive, «amā´tus eram», _I had been loved_
Future perfect passive, «amā´tus erō», _I shall have been loved_

1. In the same way give the synopsis of the corresponding tenses of
«moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō», and give the English meanings.

«203.» «Nature of the Participle.» A participle is partly verb and partly adjective. As a verb it possesses tense and voice. As an adjective it is declined and agrees with the word it modifies in gender, number, and case.

«204.» The perfect passive participle is declined like «bonus, bona, bonum», and in the compound tenses (§202) it agrees as a predicate adjective with the subject of the verb.

EXAMPLES IN SINGULAR
«Vir laudātus est», _the man was praised_, or _has been praised_
«Puella laudāta est», _the girl was praised_, or _has been praised_
«Cōnsilium laudātum est», _the plan was praised_, or
_has been praised_

EXAMPLES IN PLURAL
«Virī laudātī sunt», _the men were praised_, or _have been praised_
«Puellae laudātae sunt», _the girls were praised_, or
_have been praised_
«Cōnsilia laudāta sunt», _the plans were praised_, or
_have been praised_

1. Inflect the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative
passive of «amō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō» (§§488-492).

«205.» «The perfect passive infinitive» is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the perfect passive participle; as, amā´t-us (-a, -um) «esse», _to have been loved_; mo´nit-us (-a, -um) «esse», _to have been advised_.

1. Form the perfect passive infinitive of «regō», «capiō», «audiō»,
and give the English meanings.

«206.» The future active infinitive is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the future active participle. This participle is made by adding «-ūrus, -a, -um» to the base of the participial stem. Thus the future active infinitive of «amō» is amat-ū´rus (-a, -um) «esse», _to be about to love_.

_a._ Note that in forming the three tenses of the active infinitive
we use all three conjugation stems:

Present, amāre (present stem), _to love_
Perfect, amāvisse (perfect stem), _to have loved_
Future, amātūrus esse (participial stem), _to be about to love_

1. Give the three tenses of the active infinitive of «laudō», «moneō»,
«regō», «capiō», «audiō», with the English meanings.

«207.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Fābula Andromedae nārrāta est. 2. Multae fābulae ā magistrō nārrātae sunt. 3. Ager ab agricolā validō arātus erat. 4. Agrī ab agricolīs validīs arātī erant. 5. Aurum ā servō perfidō ad domicilium suum portātum erit. 6. Nostra arma ā lēgātō laudāta sunt. Quis vestra arma laudāvit? 7. Ab ancillā tuā ad cēnam vocātae sumus. 8. Andromeda mōnstrō nōn data est, quia mōnstrum ā Perseō necātum erat.

II. 1. The provinces were laid waste, the field had been laid waste, the towns will have been laid waste. 2. The oracles were heard, the oracle was heard, the oracles had been heard. 3. The oracle will have been heard, the province had been captured, the boats have been captured. 4. The fields were laid waste, the man was advised, the girls will have been advised. 5. The towns had been ruled, we shall have been captured, you will have been heard.

LESSON XXXVI

REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS · PREPOSITIONS _YES_-OR-_NO_ QUESTIONS

[Special Vocabulary]

«dexter, dextra, dextrum», _right_ (dextrous)
«sinister, sinistra, sinistrum», _left_
«frūstrā», adv., _in vain_ (frustrate)

«gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus», _bear, carry on; wear_;
«bellum gerere», _to wage war_
«occupō, occupāre, occupāvī, occupātus», _seize, take possession of_
(occupy)
«postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus», _demand_ (ex-postulate)
«recūsō, recūsāre, recūsāvī, recūsātus», _refuse_
«stō, stāre, stetī, status», _stand_
«temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus», _try, tempt, test; attempt_
«teneō, tenēre, tenuī, ----», _keep, hold_ (tenacious)

The word «ubi», which we have used so much in the sense of _where_ in
asking a question, has two other uses equally important:

1. «ubi» = _when_, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as,
«Ubi mōnstrum audīvērunt, fūgērunt», _when they heard the monster,
they fled_

2. «ubi» = _where_, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as,
«Videō oppidum ubi Galba habitat», _I see the town where Galba
lives_

«ubi» is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to
a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to
_at the time «at which»;_ and in the second, _where_ is equivalent
to _the place «in which»._

«208.» The following list shows the principal parts of all the verbs you have had excepting those used in the paradigms. The parts you have had before are given for review, and the perfect participle is the only new form for you to learn. Sometimes one or more of the principal parts are lacking, which means that the verb has no forms based on that stem. A few verbs lack the perfect passive participle but have the future active participle in «-ūrus», which appears in the principal parts instead.

IRREGULAR VERBS

«sum» «esse» «fuī» «futūrus» _be_
«absum» «abesse» «āfuī» «āfutūrus» _be away_
«dō»[1] «dare» «dedī» «datus» _give_

[Footnote 1: «dō» is best classed with the irregular verbs because
of the short «a» in the present and participial stems.]

CONJUGATION I

«portō» «portāre» «portāvī» «portātus» _carry_

So for all verbs of this conjugation thus far used.

CONJUGATION II

«contineō» «continēre» «continuī» «contentus» _hold in, keep_
«dēleō» «dēlēre» «dēlēvī» «dēlētus» _destroy_
«doceō» «docēre» «docuī» «doctus» _teach_
«egeō» «egēre» «eguī» ---- _lack_
«faveō» «favēre» «fāvī» «fautūrus» _favor_
«iubeō» «iubēre» «iussī» «iussus» _order_
«moveō» «movēre» «mōvī» «mōtus» _move_
«noceō» «nocēre» «nocuī» «nocitūrus» _injure_
«pāreō» «pārēre» «pāruī» ---- _obey_
«persuādeō» «persuādēre» «persuāsī» «persuāsus» _persuade (from)_
«prohibeō» «prohibēre» «prohibuī» «prohibitus» _restrain, keep_
«respondeō» «respondēre» «respondī» «respōnsus» _reply_
«sedeō» «sedēre» «sēdī» «-sessus» _sit_
«studeō» «studēre» «studuī» ---- _be eager_
«videō» «vidēre» «vīdī» «vīsus» _see_

CONJUGATION III

«agō» «agere» «ēgī» «āctus» _drive_
«crēdō» «crēdere» «crēdidī» «crēditus» _believe_
«dīcō» «dīcere» «dīxī» «dictus» _say_
«discēdō» «discēdere» «discessī» «discessus» _depart_
«dūcō» «dūcere» «dūxī» «ductus» _lead_
«faciō»[2] «facere» «fēcī» «factus» _make_
«fugiō» «fugere» «fūgī» «fugitūrus» _flee_
«iaciō» «iacere» «iēcī» «iactus» _hurl_
«interficiō» «interficere» «interfēcī» «interfectus» _kill_
«mittō» «mittere» «mīsī» «missus» _send_
«rapiō» «rapere» «rapuī» «raptus» _seize_
«resistō» «resistere» «restitī» ---- _resist_

CONJUGATION IV

«mūniō» «mūnīre» «mūnīvī» «mūnītus» _fortify_
«reperiō» «reperīre» «rep´perī» «repertus» _find_
«veniō» «venīre» «vēnī» «ventus» _come_

[Footnote 2: «faciō» has an irregular passive which will be
presented later.]

«209.» «Prepositions.»
1. We learned in §§52, 53 that only the _accusative_ and the
_ablative_ are used with prepositions, and that prepositions
expressing ablative relations govern the ablative case. Those we have
had are here summarized. The table following should be learned.

«ā» or «ab», _from, by_
«cum», _with_
«dē», _down from, concerning_
«ē» or «ex», _out from, out of_
«prō», _before, in front of; for, in behalf of_
«sine», _without_

2. Prepositions not expressing ablative relations must govern the
_accusative_ (§52). Of these we have had the following:

«ad», _to_;
«apud», _among_;
«per», _through_

There are many others which you will meet as we proceed.

3. The preposition «in» when meaning _in_ or _on_ governs the
_ablative_; when meaning _to, into, against_ (relations foreign to the
ablative) «in» governs the _accusative_.

«210.» «_Yes_-or-_No_ Questions.» Questions not introduced by some interrogative word like _who, why, when_, etc., but expecting the answer _yes_ or _no_, may take one of three forms:

1. _Is he coming?_ (Asking for information. Implying nothing as to
the answer expected.)
2. _Is he not coming?_ (Expecting the answer _yes_.)
3. _He isn´t coming, is he?_ (Expecting the answer _no_.)

These three forms are rendered in Latin as follows:

1. «Venitne?» _is he coming?_
2. «Nōnne venit?» _is he not coming?_
3. «Num venit?» _he isn´t coming, is he?_

_a._ «-ne», the question sign, is usually added to the verb, which
then stands first.

_b._ We learned in §56.b that _yes_-or-_no_ questions are usually
answered by repeating the verb, with or without a negative. Instead
of this, «ita», «vērō», «certē», etc. (_so, truly, certainly_, etc.)
may be used for _yes_, and «nōn», «minimē», etc. for _no_ if the
denial is emphatic, as, _by no means_, _not at all_.

«211.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.

I. 1. Nōnne habēbat Cornēlia ōrnāmenta aurī? Habēbat. 2. Num Sextus lēgātus scūtum in dextrō bracchiō gerēbat? Nōn in dextrō, sed sinistrō in bracchiō Sextus scūtum gerēbat. 3. Frūstrā bella multa ab Gallīs gesta erant. 4. Ubi oppidum ā perfidō Sextō occupātum est, oppidānī miserī gladiō interfectī sunt. 5. Id oppidum erat plēnum frūmentī. 6. Nōnne Sextus ab oppidānīs frūmentum postulāvit? Vērō, sed iī recūsāvērunt frūmentum dare. 7. Cūr oppidum ab Sextō dēlētum est? Quia frūmentum recūsātum est. 8. Ea victōria nōn dubia erat. 9. Oppidānī erant dēfessī et armīs egēbant. 10. Num fugam temptāvērunt? Minimē.

II. 1. Where was Julia standing? She was standing where you had ordered. 2. Was Julia wearing any ornaments? She had many ornaments of gold. 3. Did she not attempt flight when she saw the danger? She did. 4. Who captured her? Galba captured her without delay and held her by the left arm. 5. She didn´t have the lady’s gold, did she? No, the gold had been taken by a faithless maid and has been brought back.

* * * * *

«Fourth Review, Lessons XXVII-XXXVI, §§513-516»

* * * * *

LESSON XXXVII

CONJUGATION OF _POSSUM_ · THE INFINITIVE USED AS IN ENGLISH

[Special Vocabulary]

«neque» or «nec», conj., _neither_, _nor_, _and ... not_;
«neque ... neque», _neither ... nor_
«castellum, -ī», n., _redoubt, fort_ (castle)
«cotīdiē», adv., _daily_
cessō, cessāre, cessāvī, cessātus, _cease_, with the infin.

«incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus», _begin_ (incipient),
with the infin.
«oppugnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī, oppugnātus», _storm, assail_
«petō, petere, petivi» or «petiī, petītus», _aim at, assail, storm,
attack; seek, ask_ (petition)
«pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus», _place, put_ (position);
«castra pōnere», _to pitch camp_
«possum, posse, potuī, ----», _be able, can_ (potent), with the infin.
«vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus», _forbid_ (veto), vith the infin.;
opposite of «iubeō», _command_
«vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus», _conquer_ (in-vincible)
«vīvō, vīvere, vīxī, ----», _live, be alive_ (re-vive)

«212.» Learn the principal parts of «possum», _I am able_, _I can_, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.)

_a._ «Possum», _I can_, is a compound of «potis», _able_, and «sum»,
_I am_.

«213.» «The Infinitive with Subject Accusative.» The _infinitive_ (cf. §173) is a _verbal noun_. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.

1. In English certain verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and
the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in
the objective case and an infinitive, as, _he commanded the men to
flee_. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the
substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, some verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_,
and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an
infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, «Is virōs
fugere iussit», _he commanded the men to flee_.

«214.» RULE. «Subject of the Infinitive.» _The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative._

«215.» «The Complementary Infinitive.» In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, _the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls_. This is called the _complementary_ infinitive, as the predicate is not _complete_ without the added infinitive.

Similarly in Latin, _verbs of incomplete predication_ are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are «possum», _I am able, I can_; «properō», «mātūrō», _I hasten_; «temptō», _I attempt_; as

«Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt»,
_the Romans are able to_ (or _can_) _conquer the Gauls_
«Bellum gerere mātūrant»,
_they hasten to wage war_

_a._ A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive
agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main
verb.

«Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt», _bad boys are not able to_
(or _cannot_) _be good._

Observe that «bonī» agrees with «puerī».

«216.» «The Infinitive used as a Noun.» In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, _To conquer_ (= conquering) _is pleasing; To see_ (= seeing) _is to believe_ (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with «est», as

«Superāre est grātum», _to conquer is pleasing_
«Vidēre est crēdere», _to see is to believe_

_a._ In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject,
which must then be in the accusative case, as

«Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs»,
_for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many_

_b._ An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the
sentence «superāre est grātum», the predicate adjective «grātum» is
in the neuter nominative singular to agree with «superāre» the
subject.

«217.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Magister lūdī līberōs cum dīligentiā labōrāre iussit. 2. Egēre cibō et vinō est virīs molestum. 3. Virī armātī vetuērunt Gallōs castra ibi pōnere. 4. Estne lēgātus in castellō an in mūrō? Is est prō portā. 5. Ubi nostrī[1] fugere incēpērunt, lēgātus ab vestrīs[1] captus est. 6. Gallī castellum ibi oppugnāverant ubi praesidium erat īnfīrmum. 7. Aliī pugnāre temptābant, aliī portās petēbant. 8. Fēminae prō domiciliīs sedēbant neque resistere validīs Gallīs poterant. 9. Bellum est saevum, nec īnfīrmīs nec miserīs favet. 10. Sed virī arma postulābant et studēbant Gallōs dē mūrīs agere. 11. Id castellum ab Gallīs occupārī Rōmānīs nōn grātum erit. 12. Gallī ubi ā Rōmānīs victī sunt, esse līberī[2] cessāvērunt. 13. Diū sine aquā vīvere nōn potestis.

II. 1. The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates. 2. The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle. 3. For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4. Neither did they cease to hurl weapons against[3] the walls. 5. But they were not able to (could not) take the town.

[Footnote 1: Supply _men_. «nostri», «vestrī», and «suī» are often
used as nouns in this way.]

[Footnote 2: Not _children_. The Romans used «līberī» either as an
adjective, meaning _free_, or as a noun, meaning _the free_, thereby
signifying their _free-born children_. The word was never applied to
children of slaves.]

[Footnote 3: «in» with the accusative.]

«218.» THE FAITHLESS TARPE´IA

Sabīnī ōlim cum Rōmānīs bellum gerēbant et multās victōriās reportāverant. Iam agrōs proximōs mūrīs vāstābant, iam oppidō adpropinquābant. Rōmānī autem in Capitōlium fūgerant et longē perīculō aberant. Mūrīs validīs et saxīs altīs crēdēbant. Frūstrā Sabīnī tēla iaciēbant, frūstrā portās dūrās petēbant; castellum occupāre nōn poterant. Deinde novum cōnsilium cēpērunt.[4]

Tarpēia erat puella Rōmāna pulchra et superba. Cotīdiē aquam cōpiīs Rōmānīs in Capitōlium portābat. Eī[5] nōn nocēbant Sabīnī, quod ea sine armīs erat neque Sabīnī bellum cum fēminīs līberīsque gerēbant. Tarpēia autem maximē amābat ōrnāmenta aurī. Cotīdiē Sabīnōrum ōrnāmenta vidēbat et mox ea dēsīderāre incipiēbat. Eī ūnus ex[6] Sabīnīs dīxit, “Dūc cōpiās Sabīnās intrā portās, Tarpēia, et maxima erunt praemia tua.”

[Footnote 4: «cōnsilium capere», _to make a plan_. Why is the
_perfect_ tense used here and the imperfect in the preceding
sentences? Explain the use of tenses in the next paragraph.]

[Footnote 5: Dative with «nocēbant». (Cf. §154.)]

[Footnote 6: «ex», _out of_, i.e. _from the nuumber of_; best
translated _of_.]

LESSON XXXVIII

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

«219.» Sentences are _simple, compound_, or _complex_.

_a._ A _simple sentence_ is a sentence containing but one statement,
that is, one subject and one predicate: _The Romans approached the
town._

_b._ A _compound sentence_ is a sentence containing two or more
independent statements:
_The Romans approached the town_ | and | _the enemy fled._

NOTE. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement.

_c._ A _complex sentence_ is a sentence containing one independent
statement and one or more dependent statements:
_When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled._

NOTE. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus _the enemy fled_ is independent, and _when the Romans approached the town_ is dependent or subordinate.

_d._ The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are
called _clauses_. In a complex sentence the independent statement is
called the _main clause_ and the dependent statement the
_subordinate clause._

«220.» Examine the complex sentence

_The Romans killed the men who were taken_

Here are two clauses:

_a._ The main clause, _The Romans killed the men_

_b._ The subordinate clause, _who were taken_

The word _who_ is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun _men_. It also connects the subordinate clause _who were taken_ with the noun _men_. Hence the clause is an _adjective clause_. A pronoun that connects an _adjective clause_ with a substantive is called a _relative pronoun_, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its _antecedent_. The relative pronouns in English are _who, whose, whom, which, what, that_.

«221.» The relative pronoun in Latin is «quī», «quae», «quod», and it is declined as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
_Nom._ «quī» «quae» «quod» «quī» «quae» «quae»
_Gen._ «cuius» «cuius» «cuius» «quōrum» «quārum» «quōrum»
_Dat._ «cui» «cui» «cui» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus»
_Acc._ «quem» «quam» «quod» «quōs» «quās» «quae»
_Abl._ «quō» «quā» «quō» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus»

1. Review the declension of «is», §114, and note the similarity in
the endings. The forms «quī», «quae», and «quibus» are the only forms
showing new endings.

NOTE. The genitive «cuius» and the dative «cui» are pronounced _co͝oi´yo͝os_ (two syllables) and _co͝oi_ (one syllable).

«222.» «The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:»[1]

MASC. AND FEM. NEUT.
_Nom._ _who, that_ _which, what, that_
_Gen._ _of whom, whose_ _of which, of what, whose_
_Dat._ _to_ or _for whom_ _to_ or _for which_, _to_ or _for what_
_Acc._ _whom, that_ _which, what, that_
_Abl._ _from_, etc., _whom_ _from_, etc., _which_ or _what_

[Footnote 1: This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is
inserted for reference when translating.]

_a._ We see from the table above that «quī», when it refers to a
person, is translated by some form of _who_ or by _that_; and that
when it refers to anything else it is translated by _which, what_,
or _that_.

«223.» Note the following sentences:

_The Romans killed the men who were taken_
_The Romans killed the woman who was taken_
«Rōmānī interfēcērunt virōs quī captī sunt»
«Rōmānī interfēcērunt fēminam quae capta est»

In the first sentence _who_ («quī») refers to the antecedent _men_ («virōs»), and is _masculine plural_. In the second, _who_ («quae») refers to _woman_ («fēminam»), and _feminine singular_. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in _gender_ and _number_. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. «Virōs» and «fēminam» are accusatives, and «quī» and «quae» are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence

«224.» RULE. «Agreement of the Relative.» _A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause._

«225.» «Interrogative Pronouns.» An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are _who?_ _which?_ _what?_ In Latin they are «quis?» «quid?» (pronoun) and «quī?» «quae?» «quod?» (adjective).

«226.» Examine the sentences

_a._ _Who is the man?_ «Quis est vir?»
_b._ _What man is leading them?_ «Quī vir eōs dūcit?»

In _a_, _who_ is an interrogative _pronoun_. In _b_, _what_ is an interrogative _adjective_. Observe that in Latin «quis», «quid» is the _pronoun_ and «quī», «quae», «quod» is the _adjective_.

«227.» 1. The interrogative adjective «quī», «quae», «quod» is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See §221.)

2. The interrogative pronoun «quis», «quid» is declined like «quī»,
«quae», «quod» in the plural. In the singular it is declined as
follows:

MASC. AND FEM. NEUT.
_Nom._ «quis», _who?_ «quid», _what? which?_
_Gen._ «cuius», _whose?_ «cuius», _whose?_
_Dat._ «cui», _to_ or _for whom?_ «cui», _to_ or _for_
_what_ or _which?_
_Acc._ «quem», _whom?_ «quid», _what? which?_
_Abl._ «quō», _from_, etc., _whom?_ «quō», _from_, etc.,
_which_ or _what?_

NOTE. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid.

«228.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis est aeger? Servus quem amō est aeger. 2. Cuius scūtum habēs? Scūtum habeō quod lēgātus ad castellum mīsit. 3. Cui lēgātus suum scūtum dabit? Fīliō meō scūtum dabit. 4. Ubi Germānī antīquī vīvēbant? In terrā quae est proxima Rhēnō Germānī vīvēbant. 5. Quibuscum[1] Germānī bellum gerēbant? Cum Rōmānīs, qui eōs superāre studēbant, Germānī bellum gerēbant. 6. Quī virī castra pōnunt? Iī sunt virī quōrum armīs Germānī victī sunt. 7. Quibus tēlīs cōpiae nostrae eguērunt? Gladiīs et telīs nostrae cōpiae eguērunt. 8. Ā quibus porta sinistra tenēbātur? Ā sociīs porta sinistra tenēbātur. 9. Quae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt? Multae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt. 10. Quibus virīs deī favēbunt? Bonīs virīs deī favēbunt.

[Footnote 1: «cum» is added to the ablative of relative,
interrogative, and personal pronouns instead of being placed
before them.]

II. 1. What victory will you announce? 2. I will announce to the people the victory which the sailors have won. 3. The men who were pitching camp were eager for battle. 4. Nevertheless they were soon conquered by the troops which Sextus had sent. 5. They could not resist our forces, but fled from that place without delay.

«229.» THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_)[2]

Tarpēia, commōta ōrnamentīs Sabīnōrum pulchrīs, diū resistere nōn potuit et respondit: “Date mihi[3] ōrnāmenta quae in sinistrīs bracchīs geritis, et celeriter cōpiās vestrās in Capitōlium dūcam.” Nec Sabīnī recūsāvērunt, sed per dūrās magnāsque castellī portās properāvērunt quō[1] Tarpēia dūxit et mox intrā validōs et altōs mūrōs stābant. Tum sine morā in[2] Tarpēiam scūta graviter iēcērunt; nam scūta quoque in sinistrīs bracchiīs gerēbant. Ita perfida puella Tarpēia interfecta est; ita Sabīnī Capitōlium occupāvērunt.

[Footnote 2: Explain the use of the tenses in this selection.]

[Footnote 3: _to me._]

[Footnote 1: quō = _whither_, _to the place where_. Here «quo» is
the relative adverb. We have had it used before as the interrogative
adverb, _whither?_ _to what place?_]

[Footnote 2: _upon_.]

LESSON XXXIX

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS

[Special Vocabulary]

«barbarus, -a, -um», _strange, foreign, barbarous_. As a noun,
«barbarī, -ōrum», m., plur., _savages, barbarians_
«dux, ducis», m., _leader_ (duke). Cf. the verb «dūcō»
«eques, equitis», m., _horseman, cavalryman_ (equestrian)
iūdex, iūdicis, _m., judge_
«lapis, lapidis», m., _stone_ (lapidary)
«mīles, mīlitis», m., _soldier_ (militia)
«pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_ (pedestrian)
«pēs, pedis»,[A] m., _foot_ (pedal)
«prīnceps, prīncipis», m., _chief_ (principal)
«rēx, rēgis», m., _king_ (regal)
«summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit)
«virtūs, virtūtis», f., _manliness, courage_ (virtue)

[Footnote A: Observe that «e» is _long_ in the nom. sing, and
_short_ in the other cases.]

«230.» «Bases and Stems.» In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the «base». If to the base we add «-ā» in the first declension, and «-o» in the second, we get what is called the «stem». Thus «porta» has the base «port-» and the stem «portā-»; «servus» has the base «serv-» and the stem «servo-».

These stem vowels, «-ā-» and «-o-», play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the _Ā_- and _O_-Declensions.

«231.» «Nouns of the Third Declension.» The third declension is called the Consonant or _I_-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the _stem_ ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a _consonant stem_; if the stem ends in «-i-», the word is said to have an «i-»_stem_. _In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In_ «i-»_stems the stem is formed by adding_ «-i-» _to the base._ The presence of the «i» makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one.

«232.» Consonant stems are divided into two classes:

I. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular.
II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular.

CLASS I

«233.» Stems that add «-s» to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows:

«prīnceps», «mīles», m., «lapis»,
m., _chief_ _soldier_ m., _stone_
BASES OR
STEMS «prīncip-» «mīlit-» «lapid-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
M. AND F.
_Nom._ prīnceps mīles lapis -s
_Gen._ prīn´cipis mīlitis lapidis -is
_Dat._ prīn´cipī mīlitī lapidī -ī
_Acc._ prīn´cipem mīlitem lapidem -em
_Abl._ prīn´cipe mīlite lapide -e

PLURAL
_Nom._ prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs
_Gen._ prīn´cipum mīlitum lapidum -um
_Dat._ prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus
_Acc._ prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs
_Abl._ prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus

«rēx», «iūdex», «virtūs», f.,
m., _king_ m.,_judge_ _manliness_
BASES OR
STEMS «rēg-» «iūdic-» «virtūt-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
M. AND F.
_Nom._ rēx iūdex virtūs -s
_Gen._ rēgis iūdicis virtū´tis -is
_Dat._ rēgī iūdicī virtū´tī -ī
_Acc._ rēgem iūdicem virtū´tem -em
_Abl._ rēge iūdice virtū´te -e

PLURAL
_Nom._ rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs
_Gen._ rēgum iūdicum virtū´tum -um
_Dat._ rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus
_Acc._ rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs
_Abl._ rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus

1. The base or stem is found by dropping «-is» in the genitive
singular.

2. Most nouns of two syllables, like «prīnceps» («prīncip-»), «mīles»
(«mīlit-»), «iūdex» («iūdic-»), have «i» in the base, but «e» in the
nominative.

_a._ «lapis» is an exception to this rule.

3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the
nominative:

_a._ A final «-t» or «-d» is dropped before «-s»; thus «mīles» for
«mīlets», «lapis» for «lapids», «virtūs» for «virtūts».

_b._ A final «-c» or «-g» unites with «-s» and forms «-x»; thus
«iūdec» + «s» = «iūdex», «rēg» + «s» = «rēx».

4. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension.

In like manner decline «dux, ducis», m., _leader_; «eques, equitis»,
m., _horseman_; «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_; «pēs, pedis»,
m.,_foot_.

«234.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Neque peditēs neque equitēs occupāre castellum Rōmānum poterant. 2. Summā virtūte mūrōs altōs cotīdiē oppugnābant. 3. Pedes mīlitum lapidibus quī dē mūrō iaciēbantur saepe vulnerābantur. 4. Quod novum cōnsilium dux cēpit? 5. Is perfidam puellam pulchrīs ōrnāmentīs temptāvit. 6. Quid puella fēcit? 7. Puella commōta aurō mīlitēs per portās dūxit. 8. Tamen praemia quae summō studiō petīverat nōn reportāvit. 9. Apud Rōmānōs antīquōs Tarpēia nōn est laudāta.

II. 1. What ship is that which I see? That («illud») ship is the _Victory_. It is sailing now with a favorable wind and will soon approach Italy. 2. The judges commanded the savages to be seized and to be killed. 3. The chiefs of the savages suddenly began to flee, but were quickly captured by the horsemen. 4. The king led the foot soldiers to the wall from which the townsmen were hurling stones with the greatest zeal.

LESSON XL

THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

«Caesar, -aris», m., _Cæsar_
«captīvus, -ī», m., _captive, prisoner_
«cōnsul, -is», m., _consul_
«frāter, frātris», m., _brother_ (fraternity)
«homō, hominis», m., _man, human being_
«impedīmentum, -ī», n., _hindrance_ (impediment); plur.
«impedīmenta, -ōrum», _baggage_
«imperātor, imperātōris», m., _commander in chief, general_ (emperor)
«legiō, legiōnis», f., _legion_
«māter, mātris», f., _mother_ (maternal)
«ōrdō, ōrdinis», m., _row, rank_ (order)
«pater, patris», m., _father_ (paternal)
«salūs, salūtis», f., _safety_ (salutary)
«soror, sorōris», f., _sister_ (sorority)

CLASS II

«235.» Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add «-s.» They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

«236.» PARADIGMS

MASCULINES AND FEMININES

«cōnsul», «legiō», f., «ōrdō», «pater», m.,
m., _consul_ _legion_ m., _row_ _father_
BASES OR
STEMS «cōnsul-» «legiōn-» «ōrdin-» «patr-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
M. AND F.
_Nom._ cōnsul legiō ōrdō pater --
_Gen._ cōnsulis legiōnis ōrdinis patris -is
_Dat._ cōnsulī legiōnī ōrdinī patrī -ī
_Acc._ cōnsulem legiōnem ōrdinem patrem -em
_Abl._ cōnsule legiōne ōrdine patre -e

PLURAL
_Nom._ cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs
_Gen._ cōnsulum legiōnum ōrdinum patrum -um
_Dat._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus
_Acc._ cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs
_Abl._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus

1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly
the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way.

2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -ōn- drop
-n- and end in -ō in the nominative, as legiō (base or stem legiōn-),
ōrdō (base or stem ōrdin-).

3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base
or stem patr-).

4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole
declension. _Always learn this with the nominative._

«237.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.

I. 1. Audīsne tubās, Mārce? Nōn sōlum tubās audiō sed etiam ōrdinēs militum et carrōs impedīmentōrum plēnōs vidēre possum. 2.Quās legiōnēs vidēmus? Eae legiōnēs nūper ex Galliā vēnērunt. 3. Quid ibi fēcērunt? Studēbantne pugnāre an sine virtūte erant? 4.Multa proelia fēcērunt[1] et magnās victōriās et multōs captīvōs reportāvērunt. 5.Quis est imperātor eārum legiōnum? Caesar, summus Rōmānōrum imperātor. 6.Quis est eques quī pulchram corōnam gerit? Is eques est frāter meus. Eī corōna ā cōnsule data est quia summā virtūte pugnāverat et ā barbarīs patriam servāverat.