Chapter VI: Part II: Words and Forms (1)

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LESSON I

FIRST PRINCIPLES

«19.» «Subject and Predicate.»
1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences.
A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in
its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus,

_Galba is a farmer_
«Galba est agricola»
_The sailor fights_
«Nauta pugnat»

In each of these sentences there are two parts:

SUBJECT PREDICATE
_Galba_ _is a farmer_
«Galba»
_The sailor_ _fights_
«Nauta» «pugnat»

2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something
is said, and is therefore a _noun_ or some word which can serve the
same purpose.

_a._ Pronouns, as their name implies (_pro_, “instead of,” and
_noun_), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating
the same noun, as, _Galba is a farmer; «he» is a sturdy fellow_.

3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists
of a verb with or without modifiers.

_a._ A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act)
concerning a person, place, or thing.

«20.» «The Object.» In the two sentences, _The boy hit the ball_ and _The ball hit the boy_, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The «doer» of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the «subject». «That to which something is done» is the «direct object» of the verb. _The boy hit the ball_ is therefore analyzed as follows:

SUBJECT PREDICATE
/-----------\
_The boy_ _hit the ball_
(verb) (direct object)

_a._ A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in
the sentence above, is called a «transitive verb». A verb which does
not admit of a direct object is called «intransitive», as, _I walk_,
_he comes_.

«21.» «The Copula.» The verb _to be_ in its different forms--_are_, _is_, _was_, etc.--does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the «copula», that is, _the joiner_ or _link_.

«22.» In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the _nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas_:

1. «America est patria mea»
_America is fatherland my_

2. «Agricola fīliam amat»
_(The) farmer (his) daughter loves_

3. «Fīlia est Iūlia»
_(His) daughter is Julia_

4. «Iūlia et agricola sunt in īnsulā»
_Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island_

5. «Iūlia aquam portat»
_Julia water carries_

6. «Rosam in comīs habet»
_(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has_

7. «Iūlia est puella pulchra»
_Julia is (a) girl pretty_

8. «Domina fīliam pulchram habet»
_(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has_

_a._ The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words
which are necessary in English. First of all, _Latin has no article
«the» or «a»_; thus _«agricola»_ may mean _the farmer, a farmer_,
or simply _farmer_. Then, too, the personal pronouns, _I, you, he,
she_, etc., and the possessive pronouns, _my, your, his, her_, etc.,
are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without
them.

LESSON II

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

«23.» «Inflection.» Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, _is, are_; _was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women_. This is called «inflection». The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its «declension», that of a verb its «conjugation».

«24.» «Number.» Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding _-s_ or _-es_ to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare

«Naut-a pugnat»
_The sailor fights_
«Naut-ae pugnant»
_The sailors fight_

«25.» RULE. _Nouns that end in «-a» in the singular end in «-ae» in the plural_.

«26.» Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.

«agri´cola», _farmer_ (agriculture)[1]
«aqua», _water_ (aquarium)
«causa», _cause, reason_
«do´mina», _lady of the house, mistress_ (dominate)
«filia», _daughter_ (filial)
«fortū´na», _fortune_
«fuga», _flight_ (fugitive)
«iniū´ria», _wrong, injury_
«lūna», _moon_ (lunar)
«nauta», _sailor_ (nautical)
«puel´la», _girl_
«silva», forest (silvan)
«terra», _land_ (terrace)

[Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to
the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as «causa»,
_cause_, no comparison is needed.]

«27.» Compare again the sentences

«Nauta pugna-t»
_The sailor fights_
«Nautae pugna-nt»
_The sailors fight_

In the first sentence the verb «pugna-t» is in the third person singular, in the second sentence «pugna-nt» is in the third person plural.

«28.» RULE. «Agreement of Verb.» _A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject._

«29.» RULE. _In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in «-t», the third person plural in «-nt». The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called «personal endings»._

«30.» Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb’s subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus «nauta pugnat» is translated _the sailor fights_, not _the sailor he fights_.

«ama-t» _he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love_ (amity, amiable)
«labō´ra-t» “ “ “ _labors, is laboring, does labor_
«nūntia-t»[2] “ “ “ _announces, is announcing, does announce_
«porta-t» “ “ “ _carries, is carrying, does carry_ (porter)
«pugna-t» “ “ “ _fights, is fighting, does fight_ (pugnacious)

[Footnote 2: The _u_ in «nūntiō» is long by exception.
(Cf. §12.2.)]

«31.» EXERCISES

I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries.

II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fīlia labōrat, fīliae labōrant. 5. Nauta nūntiat, nautae nūntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat.

LESSON III

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

«32.» «Declension of Nouns.» We learned above (§§19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence _The lady her daughter loves_ might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady.

1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the
subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the
words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the
following sentences:

«Domina fīliam amat»
«Fīliam domina amat»
«Amat fīliam domina»
«Domina amat fīliam»
_The lady loves her daughter_

«Fīlia dominam amat»
«Dominam fīlia amat»
«Amat dominam fīlia»
«Fīlia amat dominam»
_The daughter loves the lady_

_a._ Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in
«-a» and the object in «-am». The _form_ of the noun shows how it is
used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on
the essential meaning.

2. As stated above (§23), this change of ending is called
«declension», and each different ending produces what is called a
«case». When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or
changes of endings. In English we have three cases,--nominative,
possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective
have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of
ending, by adding _’s_ or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun,
however, has the fuller declension, _who?_ _whose?_ _whom?_

«33.» The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized:

When the nominative singular of a noun ends in «-a», observe that

_a._ The nominative plural ends in «-ae».

_b._ The genitive singular ends in «-ae» and the genitive plural in
«-ārum».

_c._ The accusative singular ends in «-am» and the accusative plural
in «-ās».

_d._ The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same
ending.

«34.» EXERCISE

Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses.

1. Silva, silvās, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrārum, terrae, terrās. 4. Aquās, causam, lūnās. 5. Fīliae, fortūnae, lūnae. 6. Iniūriās, agricolārum, aquārum. 7. Iniūriārum, agricolae, puellās. 8. Nautam, agricolās, nautās. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvārum.

LESSON IV

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

[See Transcriber’s Note at beginning of text.]

NOUNS
«dea», _goddess_ (deity)
Diā´na, _Diana_
«fera», _a wild beast_ (fierce)
Lātō´na, _Latona_
«sagit´ta», _arrow_

VERBS
«est», _he (she, it) is_; «sunt», _they are_
«necat», _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_

CONJUNCTION[A]
«et», _and_

PRONOUNS
«quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_
«cuius» (pronounced _co͝oi´yo͝os_, two syllables), interrog. pronoun,
gen. sing., _whose?_

[Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts
of sentences, or sentences.]

«35.» We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:

«Fīlia agricolae nautam amat»,
_the farmer’s daughter_ (or _the daughter of the farmer_)
_loves the sailor_

What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it?

«36.» RULE. «Nominative Subject.» _The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?_

«37.» RULE. «Accusative Object.» _The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?_

«38.» RULE. «Genitive of the Possessor.» _The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?_

«39.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. 1. Diāna est dea. 2. Lātōna est dea. 3. Diāna et Lātōna sunt deae. 4. Diāna est dea lūnae. 5. Diāna est fīlia Lātōnae. 6. Lātōna Diānam amat. 7. Diāna est dea silvārum. 8. Diāna silvam amat. 9. Diāna sagittās portat. 10. Diāna ferās silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrārum pugnant.

For the order of words imitate the Latin above.

II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona’s daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers’ daughters do labor. 4. The farmer’s daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls’ flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors’ wrongs. 7. The farmer’s daughter labors. 8. Diana’s arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land.

«40.» CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding.

1. Quis est Diāna?
2. Cuius fīlia est Diāna?
3. Quis Diānam amat?
4. Quis silvam amat?
5. Quis sagittās portat?
6. Cuius fīliae labōrant?

LESSON V

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«corō´na», _wreath, garland, crown_
fā´bula, _story_ (fable)
«pecū´nia», _money_ (pecuniary)
«pugna», _battle_ (pugnacious)
«victō´ria», _victory_

VERBS
«dat», _he (she, it) gives_
nārrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate)

CONJUNCTION[A]
«quia» or «quod», _because_

«cui» (pronounced _co͝oi_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat.
sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_

[Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts
of sentences, or sentences.]

«41.» «The Dative Case.» In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as _from_, _with_, _by_, _to_, _for_, _in_, _at_.[1]

[Footnote 1: Words like _to_, _for_, _by_, _from_, _in_, etc., which
define the relationship between words, are called «prepositions».]

Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the _dative_.

«42.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the dative singular ends in «-ae» and the dative plural in «-īs».

NOTE. Observe that the _genitive singular_, the _dative singular_, and the _nominative plural_ all have the same ending, «-ae»; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended.

_a._ Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns:
«fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola»,
«nauta», «domina».

«43.» «The Dative Relation.» The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _to_, _towards_, _for_.

These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as _She went to town_, _He ran towards the horse_, _Columbus sailed for America_. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as _motion through space_ is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that _to_ or _towards which_ a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that _for which_ something serves or exists.

_a._ What dative relations do you discover in the following?

The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions--a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another.

«44.» «The Indirect Object.» Examine the sentence

«Nauta fugam nūntiat»,
_the sailor announces the flight_

Here the verb, «nūntiat», governs the direct object, «fugam», in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons «to whom» the sailor announces the flight, as, _The sailor announces the flight «to the farmers»_, the verb will have two objects:

1. Its direct object, _flight_ («fugam»)
2. Its indirect object, _farmers_

According to the preceding section, _to the farmers_ is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule:

«45.» RULE. «Dative Indirect Object.» _The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative._

_a._ The indirect object usually stands before the direct object.

«46.» We may now complete the translation of the sentence _The sailor announces the flight to the farmers_, and we have

«Nauta agricolīs fugam nūntiat»

«47.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

_Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor._

I. 1. Quis nautīs pecūniam dat? 2. Fīliae agricolae nautīs pecūniam dant. 3. Quis fortūnam pugnae nūntiat? 4. Galba agricolīs fortunam pugnae nūntiat. 5. Cui domina fābulam nārrat? 6. Fīliae agricolae domina fābulam nārrat. 7. Quis Diānae corōnam dat? 8. Puella Diānae corōnam dat quia Diānam amat. 9. Dea lūnae sagittās portat et ferās silvārum necat. 10. Cuius victōriam Galba nūntiat? 11. Nautae victōriam Galba nūntiat.

Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise.

II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana’s.

[Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often
stands without a preposition _to_ to mark it, especially when it
precedes the direct object.]

LESSON VI

FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

ADJECTIVES
«bona», _good_
«grāta», _pleasing_
«magna», _large, great_
«mala», _bad, wicked_
«parva», _small, little_
«pulchra», _beautiful, pretty_
«sōla», _alone_

NOUNS
ancil´la, _maidservant_
Iūlia, _Julia_

ADVERBS[A]
«cūr», _why_
«nōn», _not_

PRONOUNS
«mea», _my_; «tua», _thy, your_ (possesives)
«quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_

«-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word,
which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», _he loves_,
but «amat´ne»? _does he love?_ «est», _he is_; «estne»? _is he?_
Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis»,
«cūr», or some other interrogative word.

[Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is
_very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.]

«48.» «The Ablative Case.» Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the _ab´la-tive._

«49.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the ablative singular ends in «-ā» and the ablative plural in «-īs».

_a._ Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the
final -ā of the ablative is long, as,

_Nom._ fīliă
_Abl._ fīliā

_b._ Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

_c._ Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns:
«fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola»,
«nauta», «domina».

«50.» «The Ablative Relation.» The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _from_, _with_, _by_, _at_, _in_. It denotes

1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of
which it is deprived--generally translated by _from_.

2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is
done--translated by _with_ or _by_.

3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by
_in_ or _at_.

_a._ What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight
o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are
at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans.
By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be
overcome.

«51.» «Prepositions.» While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.

«52.» RULE. «Object of a Preposition.» _A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case._

«53.» Prepositions denoting the ablative relations _from, with, in, on_, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are

«ā»[1] or «ab», _from, away from_
«dē», _from, down from_
«ē»[1] or «ex», _from, out from, out of_
«cum», _with_
«in», _in, on_

[Footnote 1: «ā» and «ē» are used only before words beginning with
a consonant; «ab» and «ex» are used before either vowels or
consonants.]

1. _Translate into Latin, using prepositions._ In the water, on the
land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from
the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.

«54.» «Adjectives.» Examine the sentence

«Puella parva bonam deam amat»,
_the little girl loves the good goddess_

In this sentence «parva» (_little_) and «bonam» (_good_) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called _adjectives_,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.

[Footnote 2: _Pick out the adjectives in the following:_ “When I
was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was
accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty
boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I.
‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my
ax on it?’”]

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of «parva» shows that it belongs to «puella», and the ending of «bonam» that it belongs to «deam». Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called _agreement_. Observe that _the adjective and its noun agree in number and case_.

«55.» Examine the sentences

«Puella est parva»,
_the girl is little_
«Puella parva bonam deam amat»,
_the little girl loves the good goddess_

In the first sentence the adjective «parva» is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a _predicate adjective_. In the second sentence the adjectives «parva» and «bonam» are closely attached to the nouns «puella» and «deam» respectively, and are called _attributive adjectives._

_a._ Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the
following:

Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.

«56.» DIALOGUE

JULIA AND GALBA

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. Quis, Galba, est Diāna?
G. Diāna, Iūlia, est pulchra dea lūnae et silvārum.
I. Cuius fīlia, Galba, est Diāna?
G. Lātōnae fīlia, Iūlia, est Diāna.
I. Quid Diāna portat?
G. Sagittās Diāna portat.
I. Cūr Diāna sagittās portat?
G. Diāna sagittās portat, Iūlia, quod malās ferās silvae magnae necat.
I. Amatne Lātōna fīliam?
G. Amat, et fīlia Lātōnam amat.
I. Quid fīlia tua parva portat?
G. Corōnās pulchrās fīlia mea parva portat.
I. Cui fīlia tua corōnās pulchrās dat?
G. Diānae corōnās dat.
I. Quis est cum fīliā tuā? Estne sōla?
G. Sōla nōn est; fīlia mea parva est cum ancillā meā.

_a._ When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called
the _voc´ative_ (Latin _vocāre_, “to call”). _In form the vocative
is regularly like the nominative_. In English the name of the person
addressed usually stands first in the sentence. _The Latin vocative
rarely stands first_. Point out five examples of the vocative in
this dialogue.

_b._ Observe that questions answered by _yes_ or _no_ in English
are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to
answer in Latin the question _Is the sailor fighting?_ «Pugnatne
nauta?» you would say «Pugnat», _he is fighting_, or «Nōn pugnat»,
_he is not fighting._

LESSON VII

THE FIRST OR _Ā_-DECLENSION

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«casa, -ae», f., _cottage_
cēna, -ae, f., _dinner_
«gallī´na, -ae», f., _hen, chicken_
«īn´sula, ae», f., _island_ (pen-insula)

ADVERBS
«de-in´de», _then, in the next place_
«ubi», _where_

PREPOSITION
«ad», _to_, with acc. to express motion toward

PRONOUN
«quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_

VERBS
ha´bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit)
«laudat», _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud)
«parat», _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_
«vocat», _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites,
is inviting, does invite_ (vocation)

«57.» In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a». All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a» belong to the First Declension. It is also called the _Ā_-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel «a» plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table:

«58.» «The Base.» That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the «base».

Thus, in the declension above, «domin-» is the base and «-a» is the termination of the nominative singular.

«59.» Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally.

«pugna», «terra», «lūna», «ancil´la», «corō´na», «īn´sula», «silva»

«60.» «Gender.» In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called «natural gender». Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? _She_ is a beauty.” And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken _it_ home.” Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called «grammatical gender».

Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but _names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter_. Thus we have in Latin the three words, «lapis», _a stone_; «rūpēs», _a cliff_; and «saxum», _a rock_. «Lapis» is _masculine_, «rūpēs» _feminine_, and «saxum» _neuter_. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and _must always be learned_, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin.

«61.» «Gender of First-Declension Nouns.» Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus «silva» is feminine, but «nauta», _sailor_, and «agricola», _farmer_, are masculine.

«62.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

I. 1. Agricola cum fīliā in casā habitat. 2. Bona fīlia agricolae cēnam parat. 3. Cēna est grāta agricolae[1] et agricola bonam fīliam laudat. 4. Deinde fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam vocat. 5. Gallīnae fīliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fīliae bonās cēnās nōn parant. 7. Fīlia agricolae est grāta dominae. 8. Domina in īnsulā magnā habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecūniam dat.

II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting («parat») a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter’s good dinner is pleasing to the farmer.

[Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case
covers that _to which a feeling is directed._ (Cf. §43.)]

What Latin words are suggested by this picture?

«63.» CONVERSATION

Answer the questions in Latin.

1. Quis cum agricolā in casā habitat?
2. Quid bona fīlia agricolae parat?
3. Quem agricola laudat?
4. Vocatne fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam?
5. Cuius fīlia est grāta dominae?
6. Cui domina pecūniam dat?

LESSON VIII

FIRST DECLENSION (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«Italia, -ae», f., _Italy_
Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_
«tuba, -ae», f., _trumpet_ (tube)
«via, -ae», f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct)

ADJECTIVES
«alta», _high, deep_ (altitude)
«clāra», _clear, bright; famous_
«lāta», _wide_ (latitude)
«longa», _long_ (longitude)
«nova», _new_ (novelty)

«64.» We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in _case_ and in _number_ (§54). They agree also in _gender_. In the phrase «silva magna», we have a feminine adjective in «-a» agreeing with a feminine noun in «-a».

«65.» RULE. «Agreement of Adjectives.» _Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case._

«66.» Feminine adjectives in «-a» are declined like feminine nouns in «-a», and you should learn to decline them together as follows:

NOUN ADJECTIVE
«domina» (base «domin-»), «bona» (base «bon-»),
f., _lady_ _good_

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
_Nom._ do´mina bona -a
_Gen._ dominae bonae -ae
_Dat._ dominae bonae -ae
_Acc._ dominam bonam -am
_Abl._ dominā bonā -ā

PLURAL
_Nom._ dominae bonae -ae
_Gen._ dominā´rum bonā´rum -ārum
_Dat._ dominīs bonīs -īs
_Acc._ dominās bonās -ās
_Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs

_a._ In the same way decline together «puella mala», _the bad girl_;
«ancil´la parva», _the little maid_; «fortū´na magna», _great
fortune._

«67.» The words «dea», _goddess_, and «fīlia», _daughter_, take the ending «-ābus» instead of «-īs» in the _dative and ablative plural._ Note the _dative and ablative plural_ in the following declension:

«dea bona» (bases «de-» «bon-»)

SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom._ dea bona deae bonae
_Gen._ deae bonae deā´rum bonā´rum
_Dat._ deae bonae deā´bus bonīs
_Acc._ deam bonam deās bonās
_Abl._ deā bonā dea´bus bonīs

_a._ In the same way decline together «fīlīa parva».

«68.» «Latin Word Order.» The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence _My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers_, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on _my, daughter, dinner, farmers_.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its _ending_ (cf. §32.1), and not by its _position_, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences

_I saw a game of football at Chicago last November_ (normal order)
_«Last November» I saw a game of football at Chicago_
_At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of «football»_

1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the _first_; next in
importance is the _last_; the weakest point is the _middle_. Generally
the _subject_ is the most important word, and is placed _first_;
usually the _verb_ is the next in importance, and is placed _last_.
The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order
of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where
no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows:

_subject_--_modifiers of the subject_--_indirect object_--
_direct object_--_adverb_--_verb_

Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire
for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. _Notice the order of
the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are
turning English into Latin._

2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after
their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as

«fīlia mea», _my daughter_;
«mea fīlia», _«my» daughter_;
«casa Galbae», _Galba’s cottage_;
«Galbae casa», _«Galba’s» cottage_.

Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following
sentence in different ways:

«Fīlia mea agricolīs cēnam parat» (normal order)
«Mea fīlia agricolīs parat cēnam» («mea» and «cēnam» emphatic)
«Agricolīs fīlia mea cēnam parat» («agricolīs» emphatic)

3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it
follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated
from its noun by other words.

«Fīlia mea casam parvam nōn amat» («parvam» not emphatic)
«Fīlia mea parvam casam nōn amat» («parvam» more emphatic)
«Parvam fīlia mea casam nōn amat» («parvam» very emphatic)

4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.

5. The copula (as «est», «sunt») is of so little importance that it
frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds
well.

«69.» EXERCISE

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

_Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic._

1. Longae nōn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meā casā? Nōn sunt. 3. Quis lātā in silvā habitat? Diāna, lūnae clārae pulchra dea, lātā in silvā habitat. 4. Nautae altās et lātās amant aquās. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iūlia? In tuā casa est Lesbia et Iūlia est in meā. 7. Estne Italia lāta terra? Longa est Italia, nōn lāta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fābulam novam nārrat? Fīliābus dominae clārae fābulam novam nārrat. 9. Clāra est īnsula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lātōna? Lātōna laudat fīliam.

* * * * *

«First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§502-505»

* * * * *

LESSON IX

THE SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«bellum, -ī», n., _war_ (re-bel)
«cōnstantia, -ae», f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_
dominus, -ī, m., _master, lord_ (dominate)
«equus, -ī», m., _horse_ (equine)
«frūmentum, -ī», n., _grain_
«lēgātus, -ī», m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate)
«Mārcus, -ī», m., _Marcus, Mark_
«mūrus, -ī», m., _wall_ (mural)
«oppidānus, -ī», m., _townsman_
«oppidum, -ī», n., _town_
«pīlum, -ī», n., _spear_ (pile driver)
«servus, -ī», m., _slave, servant_
Sextus, -ī, m., _Sextus_

VERBS
«cūrat», _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc.
«properat», _he (she, it) hastens_

«70.» Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender.

«71.» The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or _O_-Declension ends in «-us», «-er», «-ir», or «-um». The genitive singular ends in «-ī».

«72.» «Gender.» Nouns in «-um» are neuter. The others are regularly masculine.

«73.» «Declension of nouns in -_us_ and -_um_.» Masculines in «-us» and neuters in «-um» are declined as follows:

«dominus» (base «domin-»), «pīlum» (base «pīl-»),
m., _master_ n., _spear_

TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS
SINGULAR
_Nom._ do´minus[1] -us pīlum -um
_Gen._ dominī -ī pīlī -ī
_Dat._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō
_Acc._ dominum -um pīlum -um
_Abl._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō
_Voc._ domine -e pīlum -um

PLURAL
_Nom._ dominī -ī pīla -a
_Gen._ dominō´rum -ōrum pīlō´rum -ōrum
_Dat._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs
_Acc._ dominōs -ōs pīla -a
_Abl._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs

[Footnote 1: Compare the declension of «domina» and of «dominus».]

_a._ Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same
terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative
and accusative plural.

_b._ The vocative singular of words of the second declension in
«-us» ends in «-ĕ», as «domine», _O master_; «serve», _O slave_.
This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a.

«74.» Write side by side the declension of «domina», «dominus», and «pīlum». A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions:

_a._ The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like
the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the
nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative
plural.

_b._ The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are
alike, and in the plural end in «-a».

_c._ The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in
«-m» and the accusative plural in «-s».

_d._ The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

_e._ Final «-i» and «-o» are always _long_; final «-a» is _short_,
except in the ablative singular of the first declension.

«75.» Observe the sentences

«Lesbia est bona»,
_Lesbia is good_
«Lesbia est ancilla»,
_Lesbia is a maidservant_

We have learned (§55) that «bona», when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a _predicate adjective_. Similarly a _noun_, as «ancilla», used in the _predicate_ to define the subject is called a «predicate noun».

«76.» RULE. «Predicate Noun.» _A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb._

«77.» DIALOGUE

GALBA AND MARCUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

G. Quis, Mārce, est lēgātus cum pīlō et tubā?
M. Lēgātus, Galba, est Sextus.
G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2]
M. In oppidō Sextus cum fīliābus habitat.
G. Amantne oppidānī Sextum?
M. Amant oppidānī Sextum et laudant, quod magnā cum cōnstantiā pugnat.
G. Ubi, Mārce, est ancilla tua? Cūr nōn cēnam parat?
M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equō lēgātī aquam et frūmentum dat.
G. Cūr nōn servus Sextī equum dominī cūrat?
M. Sextus et servus ad mūrum oppidī properant. Oppidānī bellum
parant.[3]

[Footnote 2: «habitat» is here translated _does live_. Note the
_three_ possible translations of the Latin present tense:
«habitat»
_he lives_
_he is living_
_he does live_
Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.]

[Footnote 3: Observe that the verb «parō» means not only
_to prepare_ but also _to prepare for_, and governs the
accusative case.]

«78.» CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin.

1. Ubi fīliae Sextī habitant?
2. Quem oppidānī amant et laudant?
3. Quid ancilla equō lēgātī dat?
4. Cuius equum ancilla cūrat?
5. Quis ad mūrum cum Sextō properat?
6. Quid oppidānī parant?

LESSON X

SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«amīcus, -ī», m., _friend_ (amicable)
«Germānia, -ae», f., _Germany_
«patria, -ae», f., _fatherland_
«populus, -ī», m., _people_
«Rhēnus, -ī», m., _the Rhine_
«vīcus, -ī», m., _village_

«79.» We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like «bona», in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. _Masculine_ adjectives of this class are declined like «dominus», and _neuters_ like pīlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows:

MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE
«dominus bonus», _the good master_ «pīlum bonum», _the good spear_
BASES domin- bon- BASES pīl- bon-

TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS
SINGULAR
_Nom._ do´minus bonus -us pīlum bonum -um
_Gen._ dominī bonī -ī pīlī bonī -ī
_Dat._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō
_Acc._ dominum bonum -um pīlum bonum -um
_Abl._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō
_Voc._ domine bone -e pīlum bonum -um

PLURAL
_Nom._ dominī bonī -ī īla bona -a
_Gen._ dominō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum īlō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum
_Dat._ dominīs bonīs -is īlīs bonīs -īs
_Acc._ dominōs bonōs -ōs īla bona -a
_Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs īlīs bonīs -īs

Decline together «bellum longum», «equus parvus», «servus malus», «mūrus altus», «frūmentum novum».

«80.» Observe the sentences

«Lesbia ancilla est bona»,
_Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_
«Fīlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona»,
_the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_
«Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat»,
_the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant_

In these sentences «ancilla», «ancillae», and «ancillam» denote the class of persons to which _Lesbia_ belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case.

«81.» RULE. «Apposition.» _An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains._

«82.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Patria servī bonī, vīcus servōrum bonōrum, bone popule. 2. Populus oppidī magnī, in oppidō magnō, in oppidīs magnīs. 3. Cum pīlīs longīs, ad pīla longa, ad mūrōs lātōs. 4. Lēgāte male, amīcī legātī malī, cēna grāta dominō bonō. 5. Frūmentum equōrum parvōrum, domine bone, ad lēgātōs clārōs. 6. Rhēnus est in Germāniā, patriā meā. 7. Sextus lēgātus pīlum longum portat. 8. Oppidānī bonī Sextō lēgātō clārā pecūniam dant. 9. Malī servī equum bonum Mārcī dominī necant. 10. Galba agricola et Iūlia fīlia bona labōrant. 11. Mārcus nauta in īnsulā Siciliā habitat.

II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2. My friend is from («ex») a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2] of Julia, the farmer’s daughter.

[Footnote 1: See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that «cūrat» is
transitive and governs a direct object.]

[Footnote 2: Not the dative. (Cf. §43.)]

LESSON XI

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«arma, armōrum», n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons
«fāma, -ae», f., _rumor; reputation, fame_
«galea, -ae», f., _helmet_
«praeda, -ae», f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory)
«tēlum, -ī», n., _weapon of offense, spear_

ADJECTIVES
«dūrus, -a, -um», _hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_
(durable)
«Rōmānus, -a, -um», _Roman_. As a noun, «Rōmānus, -ī», m., _a Roman_

«83.» Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows:

MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER
SINGULAR
_Nom._ bonus bona bonum
_Gen._ bonī bonae bonī
_Dat._ bonō bonae bonō
_Acc._ bonum bonam bonum
_Abl._ bonō bonā bonō
_Voc._ bone bona bonum

PLURAL
_Nom._ bonī bonae bona
_Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum
_Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs
_Acc._ bonōs bonās bona
_Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs

_a._ Write the declension and give it orally _across the page_, thus
giving the three genders for each case.

_b._ Decline «grātus, -a, -um»; «malus, -a, -um»; «altus, -a, -um»;
«parvus, -a, -um».

«84.» Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does _not_ mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, «nauta», _sailor_, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective «bonus» is of the second declension. Consequently, _a good sailor_ is «nauta bonus». So, _the wicked farmer_ is «agricola malus». Learn the following declensions:

«85.» «nauta bonus» (bases naut- bon-), m., _the good sailor_

SINGULAR
_Nom._ nauta bonus
_Gen._ nautae bonī
_Dat._ nautae bonō
_Acc._ nautam bonum
_Abl._ nautā bonō
_Voc._ nauta bone

PLURAL
_Nom._ nautae bonī
_Gen._ nautārum bonōrum
_Dat._ nautīs bonīs
_Acc._ nautās bonōs
_Abl._ nautīs bonīs
_Voc._ nautae bonī

«86.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Est[1] in vīcō nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amīcus nautae bonī. 3. Sextus nautae bonō galeam dat. 4. Populus Rōmānus nautam bonum laudat. 5. Sextus cum nautā bonō praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone, sunt arma et tēla lēgātī Rōmānī? 7. Nautae bonī ad bellum properant. 8. Fāma nautārum bonōrum est clāra. 9. Pugnae sunt grātae nautīs bonīs. 10. Oppidānī nautās bonōs cūrant. 11. Cūr, nautae bonī, malī agricolae ad Rhēnum properant? 12. Malī agricolae cum bonīs nautīs pugnant.

II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba’s daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers?

[Footnote 1: «Est», beginning a declarative sentence, _there is._]

LESSON XII

NOUNS IN _-IUS_ AND _-IUM_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«fīlius, fīlī», m., _son_ (filial)
fluvius, fluvī, m., _river_ (fluent)
«gladius, gladī», m., _sword_ (gladiator)
«praesidium, praesi´dī», n., _garrison, guard, protection_
«proelium, proelī», n., _battle_

ADJECTIVES
«fīnitimus, -a, -um», _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_.
As a noun, «fīnitimī, -ōrum», m., plur., _neighbors_
«Germānus, -a, -um», _German_. As a noun, «Germānus, -ī», m.,
_a German_
«multus, -a, -um», _much_; plur., _many_

ADVERB
«saepe», _often_

«87.» Nouns of the second declension in «-ius» and «-ium» end in «-ī» in the genitive singular, _not_ in «-iī», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «fīlī» from «fīlius» (_son_), «praesi´dī» from «praesi´dium» (_garrison_).

«88.» Proper names of persons in «-ius», and «fīlius», end in «-ī» in the vocative singular, _not_ in «-ĕ», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «Vergi´lī», _O Vergil_; «fīlī», _O son._

_a._ Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are
alike.

«89.» «praesidium» (base praesidi-), «fīlius» (base fīli-),
n., _garrison_ m., _son_

SINGULAR
_Nom._ praesidium fīlius
_Gen._ praesi´dī fīlī
_Dat._ praesidiō fīliō
_Acc._ praesidium fīlium
_Abl._ praesidiō fīliō
_Voc._ praesidium fīlī

The plural is regular. Note that the «-i-» of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like «fīlius».

Decline together «praesidium parvum»; «fīlius bonus»; «fluvius longus», _the long river_; «proelium clārum», _the famous battle._

«90.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.

I. 1. Frūmentum bonae terrae, gladī malī, bellī longī. 2. Cōnstantia magna, praesidia magna, clāre Vergi´lī. 3. Male serve, Ō clārum oppidum, male fīlī, fīliī malī, fīlī malī. 4. Fluvī longī, fluviī longī, fluviōrum longōrum, fāma praesi´dī magnī. 5. Cum gladiīs parvīs, cum deābus clārīs, ad nautās clārōs. 6. Multōrum proeliōrum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dūra.

GERMĀNIA

II. Germānia, patria Germānōrum, est clāra terra. In Germāniā sunt fluviī multī. Rhēnus magnus et lātus fluvius Germāniae est. In silvīs lātīs Germāniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germāni in oppidīs magnis et in vīcīs parvīs habitant et multī sunt agricolae bonī. Bella Germānōrum sunt magna et clāra. Populus Germāniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimīs pugnat. Fluvius Rhēnus est fīnitimus oppidīs[1] multīs et clārīs.

[Footnote 1: Dative with «fīnitimus». (See §43.)]

LESSON XIII

SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«ager, agrī», m., _field_ (acre)
«cōpia, -ae», f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops,
forces_
«Cornēlius, Cornē´lī», m., _Cornelius_
«lōrī´ca, -ae», f., _coat of mail, corselet_
«praemium, praemī», n., _reward, prize_ (premium)
«puer, puerī», m., _boy_ (puerile)
«Rōma, -ae», f., _Rome_
«scūtum, -ī», n., _shield_ (escutcheon)
«vir, virī», m., _man, hero_ (virile)

ADJECTIVES
«legiōnārius, -a, -um»,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_.
As a noun, «legiōnāriī, -ōrum», m., plur., _legionary soldiers_
«līber, lībera, līberum», _free_ (liberty) As a noun. «līberī, -ōrum»,
m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_)
«pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», _pretty, beautiful_

PREPOSITION
«apud», _among_, with acc.

CONJUNCTION
«sed», _but_

[Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in «-ius»
ends in «-iī» and the vocative in «-ie»; not in «-ī», as in nouns.]

«91.» «Declension of Nouns in _-er_ and _-ir_.» In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in «-os». This «-os» later became «-us» in words like «servus», and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in «-r», like «puer», _boy_; «ager», _field_; and «vir», _man_. These words are therefore declined as follows:

«92.» «puer», m., _boy_ «ager», m., _field_ «vir», m., _man_
BASE «puer-» BASE «agr-» BASE «vir-»

SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
_Nom._ puer ager vir ----
_Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī
_Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō
_Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um
_Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō

PLURAL
_Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī
_Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum
_Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs
_Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs
_Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs

_a._ The vocative case of these words is like the nominative,
following the general rule (§74.a).

_b._ The declension differs from that of «servus» only in the
nominative and vocative singular.

_c._ Note that in «puer» the «e» remains all the way through, while
in «ager» it is present only in the nominative. In «puer» the «e»
belongs to the base, but in «ager» (base «agr-») it does not, and
was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most
words in «-er» are declined like «ager». _The genitive shows whether
you are to follow_ «puer» _or_ «ager».

«93.» Masculine adjectives in «-er» of the second declension are declined like nouns in «-er». A few of them are declined like «puer», but most of them like «ager». The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus,

MASC. FEM. NEUT.
līber lībera līberum (_free_)
is like «puer»
pulcher pulchra pulchrum (_pretty_)
is like «ager»

For the full declension in the three genders, see §469._b._ _c._

«94.» Decline together the words «vir līber», «terra lībera», «frūmentum līberum», «puer pulcher», «puella pulchra», «oppidum pulchrum»

«95.» ITALIA[1]

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

Magna est Italiae fāma, patriae Rōmānōrum, et clāra est Rōma, domina orbis terrārum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Rōmānum, quis nōn laudat et pulchrōs fluviō fīnitimōs agrōs? Altōs mūrōs, longa et dūra bella, clārās victōriās quis nōn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrī bonī agricolīs praemia dant magna, et equī agricolārum cōpiam frūmentī ad oppida et vīcōs portant. In agrīs populī Rōmānī labōrant multī servī. Viae Italiae sunt longae et lātae. Fīnitima Italiae est īnsula Sicilia.

[Footnote 1: In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown
by the order of the words.]

[Footnote 2: «orbis terrārum», _of the world_.]

[Footnote 3: «Tiberim», _the Tiber_, accusative case.]

«96.» DIALOGUE

MARCUS AND CORNELIUS

C. Ubi est, Mārce, fīlius tuus? Estne in pulchrā terrā Italiā?
M. Nōn est, Cornēlī, in Italiā. Ad fluvium Rhēnum properat cum cōpiīs
Rōmānīs quia est[4] fāma Novī bellī cum Germānīs. Līber Germāniae
populus Rōmānōs Nōn amat.
C. Estne fīlius tuus copiārum Rōmānārum lēgātus?
M. Lēgātus nōn est, sed est apud legiōnāriōs.
C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]?
M. Scūtum magnum et lōrīcam dūram et galeam pulchram portat.
C. Quae tēla portat?
M. Gladium et pīlum longum portat.
C. Amatne lēgātus fīlium tuum?
M. Amat, et saepe fīliō meō praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat.
C. Ubi est terra Germānōrum?
M. Terra Germānōrum, Cornēlī est fīnitima Rhēnō, fluviō magnō et altō.

[Footnote 4: «est», before its subject, _there is_; so «sunt»,
_there are._]

[Footnote 5: «Quae», _what kind of_, an interrogative adjective
pronoun.]

[Footnote 6: What are the three possible translations of the present
tense?]

LESSON XIV

THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«auxilium, auxi´lī», n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary)
«castrum, -ī», n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_)
«cibus, -ī», m., _food_
«cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī», n., _plan_ (counsel)
«dīligentia, -ae», f.. _diligence, industry_
magister, magistrī, m., _master, teacher_[A]

ADJECTIVES
«aeger, aegra, aegrum», _sick_
«crēber, crēbra, crēbrum», _frequent_
«miser, misera, miserum», _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser)

[Footnote A: Observe that «dominus», as distinguished from
«magister», means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.]

«97.» Observe the sentences

_This is my shield_
_This shield is mine_

In the first sentence _my_ is a possessive adjective; in the second _mine_ is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, _this shield is mine_ being equivalent to _this shield is my shield_. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes _adjectives_ and sometimes _pronouns_.

«98.» The possessives _my, mine, your, yours_, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions.

SINGULAR
_1st Pers._ meus, mea, meum _my, mine_
_2d Pers._ tuus, tua, tuum _your, yours_
_3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _his (own), her (own),
its (own)_
PLURAL
_1st Pers._ noster, nostra, nostrum _our, ours_
_2d Pers._ vester, vestra, vestrum _your, yours_
_3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _their (own), theirs_

NOTE. «Meus» has the irregular vocative singular masculine «mī», as «mī fīlī», _O my son_.

_a._ The possessives agree with the name of the _thing possessed_ in
gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in

_Sextus is calling «his» boy_ «Sextus» } «suum puerum vocat»
_Julia is calling «her» boy_ «Iūlia» }

Observe that «suum» agrees with «puerum», and is unaffected by the
gender of Sextus or Julia.

_b._ When _your, yours_, refers to _one_ person, use «tuus»; when to
_more than one_, «vester»; as,

_Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty_
«Corōnae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae»
_Girls, your wreaths are pretty_
«Corōnae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae»

_c._ «Suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive, that is, it usually stands
in the predicate and regularly refers back to the _subject_. Thus,
«Vir suōs servōs vocat» means _The man calls his (own) slaves._ Here
_his_ («suōs») refers to _man_ («vir»), and could not refer to any
one else.

_d._ Possessives are used much less frequently than in English,
being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf.
§22.a.) This is especially true of «suus, -a, -um», which, when
inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our _his own, her own_,
etc.

«99.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

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Latin for BeginnersChapter VI: Part II: Words and Forms (1)

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