Chapter VII: Part II: Words and Forms (2)

I. 1. Mārcus amīcō Sextō cōnsilium suum nūntiat 2. Est cōpia frūmentī in agrīs nostrīs. 3. Amīcī meī bonam cēnam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua lōrīca, mī fīlī, est dūra. 5. Scūta nostra et tēla, mī amīce, in castrls Rōmānīs sunt. 6. Suntne virī patriae tuae līberī? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Cornēlī, est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casā meā. 9. Pīlum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iūlia gallīnās suās pulchrās amat et gallīnae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12. Est cōpia praedae in castrīs vestrīs. 13. Amīcī tuī miserīs et aegrīs cibum et pecūniam saepe dant.

II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark’s industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.[2] 4. There are [3] frequent battles in our villages. 5. My son, where is the lieutenant’s food? 6. The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours.

[Footnote 1: Not the dative. Why?]

[Footnote 2: Here the adjectives _sick_ and _wretched_ are used like
nouns.]

[Footnote 3: Where should «sunt» stand? Cf. I. 2 above.]

LESSON XV

THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _WITH_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«carrus, -ī», m., _cart, wagon_
«inopia, -ae», f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of «cōpia»
«studium, studī», n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study)

ADJECTIVES
«armātus, -a, -um», _armed_
«īnfīrmus, -a, -um», _week, feeble_ (infirm)
vali´dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_

VERB
«mātūrat», _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat

ADVERB
«iam», _already, now_

«-que», conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. §16) and always added
to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as «arma tēla´que»,
_arms and weapons_.

«100.» Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition _with_. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by «cum». This will become clear from the following sentences:

_a._ Mark is feeble _with_ (_for_ or _because of_) want of food
_b._ Diana kills the beasts _with_ (or _by_) her arrows
_c._ Julia is _with_ Sextus
_d._ The men fight _with_ great steadiness

_a._ In sentence _a_, _with want_ (_of food_) gives the cause of
Mark’s feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative
without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative
of cause»:

«Mārcus est īnfīrmus inopiā cibī»

_b._ In sentence _b_, _with_ (or _by_) _her arrows_ tells «by means
of what» Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by
the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called
the «ablative of means»:

«Diāna sagittīs suīs ferās necat»

_c._ In sentence _c_ we are told that Julia is not alone, but «in
company with» Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the
ablative with the preposition «cum», and the construction is called
the «ablative of accompaniment»:

«Iūlia est cum Sextō»

_d._ In sentence _d_ we are told how the men fight. The idea is one
of «manner». This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with «cum»,
unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case «cum»
may be omitted. This construction is called the «ablative of
manner»:

«Virī (cum) cōnstantiā magnā pugnant»

«101.» You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting _with_:

«102.» RULE. «Ablative of Cause.» _Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?_

«103.» RULE. «Ablative of Means.» _Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?_

N.B. «Cum» must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means.

«104.» RULE. «Ablative of Accompaniment.» _Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom?_

«105.» RULE. «Ablative of Manner.» _The ablative with «cum» is used to denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?_

«106.» What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer?

The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (_or_ by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore.

«107.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286.

I. _The Romans prepare for War._ Rōmānī, clārus Italiae populus, bellum parant. Ex agrīs suīs, vicīs, oppidīsque magnō studiō virī validī ad arma properant. Iam lēgatī cum legiōnariīs ex Italiā ad Rhēnum, fluvium Germāniae altum et lātum, properant, et servī equīs et carrīs cibum frūmentumque ad castra Rōmāna portant. Inopiā bonōrum tēlōrum īnfirmī sunt Germānī, sed Rōmānī armāti galeīs, lōrīcīs, scūtīs, gladiīs, pīlīsque sunt validī.

II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in Galba’s cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons.

LESSON XVI

THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES

«108.» There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders:

MASC. FEM. NEUT.
_Gen._ -īus -īus -īus
_Dat._ -ī -ī -ī

Otherwise they are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». Learn the list and the meaning of each:

«alius, alia, aliud», _other, another_ (of several)
«alter, altera, alterum», _the one, the other_ (of two)
«ūnus, -a, -um», _one, alone_; (in the plural) _only_
«ūllus, -a, -um», _any_
«nūllus, -a, -um», _none, no_
«sōlus, -a, -um», _alone_
«tōtus, -a, -um», _all, whole, entire_
«uter, utra, utrum», _which?_ (of two)
«neuter, neutra, neutrum», _neither_ (of two)

«109.» PARADIGMS

SINGULAR
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
_Nom._ nūllus nūlla nūllum
_Gen._ nūllī´us nūllī´us nūllī´us
_Dat._ nūllī nūllī nūllī
_Acc._ nūllum nūllam nūllum
_Abl._ nūllō nūllā nūllō

MASC. FEM. NEUT.
_Nom._ alius alia aliud
_Gen._ alī´us alī´us alī´us
_Dat._ aliī aliī aliī
_Acc._ alium aliam aliud
_Abl._ aliō aliā aliō

THE PLURAL IS REGULAR

_a._ Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in «-d» of «alius».
The genitive «alīus» is rare. Instead of it use «alterīus», the
genitive of «alter».

_b._ These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of
pronouns (see §114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes
called the «pronominal adjectives».

«110.» Learn the following idioms:

«alter, -era, -erum» ... «alter, -era, -erum», _the one ... the other_
(of two)
«alius, -a, -ud» ... «alius, -a, -ud», _one ... another _ (of any
number)
«aliī, -ae, -a» ... «aliī, -ae, -a», _some ... others_

EXAMPLES

1. «Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum», _the one town is
large, the other small_ (of two towns).

2. «Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud īnfīrmum», _one town is strong,
another weak_ (of towns in general).

3. «Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant», _some carry swords, others
shields._

«111.» EXERCISES

I. 1. In utrā casā est Iūlia? Iūlia est in neutrā casā. 2. Nūllī malō puerō praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4. Aliī virī aquam, aliī terram amant. 5. Galba ūnus (_or_ sōlus) cum studiō labōrat. 6. Estne ūllus carrus in agrō meō? 7. Lesbia est ancilla alterīus dominī, Tullia alterīus. 8. Lesbia sōla cēnam parat. 9. Cēna nūllīus alterīus ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nūllī aliī virō cēnam dat.

NOTE. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns.

II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. _weak because of_) lack of food. 6. The people are already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain.

LESSON XVII

THE DEMONSTRATIVE _IS, EA, ID_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«agrī cultūra, -ae», f., _agriculture_
«Gallia, -ae», f., _Gaul_
«domicilīum, domīci´lī», n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_
«Gallus, -i», m., _a Gaul_
«lacrima, -ae», f., _tear_
«fēmina, -ae», f., _woman_ (female)
«numerus, -ī», m., _number_ (numeral)

ADJECTIVE
«mātūrus, -a, -um», _ripe, mature_

ADVERB
quō, _whither_

VERBS
arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable)
«dēsīderat», _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc.

CONJUNCTION
«an», _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as
_Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?»

«112.» A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as _this, that, these, those_. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, _Do you hear these?_ and sometimes adjectives, as, _Do you hear these men?_ In the former case they are called «demonstrative pronouns», in the latter «demonstrative adjectives».

«113.» Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as _pronouns_ and as _adjectives_. The one used most is

«is», masculine; «ea», feminine; «id», neuter
SINGULAR: _this, that_; PLURAL: _these, those_

«114.» «Is» is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of «alius», §109.

BASE «e-»

SINGULAR PLURAL
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT.
_Nom._ is ea id eī eae ea
(_or_ iī)
_Gen._ eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum
_Dat._ eī eī eī eīs eīs eīs
(_or_ iīs iīs iīs)
_Acc._ eum eam id eōs eās ea
_Abl._ eō eā eō eīs eīs eīs
(_or_ iīs iīs iīs)

Note that the base «e-» changes to «i-» in a few cases. The genitive singular «eius» is pronounced _eh´yus_. In the plural the forms with two «i»’s are preferred and the two «i»’s are pronounced as one. Hence, pronounce «iī» as «ī» and «iīs» as «īs».

«115.» Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun _he, she, it_. As a personal pronoun, then, «is» would have the following meanings:

SINGULAR
_Nom._ «is», _he_; «ea», _she_; «id», _it_
_Gen._ «eius», _of him_ or _his_;
«eius», _of her, her_, or _hers_;
«eius», _of it_ or _its_
_Dat._ «eī», _to_ or _for him_;
«eī», _to_ or _for her_;
«eī», _to_ or _for it_
_Acc._ «eum», _him_; «eam», _her_; «id», _it_
_Abl._ «eō», _with, from_, etc., _him_;
«eā», _with, from_, etc., _her_;
«eō», _with, from_, etc., _it_

PLURAL
_Nom._ «eī» or «iī», «eae», «ea», _they_
_Gen._ «eōrum», «eārum», «eōrum», _of them, their_
_Dat._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs»,
_to_ or _for them_
_Acc._ «eōs, eās, ea», _them_
_Abl._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs»,
_with, from_, etc., _them_

«116.» «Comparison between _suus_ and _is_.» We learned above (§98.c) that «suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive. When _his, her_ (poss.), _its, their_, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express _his, her, its_ by «eius», the genitive singular of «is», «ea», «id»; and _their_ by the genitive plural, using «eōrum» to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and «eārum» to refer to a feminine one.

EXAMPLES

_Galba calls his_ (own) _son_,
«Galba suum fīlium vocat»
_Galba calls his son_ (not his own, but another’s),
«Galba eius fīlium vocat»
_Julia calls her_ (own) _children_,
«Iūlia suōs līberōs vocat»
_Julia calls her children_ (not her own, but another’s),
«Iūlia eius līberōs vocat»
_The men praise their_ (own) _boys_,
«virī suōs puerōs laudant»
_The men praise their boys_ (not their own, but others’),
«virī eōrum puerōs laudant»

«117.» EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans.

4. The other woman is calling her chickens (_her own_). 5. Another woman is calling her chickens (_not her own_). 6. The Gaul praises his arms (_his own_). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (_not his own_). 8. This farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_their own_). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_not their own_). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They love its villages and towns.

«118.» DIALOGUE[1]

CORNELIUS AND MARCUS

M. Quis est vir, Cornēlī, cum puerō parvō? Estne Rōmānus et līber?
C. Rōmānus nōn est, Mārce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in
silvīs Galliae.
M. Estne puer fīlius eius servī an alterīus?
C. Neutrīus fīlius est puer. Is est fīlius lēgātī Sextī.
M. Quō puer cum eō servō properat?
C. Is cum servō properat ad lātōs Sextī agrōs.[2] Tōtum frūmentum est
iam mātūrum et magnus servōrum numerus in Italiae[3] agrīs labōrat.
M. Agricolaene sunt Gallī et patriae suae agrōs arant?
C. Nōn agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Gallī, nōn agrī cultūram. Apud eōs
virī pugnant et fēminae auxiliō līberōrum agrōs arant parantque
cibum.
M. Magister noster puerīs puellīsque grātās Gallōrum fābulās saepe
nārrat et laudat eōs saepe.
C. Mala est fortūna eōrum et saepe miserī servī multīs cum lacrimīs
patriam suam dēsīderant.

[Footnote 1: There are a number of departures from the normal order
in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.]

[Footnote 2: When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an
adjective, a favorite order of words is _adjective, genitive,
noun_.]

[Footnote 3: A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition
and its object.]

* * * * *

«Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, §§506-509»

* * * * *

LESSON XVIII

«CONJUGATION» THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF «SUM»

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
lūdus, -ī, m.,_school_
«socius, socī», m., _companion, ally_ (social)

ADJECTIVES
«īrātus, -a, -um», _angry, furious_ (irate)
«laetus, -a, -um», _happy, glad_ (social)

ADVERBS
hodiē, _to-day_
«ibi», _there, in that place_
mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future
«nunc», _now, the present moment_
«nūper», _lately, recently_, of the immediate past

«119.» The inflection of a verb is called its _conjugation_ (cf. §23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, _I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried_, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans expressed differences in _tense, mood, voice, person_, and _number_.

«120.» «The Tenses.» The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its _tenses_. The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future:

1. «The present», that is, _what is happening now_, or
_what usually happens_, is expressed by
THE PRESENT TENSE

2. «The past», that is, _what was happening, used to happen,
happened, has happened_, or _had happened_, is expressed by
THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES

3. «The future», that is, _what is going to happen_, is expressed by
THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES

«121.» «The Moods.» Verbs have inflection of _mood_ to indicate the manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the _indicative, subjunctive, imperative_, and _infinitive_.

_a._ A verb is in the _indicative_ mood when it makes a statement or
asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we
have used thus far are in the present indicative.

«122.» «The Persons.» There are three persons, as in English. The first person is the person speaking (_I sing_); the second person the person spoken to (_you sing_); the third person the person spoken of (_he sings_). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf. §22 _a_; 29). We have already learned that «-t» is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and «-nt» of the third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL
_1st Pers._ _I_ -m or -ō _we_ -mus
_2d Pers._ _thou_ or _you_ -s _you_ -tis
_3d Pers._ _he, she, it_ -t _they_ -nt

«123.» Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called _regular_ verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called _irregular_. The verb _to be_ is irregular in Latin as in English. The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows:

PRESENT INDICATIVE
SINGULAR PLURAL
_1st Pers._ su-m, _I am_ su-mus, _we are_
_2d Pers._ e-s, _you[1] are_ es-tis, _you[1] are_
_3d Pers._ es-t, _he, she_, or _it is_ su-nt, _they are_

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE
SINGULAR PLURAL
_1st Pers._ er-a-m, _I was_ er-ā´-mus, _we were_
_2d Pers._ er-ā-s, _you were_ er-ā´-tis, _you were_
_3d Pers._ er-a-t, _he, she_, or _it was_ er-a-nt, _they were_

FUTURE INDICATIVE
SINGULAR PLURAL
_1st Pers._ er-ō, _I shall be_ er´-i-mus, _we shall be_
_2d Pers._ er-i-s, _you will be_ er´-i-tis, _you will be_
_3d Pers._ er-i-t, _he will be_ er-u-nt, _they will be_

_a._ Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and
consult §§12.2; 14; 15.

[Footnote 1: Observe that in English _you are_, _you were_, etc. may
be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms
are never the same.]

«124.» DIALOGUE

THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

S. Ubi es, Mārce? Ubi est Quīntus? Ubi estis, amīcī?
M. Cum Quīntō, Sexte, in silvā sum. Nōn sōlī sumus; sunt in silvā
multī aliī puerī.
S. Nunc laetus es, sed nūper nōn laetus erās. Cūr miser erās?
M. Miser eram quia amīcī meī erant in aliō vicō et eram sōlus. Nunc
sum apud sociōs meōs. Nunc laetī sumus et erimus.
S. Erātisne in lūdo hodiē?
M. Hodiē nōn erāmus in lūdō, quod magister erat aeger.
S. Eritisne mox in lūdō?
M. Amīcī meī ibi erunt, sed ego (_I_) nōn erō.
S. Cūr nōn ibi eris? Magister, saepe irātus, inopiam tuam studī
dīligentiaeque nōn laudat.
M. Nūper aeger eram et nunc īnfīrmus sum.

«125.» EXERCISE

1. You are, you were, you will be, (_sing. and plur._). 2. I am, I was, I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall be. 5. They are, they were, they will be.

6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of the boys’ industry.

LESSON XIX

THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_

«126.» There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the _distinguishing vowel_, and is best seen in the present infinitive.

[Footnote 1: The _stem_ is the body of a word to which the
terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf.
§58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not
appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional
terminations. This point is further explained in §230.]

Below is given the _present infinitive_ of a verb of each conjugation, the _present stem_, and the _distinguishing vowel._

DISTINGUISHING
CONJUGATION PRES. INFIN. PRES. STEM VOWEL
I. «amā´re», _to love_ «amā-» «ā»
II. «monē´re», _to advise_ «monē-» «ē»
III. «re´gĕre», _to rule_ «regĕ-» «ĕ»
IV. «audī´re», _to hear_ «audi-» «ī»

_a._ Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by
dropping «-re», the ending of the present infinitive.

NOTE. The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse», and «es-» is the present stem.

«127.» From the present stem are formed the _present_, _imperfect_, and _future_ tenses.

«128.» The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows:

«a´mō, amā´re» (_love_) «mo´neō, monē´re» (_advise_)
PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monē-»

SINGULAR PLURAL PERSONAL ENDINGS
1. a´mō, _I love_ mo´neō, _I advise_ -ō
2. a´mās, _you love_ mo´nēs, _you advise_ -s
3. a´mat, _he (she, it) loves_ mo´net, _he (she, it) advises_ -t

1. amā´mus, _we love_ monē´mus, _we advise_ -mus
2. amā´tis, _you love_ monē´tis, _you advise_ -tis
3. a´mant, _they love_ mo´nent, _they advise_ -nt

1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to
the present stem, and its first person uses «-o» and not «-m». The
form «amō» is for «amā-ō», the two vowels «ā-ō» contracting to «ō». In
«moneō» there is no contraction. _Nearly all regular verbs ending in
«-eo» belong to the second conjugation._

2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before
another vowel («monē-ō» = «mo´nĕō»), and before final «-t» («amăt»,
«monĕt») and «-nt» («amănt», «monĕnt»). Compare §12.2.

«129.» Like «amō» and «moneō» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs[2]:

[Footnote 2: The only new verbs in this list are the five of the
second conjugation which are starred. Learn their meanings.]

INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT
a´rō, _I plow_ arā´re, _to plow_
cū´rō, _I care for_ cūrā´re, _to care for_
*dē´leō, _I destroy_ dēlē´re, _to destroy_
dēsī´derō, _I long for_ dēsīderā´re, _to long for_
dō,[3] _I give_ da´re, _to give_
*ha´beō, _I have_ habē´re, _to have_
ha´bitō, _I live, I dwell_ habitā´re, _to live, to dwell_
*iu´beō, _I order_ iubē´re, _to order_
labō´rō, _I labor_ labōrā´re, _to labor_
lau´dō, _I praise_ laudā´re, _to praise_
mātū´rō, _I hasten_ mātūrā´re, _to hasten_
*mo´veō, _I move_ movē´re, _to move_
nār´rō, _I tell_ nārrā´re, _to tell_
ne´cō, _I kill_ necā´re, _to kill_
nūn´tiō, _I announce_ nūntiā´re, _to announce_
pa´rō, _I prepare_ parā´re, _to prepare_
por´tō, _I carry_ portā´re, _to carry_
pro´perō, _I hasten_ properā´re, _to hasten_
pug´nō, _I fight_ pugnā´re, _to fight_
*vi´deō, _I see_ vidē´re, _to see_
vo´cō, _I call_ vocā´re, _to call_

[Footnote 3: Observe that in «dō, dăre», the «a» is _short_, and
that the present stem is «dă-» and not «dā-». The only forms of «dō»
that have a long are «dās» (pres. indic.), «dā» (pres. imv.), and
«dāns» (pres. part.).]

«130.» «The Translation of the Present.» In English there are three ways of expressing present action. We may say, for example, _I live, I am living_, or _I do live_. In Latin the one expression «habitō» covers all three of these expressions.

«131.» EXERCISES

Give the _voice_, _mood_, _tense_, _person_, and _number_ of each form.

I. 1. Vocāmus, properātis, iubent. 2. Movētis, laudās, vidēs. 3. Dēlētis, habētis, dant. 4. Mātūrās, dēsīderat, vidēmus. 5. Iubet, movent, necat. 6. Nārrāmus, movēs, vident. 7. Labōrātis, properant, portās, parant. 8. Dēlet, habētis, iubēmus, dās.

N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention.

II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have (_sing_.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls, they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce.

LESSON XX

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«fōrma, -ae», f., _form, beauty_
«regīna, -ae», f., _queen_ (regal)
«poena, -ae», f., _punishment, penalty_
superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_
«potentia, -ae», f., _power_ (potent)
«trīstītīa, -ae», f., _sadness, sorrow_

ADJECTIVES
«septem», indeclinable, _seven_
«superbus, -a, -um», _proud, haughty_ (superb)

CONJUNCTIONS
«nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_

«132.» «Tense Signs.» Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like _was_, _shall_, _will_, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs. These are called _tense signs_.

«133.» «Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect.» The tense sign of the imperfect is «-bā-», which is added to the present stem. The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts:

PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING
«amā-» «ba-» «m»
_loving_ _was_ _I_

The inflection is as follows:

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II
PERSONAL
SINGULAR ENDINGS
1. amā´bam, _I was loving_ monē´bam, _I was advising_ -m
2. amā´bās, _you were loving_ monē´bās, _you were advising_ -s
3. amā´bat, _he was loving_ monē´bat, _he was advising_ -t

PLURAL
1. amābā´mus, _we were loving_ monēbā´mus, _we were advising_ -mus
2. amābā´tis, _you were loving_ monēbā´tis, _you were advising_ -tis
3. amā´bant, _they were loving_ monē´bant, _they wereadvising_ -nt

_a._ Note that the «ā» of the tense sign «-bā-» is shortened before
«-nt», and before «m» and «t» when final. (Cf. §12.2.)

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129.

«134.» «Meaning of the Imperfect.» The Latin imperfect describes an act as _going on_ or _progressing in past time_, like the English past-progressive tense (as, _I was walking_). It is the regular tense used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs.

«135.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Vidēbāmus, dēsīderābat, mātūrābās. 2. Dabant, vocābātis, dēlēbāmus. 3. Pugnant, laudābās, movēbātis. 4. Iubēbant, properābātis, portābāmus. 5. Dabās, nārrābant, labōrābātis. 6. Vidēbant, movēbās, nūntiābāmus. 7. Necābat, movēbam, habēbat, parābātis.

II. 1. You were having (_sing. and plur._), we were killing, they were laboring. 2. He was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting. 3. We were telling, they were seeing, he was calling. 4. They were living, I was longing for, we were destroying. 5. You were giving, you were moving, you were announcing, (_sing. and plur._). 6. They were caring for, he was plowing, we were praising.

«136.» NI´OBE AND HER CHILDREN

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287.

Niobē, rēgina Thēbānōrum, erat pulchra fēmina sed superba. Erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā[1] suā marītīque potentiā[1] sed etiam magnō līberōrum numerō.[1] Nam habēbat[2] septem fīliōs et septem fīliās. Sed ea superbia erat rēgīnae[3] causa magnae trīstitiae et līberīs[3] causa dūrae poenae.

NOTE. The words «Niobē», «Thēbānōrum», and «marītī» will be found in the general vocabulary. Translate the selection without looking up any other words.

[Footnote 1: Ablative of cause.]

[Footnote 2: Translate _had_; it denotes a past situation. (See
§134.)]

[Footnote 3: Dative, cf. §43.]

LESSON XXI

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
sacrum, -ī, n., _sacrifice, offering, rite_
«verbum, -ī», n., _word_ (verb)

VERBS
sedeō, -ēre, _sit_ (sediment)
volō, -āre, _fly_ (volatile)

ADJECTIVES
«interfectus, -a, -um», _slain_
«molestus, -a, -um», _troublesome, annoying_ (molest)
«perpetuus, -a, -um», _perpetual, continuous_

«ego», personal pronoun, _I_ (egotism). Always emphatic in the
nominative.

«137.» The tense sign of the Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations is «-bi-». This is joined to the present stem of the verb and followed by the personal ending, as follows:

PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING
«amā-» «bi-» «s»
_love_ _will_ _you_

«138.» The Future Active Indicative is inflected as follows.

CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II
SINGULAR
1. amā´bō, _I shall love_ monē´bō, _I shall advise_
2. amā´bis, _you will love_ monē´bis, _you will advise_
3. amā´bit, _he will love_ monē´bit, _he will advise_

PLURAL
1. amā´bimus, _we shall love_ monē´bimus, _we shall advise_
2. amā´bitis _you will love_ monē´bitis, _you will advise_
3. amā´bunt, _they will love_ monē´bunt, _they will advise_

_a._ The personal endings are as in the present. The ending «-bō»
in the first person singular is contracted from «-bi-ō». The «-bi-»
appears as «-bu-» in the third person plural. Note that the
inflection is like that of «erō», the future of «sum». _Pay especial
attention to the accent._

In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129.

«139.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Movēbitis, laudābis, arābō. 2. Dēlēbitis, vocābitis, dabunt. 3. Mātūrābis, dēsīderābit, vidēbimus. 4. Habēbit, movēbunt, necābit. 5. Nārrābimus, monēbis, vidēbunt. 6. Labōrābitis, cūrābunt, dabis. 7. Habitābimus, properābitis, iubēbunt, parābit. 8. Nūntiābō, portābimus, iubēbō.

II. 1. We shall announce, we shall see, I shall hasten. 2. I shall carry, he will plow, they will care for. 3. You will announce, you will move, you will give, (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall fight, we shall destroy, I shall long for. 5. He will call, they will see, you will tell (_plur._). 6. They will dwell, we shall order, he will praise. 7. They will labor, we shall kill, you will have (_sing. and plur._), he will destroy.

«140.» NI´OBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apollō et Diāna erant līberī Lātōnae. Iīs Thēbānī sacra crēbra parābant.[1] Oppidānī amābant Lātōnam et līberōs eius. Id superbae rēgīnae erat molestum. “Cūr,” inquit, “Lātōnae et līberīs sacra parātis? Duōs līberōs habet Lātōna; quattuordecim habeō ego. Ubi sunt mea sacra?” Lātōna iīs verbīs[2] īrāta līberōs suōs vocat. Ad eam volant Apollō Diānaque et sagittīs[3] suīs miserōs līberōs rēgīnae superbae dēlent. Niobē, nūper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud līberōs interfectōs et cum perpetuīs lacrimīs[4] eōs dēsīderat.

NOTE. Consult the general vocabulary for «Apollō», «inquit», «duōs», and «quattuordecim». Try to remember the meaning of all the other words.

[Footnote 1: Observe the force of the imperfect here, _used to
prepare_, _were in the habit of preparing_; so «amābant» denotes a
past situation of affairs. (See §134.)]

[Footnote 2: Ablative of cause.]

[Footnote 3: Ablative of means.]

[Footnote 4: This may be either manner or accompaniment. It is often
impossible to draw a sharp line between means, manner, and
accompaniment. The Romans themselves drew no sharp distinction. It
was enough for them if the general idea demanded the ablative case.]

LESSON XXII

REVIEW OF VERBS · THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«disciplīna, -ae», f., _training, culture, discipline_
«Gāius, Gāī», m., _Caius_, a Roman first name
«ōrnāmentum, -ī», n., _ornament, jewel_
Tiberius, Tibe´rī, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name

VERB
«doceō, -ēre», _teach_ (doctrine)

ADVERB
«maximē», _most of all, especially_

ADJECTIVE
«antīquus, -qua, -quum», _old, ancient_ (antique)

«141.» Review the present, imperfect, and future active indicative, both orally and in writing, of «sum» and the verbs in §129.

«142.» We learned in §43 for what sort of expressions we may expect the dative, and in §44 that one of its commonest uses is with _verbs_ to express the indirect object. It is also very common with _adjectives_ to express the object toward which the quality denoted by the adjective is directed. We have already had a number of cases where «grātus», _agreeable to_, was so followed by a dative; and in the last lesson we had «molestus», _annoying to_, followed by that case. The usage may be more explicitly stated by the following rule:

«143.» RULE. «Dative with Adjectives.» _The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning «near», also «fit», «friendly», «pleasing», «like», and their opposites._

«144.» Among such adjectives memorize the following:

«idōneus, -a, -um», _fit, suitable_ (for)
«amīcus, -a, -um», _friendly_ (to)
«inimīcus, -a, -um», _hostile_ (to)
«grātus, -a, -um», _pleasing_ (to), _agreeable_ (to)
«molestus, -a, -um», _annoying_ (to), _troublesome_ (to)
«fīnitimus, -a, -um», _neighboring_ (to)
«proximus, -a, -um», _nearest, next_ (to)

«145.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Rōmānī terram idōneam agrī cultūrae habent. 2. Gallī cōpiīs Rōmānīs inimīcī erant. 3. Cui dea Lātōna amīca non erat? 4. Dea Lātōna superbae rēgīnae amīca nōn erat. 5. Cibus noster, Mārce, erit armātīs virīs grātus. 6. Quid erat molestum populīs Italiae? 7. Bella longa cum Gallīs erant molesta populīs Italiae. 8. Agrī Germānōrum fluviō Rhēnō fīnitimī erant. 9. Rōmānī ad silvam oppidō proximam castra movēbant. 10. Nōn sōlum fōrma sed etiam superbia rēgīnae erat magna. 11. Mox rēgīna pulchra erit aegra trīstitiā. 12. Cūr erat Niobē, rēgīna Thēbānōrum, laeta? Laeta erat Niobē multīs fīliīs et fīliābus.

II. 1. The sacrifices of the people will be annoying to the haughty queen. 2. The sacrifices were pleasing not only to Latona but also to Diana. 3. Diana will destroy those hostile to Latona. 4. The punishment of the haughty queen was pleasing to the goddess Diana. 5. The Romans will move their forces to a large field[1] suitable for a camp. 6. Some of the allies were friendly to the Romans, others to the Gauls.

[Footnote 1: Why not the dative?]

«146.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Apud antīquās dominās, Cornēlia, Āfricānī fīlia, erat[2] maximē clāra. Fīliī eius erant Tiberius Gracchus et Gāius Gracchus. Iī puerī cum Cornēliā in oppidō Rōmā, clārō Italiae oppidō, habitābant. Ibi eōs cūrābat Cornēlia et ibi magnō cum studiō eōs docēbat. Bona fēmina erat Cornēlia et bonam disciplīnam maximē amābat.

NOTE. Can you translate the paragraph above? There are no new words.

[Footnote 2: Observe that all the imperfects denote continued or
progressive action, or describe a state of affairs. (Cf. §134.)]

LESSON XXIII

PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_

«147.» As we learned in §126, the present stem of the third conjugation ends in «-ĕ», and of the fourth in «-ī». The inflection of the Present Indicative is as follows:

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV
«re´gō, re´gere» (_rule_) «au´diō, audī´re» (_hear_)
PRES. STEM «regĕ-» PRES. STEM «audī-»

SINGULAR
1. re´gō, _I rule_ au´diō, _I hear_
2. re´gis, _you rule_ au´dīs, _you hear_
3. re´git, _he (she, it) rules_ au´dit, _he (she, it) hears_

PLURAL
1. re´gimus, _we rule_ audī´mus, _we hear_
2. re´gitis, _you rule_ audī´tis, _you hear_
3. re´gunt, _they rule_ au´diunt, _they hear_

1. The personal endings are the same as before.

2. The final short «-e-» of the stem «regĕ-» combines with the «-ō» in
the first person, becomes «-u-» in the third person plural, and
becomes «-ĭ-» elsewhere. The inflection is like that of «erō», the
future of «sum».

3. In «audiō» the personal endings are added regularly to the stem
«audī-». In the third person plural «-u-» is inserted between the stem
and the personal ending, as «audi-u-nt». Note that the long vowel of
the stem is shortened before final «-t» just as in «amō» and «moneō».
(Cf. §12.2.)

Note that «-i-» is always short in the third conjugation and long in the fourth, excepting where long vowels are regularly shortened. (Cf. §12.1, 2.)

«148.» Like «regō» and «audiō» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs:

INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT

agō, _I drive_ agere, _to drive_
dīcō, _I say_ dīcere, _to say_
dūcō, _I lead_ dūcere, _to lead_
mittō, _I send_ mittere, _to send_
mūniō, _I fortify_ mūnīre, _to fortify_
reperiō, _I find_ reperīre, _to find_
veniō, _I come_ venīre, _to come_

«149.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Quis agit? Cūr venit? Quem mittit? Quem dūcis? 2. Quid mittunt? Ad quem veniunt? Cuius castra mūniunt? 3. Quem agunt? Venīmus. Quid puer reperit? 4. Quem mittimus? Cuius equum dūcitis? Quid dīcunt? 5. Mūnīmus, venītis, dīcit. 6. Agimus, reperītis, mūnīs. 7. Reperis, ducitis, dīcis. 8. Agitis, audimus, regimus.

II. 1. What do they find? Whom do they hear? Why does he come? 2. Whose camp are we fortifying? To whom does he say? What are we saying? 3. I am driving, you are leading, they are hearing. 4. You send, he says, you fortify (_sing. and plur._). 5. I am coming, we find, they send. 6. They lead, you drive, he does fortify. 7. You lead, you find, you rule, (_all plur._).

«150.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_)

Proximum domicīliō Cornēliae erat pulchrae Campānae domicilium. Campāna erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā suā sed maximē ōrnāmentīs suīs. Ea[1] laudābat semper. “Habēsne tū ūlla ornāmenta, Cornēlia?” inquit. “Ubi sunt tua ōrnāmenta?” Deinde Cornēlia fīliōs suōs Tiberium et Gāium vocat. “Puerī meī,” inquit, “sunt mea ōrnāmenta. Nam bonī līberī sunt semper bonae fēminae ōrnāmenta maximē clāra.”

NOTE. The only new words here are «Campāna», «semper», and «tū».

[Footnote 1: «Ea», accusative plural neuter.]

LESSON XXIV

IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_ THE DATIVE WITH SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE VERBS

«151.» PARADIGMS

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV
SINGULAR
1. regē´bam, _I was ruling_ audiē´bam, _I was hearing_
2. regē´bās, _you were riding_ audiē´bās, _you were hearing_
3. regē´bat, _he was ruling_ audiē´bat, _he was hearing_

PLURAL
1. regēbā´mus, _we were ruling_ audiēbā´mus, _we were hearing_
2. regēbā´tis, _you were ruling_ audiēbā´tis, _you were hearing_
3. regē´bant, _they were ruling_ audiē´bant, _they were hearing_

1. The tense sign is «-bā-», as in the first two conjugations.

2. Observe that the final «-ĕ-» of the stem is lengthened before the
tense sign «-bā-». This makes the imperfect of the third conjugation
just like the imperfect of the second (cf. «monēbam» and «regēbam»).

3. In the fourth conjugation «-ē-» is inserted between the stem and
the tense sign «-bā-» («audi-ē-ba-m»).

4. In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §148.

«152.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Agēbat, veniēbat, mittēbat, dūcēbant. 2. Agēbant, mittēbant, dūcēbas, mūniēbant. 3. Mittēbāmus, dūcēbātis, dīcēbant. 4. Mūniēbāmus, veniēbātis, dīcēbās. 5. Mittēbās, veniēbāmus, reperiēbat. 6. Reperiēbās, veniēbās, audiēbātis. 7. Agēbāmus, reperiēbātis, mūniēbat. 8. Agēbātis, dīcēbam, mūniēbam.

II. 1. They were leading, you were driving (_sing. and plur._), he was fortifying. 2. They were sending, we were finding, I was coming. 3. You were sending, you were fortifying, (_sing. and plur._), he was saying. 4. They were hearing, you were leading (_sing. and plur._), I was driving. 5. We were saying, he was sending, I was fortifying. 6. They were coming, he was hearing, I was finding. 7. You were ruling (_sing. and plur._), we were coming, they were ruling.

«153.» «The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs.» We learned above (§20.a) that a verb which does not admit of a direct object is called an _intransitive_ verb. Many such verbs, however, are of such meaning that they can govern an indirect object, which will, of course, be in the dative case (§45). Learn the following list of intransitive verbs with their meanings. In each case the dative indirect object is the person or thing to which a benefit, injury, or feeling is directed. (Cf. §43.)

«crēdō, crēdere», _believe_ (give belief to)
«faveō, favēre», _favor_ (show favor to)
«noceō, nocēre», _injure_ (do harm to)
«pāreō, pārēre», _obey_ (give obedience to)
«persuādeō, persuādēre», _persuade_ (offer persuasion to)
«resistō, resistere», _resist_ (offer resistance to)
«studeō, studēre», _be eager for_ (give attention to)

«154.» RULE. «Dative with Intransitive Verbs.» _The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs «crēdō», «faveō», «noceō», «pāreō», «persuādeō», «resistō», «studeō», and others of like meaning._

«155.» EXERCISE

1. Crēdisne verbīs sociōrum? Multī verbīs eōrum nōn crēdunt. 2. Meī fīnitimī cōnsiliō tuō nōn favēbunt, quod bellō student. 3. Tiberius et Gāius disciplīnae dūrae nōn resistēbant et Cornēliae pārēbant. 4. Dea erat inimīca septem fīliābus rēgīnae. 5. Dūra poena et perpetua trīstitia rēgīnae nōn persuādēbunt. 6. Nūper ea resistēbat et nunc resistit potentiae Lātōnae. 7. Mox sagittae volābunt et līberīs miserīs nocēbunt.

LESSON XXV

FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_

«156.» In the future tense of the third and fourth conjugations we meet with a new tense sign. Instead of using «-bi-», as in the first and second conjugations, we use «-ā-»[1] in the first person singular and «-ē-» in the rest of the tense. In the third conjugation the final «-ĕ-» of the stem is dropped before this tense sign; in the fourth conjugation the final «-ī-» of the stem is retained.[2]

[Footnote 1: The «-ā-» is shortened before «-m» final, and «-ē-»
before «-t» final and before «-nt». (Cf. §12.2.)]

[Footnote 2: The «-ī-» is, of course, shortened, being before
another vowel. (Cf. §12.1.)]

«157.» PARADIGMS

CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV
SINGULAR
1. re´gam, _I shall rule_ au´diam, _I shall hear_
2. re´gēs, _you will rule_ au´diēs, _you will hear_
3. re´get, _he will rule_ au´diet, _he will hear_

PLURAL
1. regē´mus, _we shall rule_ audiē´mus, _we shall hear_
2. regē´tis, _you will rule_ audiē´tis, _you will hear_
3. re´gent, _they will rule_ au´dient, _they will hear_

1. Observe that the future of the third conjugation is like the
present of the second, excepting in the first person singular.

2. In the same manner inflect the verbs given in §148.

«158.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Dīcet, dūcētis, mūniēmus. 2. Dīcent, dīcētis, mittēmus. 3. Mūnient, venient, mittent, agent. 4. Dūcet, mittēs, veniet, aget. 5. Mūniet, reperiētis, agēmus. 6. Mittam, veniēmus, regent. 7. Audiētis, veniēs, reperiēs. 8. Reperiet, agam, dūcēmus, mittet. 9. Vidēbitis, sedēbō, vocābimus.

II. 1. I shall find, he will hear, they will come. 2. I shall fortify, he will send, we shall say. 3. I shall drive, you will lead, they will hear. 4. You will send, you will fortify, (_sing. and plur._), he will say. 5. I shall come, we shall find, they will send.

6. Who[3] will believe the story? I[4] shall believe the story. 7. Whose friends do you favor? We favor our friends. 8. Who will resist our weapons? Sextus will resist your weapons. 9. Who will persuade him? They will persuade him. 10. Why were you injuring my horse? I was not injuring your horse. 11. Whom does a good slave obey? A good slave obeys his master. 12. Our men were eager for another battle.

[Footnote 3: Remember that «quis», _who_, is singular in number.]

[Footnote 4: Express by «ego», because it is emphatic.]

LESSON XXVI

VERBS IN _-IŌ_ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION · THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

«159.» There are a few common verbs ending in «-iō» which do not belong to the fourth conjugation, as you might infer, but to the third. The fact that they belong to the third conjugation is shown by the ending of the infinitive. (Cf. §126.) Compare

«audiō, audī´re» (_hear_), fourth conjugation
«capiō, ca´pere» (_take_), third conjugation

«160.» The present, imperfect, and future active indicative of «capiō» are inflected as follows:

«capiō, capere», _take_
PRES. STEM «cape-»

PRESENT IMPERFECT FUTURE
SINGULAR
1. ca´piō capiē´bam ca´piam
2. ca´pis capiē´bās ca´piēs
3. ca´pit capiē´bat ca´piet

PLURAL
1. ca´pimus capiēbā´mus capiē´mus
2. ca´pitis capiēbā´tis capiē´tis
3. ca´piunt capiē´bant ca´pient

1. Observe that «capiō» and the other «-iō» verbs follow the fourth
conjugation wherever in the fourth conjugation _two vowels occur in
succession._ (Cf. capiō, audiō; capiunt, audiunt; and all the
imperfect and future.) All other forms are like the third conjugation.
(Cf. capis, regis; capit, regit; etc.)

2. Like «capiō», inflect

«faciō, facere», _make, do_
«fugiō, fugere», _flee_
«iaciō, iacere», _hurl_
«rapiō, rapere», _seize_

«161.» «The Imperative Mood.» The imperative mood expresses a command; as, _come!_ _send!_ The present tense of the imperative is used only in the second person, singular and plural. _The singular in the active voice is regularly the same in form as the present stem. The plural is formed by adding «-te» to the singular._

CONJUGATION SINGULAR PLURAL
I. amā, _love thou_ amā´te, _love ye_
II. monē, _advise thou_ monē´te, _advise ye_
III. (_a_) rege, _rule thou_ re´gite, _rule ye_
(_b_) cape, _take thou_ ca´pite, _take ye_
IV. audī, _hear thou_ audī´te, _hear ye_
sum (irregular) es, _be thou_ este, _be ye_

1. In the third conjugation the final -ĕ- of the stem becomes -ĭ- in
the plural.

2. The verbs «dīcō», _say_; «dūcō», _lead_; and «faciō», _make_, have
the irregular forms «dīc», «dūc», and «fac» in the singular.

3. Give the present active imperative, singular and plural, of
«veniō», «dūcō», «vocō», «doceō», «laudō», «dīcō», «sedeō», «agō»,
«faciō», «mūniō», «mittō», «rapiō».

«162.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Fugient, faciunt, iaciēbat. 2. Dēlē, nūntiāte, fugiunt. 3. Venīte, dīc, faciētis. 4. Dūcite, iaciam, fugiēbant. 5. Fac, iaciēbāmus, fugimus, rapite. 6. Sedēte, reperī, docēte. 7. Fugiēmus, iacient, rapiēs. 8. Reperient, rapiēbātis, nocent. 9. Favēte, resistē, pārēbitis.

10. Volā ad multās terrās et dā auxilium. 11. Ego tēla mea capiam et multās ferās dēlēbō. 12. Quis fābulae tuae crēdet? 13. Este bonī, puerī, et audīte verba grāta magistrī.

II. 1. The goddess will seize her arms and will hurl her weapons. 2. With her weapons she will destroy many beasts. 3. She will give aid to the weak.[1] 4. She will fly to many lands and the beasts will flee. 5. Romans, tell[2] the famous story to your children.

[Footnote 1: Plural. An adjective used as a noun. (Cf.
§99.II.3.)]

[Footnote 2: Imperative. The imperative generally stands first, as
in English.]

* * * * *

«Third Review, Lessons XVIII-XXVI, §§510-512»

* * * * *

LESSON XXVII

THE PASSIVE VOICE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_

[Special Vocabulary]

NOUNS
«āla, -ae», f., _wing_
«deus, -ī», m., _god_ (deity)[A]
«monstrum, -ī», n., _omen, prodigy; monster_
ōrāculum, -ī, n., _oracle_

VERB
«vāstō, -āre», _lay waste, devastate_

ADJECTIVES
«commōtus, -a, -um», _moved, excited_
«maximus, -a, -um», _greatest_ (maximum)
«saevus, -a, -um», _fierce, savage_

ADVERBS
«ita», _thus, in this way, as follows_
«tum», _then, at that time_

[Footnote A: For the declension of «deus», see §468]

«163.» «The Voices.» Thus far the verb forms have been in the _active voice_; that is, they have represented the subject as _performing_ an action; as,

The lion ---> _killed_ ---> the hunter

A verb is said to be in the _passive voice_ when it represents its subject as _receiving_ an action; as,

The lion <--- _was killed_ <--- by the hunter

Note the direction of the arrows.

«164.» «Passive Personal Endings.» In the passive voice we use a different set of personal endings. They are as follows:

SINGULAR PLURAL
1. -r, _I_ 1. -mur, _we_
2. -ris, -re, _you_ 2. -minī, _you_
3. -tur, _he, she, it_ 3. -ntur, _they_

_a._ Observe that the letter «-r» appears somewhere in all but one
of the endings. This is sometimes called the _passive sign_.

«165.» PARADIGMS

«amō, amāre» «monēo, monēre»
PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monē-»

PRESENT INDICATIVE PERSONAL
ENDINGS
SINGULAR
a´mor, _I am loved_ mo´neor, _I am advised_ -or[1]
amā´ris or amā´re, monē´ris or monē´re. -ris or -re
_you are loved_ _you are advised_
amā´tur, _he is loved_ monē´tur, _he is advised_ -tur

PLURAL
amā´mur, _we are loved_ monē´mur, _we are advised_ -mur
amā´minī, _you are loved_ monē´minī, _you are advised_ -mini
aman´tur, _they are loved_ monen´tur, _they are advised_ -ntur

[Footnote 1: In the present the personal ending of the first person
singular is «-or».]

IMPERFECT INDICATIVE (TENSE SIGN «-bā-»)

SINGULAR
amā´bar, monē´bar, -r
_I was being loved_ _I was being advised_
amābā´ris or amābā´re, monēbā´ris or monēbā´re -ris or -re
_you were being loved_ _you were being advised_
amābā´tur, monēbā´tur, -tur
_he was being loved_ _he was being advised_

PLURAL
amābā´mur, monēbā´mur, -mur
_we were being loved_ _we were being advised_
amābā´minī, monēbā´minī, -minī
_you were being loved_ _you were being advised_
amāban´tur, monēban´tur, -ntur
_they were being loved_ _they were being advised_

FUTURE (TENSE SIGN «-bi-»)

SINGULAR
amā´bor, monē´bor, -r
_I shall be loved_ _I shall be advised_
amā´beris, _or_ amā´bere monē´beris _or_ monē´bere, -ris or -re
_you will be loved_ _you will be advised_
amā´bitur, monē´bitur, -tur
_he will be loved_ _he will be advised_

PLURAL
amā´bimur, monē´bimur, -mur
_we shall be loved_ _we shall be advised_
amābi´minī, monēbi´minī, -minī
_you will be loved_ _you will be advised_
amābun´tur, monēbun´tur, -ntur
_they will be loved_ _they will be advised_

1. The tense sign and the personal endings are added as in the active.

2. In the future the tense sign «-bi-» appears as «-bo-» in the first
person, «-be-» in the second, singular number, and as «-bu-» in the
third person plural.

3. Inflect «laudō», «necō», «portō», «moveō», «dēleō», «iubeō», in the
present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

«166.» Intransitive verbs, such as «mātūrō», _I hasten_; «habitō», _I dwell_, do not have a passive voice with a personal subject.

«167.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Laudāris _or_ laudāre, laudās, datur, dat. 2. Dabitur, dabit, vidēminī, vidētis. 3. Vocābat, vocābātur, dēlēbitis, dēlēbiminī. 4. Parābātur, parābat, cūrās, cūrāris _or_ cūrāre. 5. Portābantur, portābant, vidēbimur, vidēbimus. 6. Iubēris _or_ iubēre, iubēs, laudābāris _or_ laudābāre, laudābās. 7. Movēberis or movēbere, movēbis, dabantur, dabant. 8. Dēlentur, dēlent, parābāmur, parābāmus.

II. 1. We prepare, we are prepared, I shall be called, I shall call, you were carrying, you were being carried. 2. I see, I am seen, it was being announced, he was announcing, they will order, they will be ordered. 3. You will be killed, you will kill, you move, you are moved, we are praising, we are being praised. 4. I am called, I call, you will have, you are cared for. 5. They are seen, they see, we were teaching, we were being taught, they will move, they will be moved.

«168.» PER´SEUS AND ANDROM´EDA

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Perseus fīlius erat Iovis,[2] maximī[3] deōrum. Dē eō multās fabulās nārrant poētae. Eī favent deī, eī magica arma et ālās dant. Eīs tēlīs armātus et ālīs frētus ad multās terrās volābat et mōnstra saeva dēlēbat et miserīs īnfīrmīsque auxilium dabat.

Aethiopia est terra Āfricae. Eam terram Cēpheus[4] regēbat. Eī[5] Neptūnus, maximus aquārum deus, erat īrātus et mittit[6] mōnstrum saevum ad Aethiopiam. Ibi mōnstrum nōn sōlum lātīs pulchrīsque Aethiopiae agrīs nocēbat sed etiam domicilia agricolārum dēlēbat, et multōs virōs, fēminās, līberōsque necābat. Populus ex agrīs fugiēbat et oppida mūrīs validīs mūniēbat. Tum Cēpheus magnā trīstitiā commōtus ad Iovis ōrāculum properat et ita dīcit: “Amīcī meī necantur; agrī meī vāstantur. Audī verba mea, Iuppiter. Dā miserīs auxilium. Age mōnstrum saevum ex patriā.”

[Footnote 2: «Iovis», the genitive of «Iuppiter».]

[Footnote 3: Used substantively, _the greatest_. So below, l. 4,
«miserīs» and «īnfīrmīs» are used substantively.]

[Footnote 4: Pronounce in two syllables, _Ce´pheus_.]

[Footnote 5: «Eī», _at him_, dative with «īrātus».]

[Footnote 6: The present is often used, as in English, in speaking
of a past action, in order to make the story more vivid and
exciting.]

LESSON XXVIII

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_

[Special Vocabulary]

VERBS
«respondeō, -ēre», _respond, reply_
«servō, -āre», _save, preserve_

ADJECTIVE
«cārus, -a, -um», _dear_ (cherish)

CONJUNCTION
«autem», _but, moreover, now_. Usually stands second, never first

NOUN
«vīta, -ae», f., _life_ (vital)

«169.» Review the present, imperfect, and future indicative active of «regō» and «audiō», and learn the passive of the same tenses (§§490, 491).

_a._ Observe that the tense signs of the imperfect and future are
the same as in the active voice, and that the passive personal
endings (§164) are added instead of the active ones.

_b._ Note the slight irregularity in the second person singular
present of the third conjugation. There the final «-e-» of the stem
is not changed to «-i-», as it is in the active. We therefore have
«re´geris» or «re´gere», _not_ «re´giris», «re´gire».

_c._ Inflect «agō», «dīcō», «dūcō», «mūniō», «reperiō», in the
present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive.

«170.» EXERCISES

I. 1. Agēbat, agēbātur, mittēbat, mittēbātur, dūcēbat. 2. Agunt, aguntur, mittuntur, mittunt, mūniunt. 3. Mittor, mittar, mittam, dūcēre, dūcere. 4. Dīcēmur, dīcimus, dīcēmus, dīcimur, mūniēbaminī. 5. Dūcitur, dūciminī, reperīmur, reperiar, agitur. 6. Agēbāmus, agēbāmur, reperīris, reperiēminī. 7. Mūnīminī, veniēbam, dūcēbar, dīcētur. 8. Mittiminī, mittitis, mittēris, mitteris, agēbāminī. 9. Dīcitur, dīcit, mūniuntur, reperient, audientur.

II. 1. I was being driven, I was driving, we were leading, we were being led, he says, it is said. 2. I shall send, I shall be sent, you will find, you will be found, they lead, they are led. 3. I am found, we are led, they are driven, you were being led (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall drive, we shall be driven, he leads, he is being led, they will come, they will be fortified. 5. They were ruling, they were being ruled, you will send, you will be sent, you are sent, (_sing. and plur._). 6. He was being led, he will come, you are said (_sing. and plur._).

«171.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_)

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288.

Tum ōrāculum ita respondet: “Mala est fortūna tua. Neptūnus, magnus aquārum deus, terrae Aethiopiae inimīcus, eās poenās mittit. Sed parā īrātō deō sacrum idōneum et mōnstrum saevum ex patriā tuā agētur. Andromeda fīlia tua est mōnstrō grāta. Dā eam mōnstrō. Servā cāram patriam et vītam populī tuī.” Andromeda autem erat puella pulchra. Eam amābat Cēpheus maximē.

LESSON XXIX

PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _-IŌ_ VERBS PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE

[Special Vocabulary]

VERB
«superō, -āre», _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable)

NOUNS
«cūra, -ae», f., _care, trouble_
«locus, -ī», m., _place, spot_ (location). «Locus» is neuter in the
plural and is declined «loca, -ōrum», etc.
«perīculum, -ī», n., _danger, peril_

ADVERBS
«semper», _always_
«tamen», _yet, nevertheless_

PREPOSITIONS
«dē», with abl., _down from; concerning_
«per», with acc., _through_

CONJUNCTION
«si», _if_

«172.» Review the active voice of «capiō», present, imperfect, and future, and learn the passive of the same tenses (§492).

_a._ The present forms «capior» and «capiuntur» are like «audior,
audiuntur», and the rest of the tense is like «regor».

_b._ In like manner inflect the passive of «iaciō» and «rapiō».

«173.» «The Infinitive.» The infinitive mood gives the general meaning of the verb without person or number; as, «amāre», _to love_. Infinitive means _unlimited_. The forms of the other moods, being limited by person and number, are called the _finite_, or limited, verb forms.

«174.» The forms of the Present Infinitive, active and passive, are as follows:

CONJ. PRES. PRES. INFINITIVE PRES. INFINITIVE
STEM ACTIVE PASSIVE

I. «amā-» amā´re, amā´rī,
_to love_ _to be loved_
II. «monē-» monē´re, monē´rī,
_to advise_ _to be advised_
III. «rege-» re´gere, re´gī,
_to rule_ _to be ruled_
«cape-» ca´pere ca´pī,
_to take_ _to be taken_
IV. «audī-» audī´re, audīrī,
_to hear_ _to be heard_

1. Observe that to form the present active infinitive we add «-re» to
the present stem.

_a._ The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse». There is no passive.

2. Observe that the present passive infinitive is formed from the
active by changing final «-e» to «-ī», except in the third
conjugation, which changes final «-ere» to «-ī».

3. Give the active and passive present infinitives of «doceō»,
«sedeō», «volō», «cūrō», «mittō», «dūcō», «mūniō», «reperiō», «iaciō»,
«rapiō.»

«175.» The forms of the Present Imperative, active and passive, are as follows: