Chapter I: Foreword

Every generation has added a little to the store of truth of which the human race has possessed itself throughout the long sweep of the centuries. Every truth expressed and preserved by those who lived in the past, is a contribution which enriches the lives of those who live in the present. We, as members of the human race, are not separate atoms independent of the universe, but we are atoms of it. We are the product of all time, and partake of the truth of all preceding generations, in which the power to express ideas and preserve them has existed.

One reason why the race has not profited more largely by the discoveries of previous generations, is the fact that we feel so profoundly the discovery of a truth of any nature, that we are prone to dogmatize it by a rule or set of rules.

This usually results in shutting away from us the real principle of which the rule is but an evidence. A mechanic may learn every detail of every rule for the construction of a steam engine, but if he lacks the understanding of the principles which give rise to the rules, they will avail nothing and his work must fail. If, however, he understands the principles involved, his work will stand the test, though he has no knowledge of rules as such.

In teaching the English language, the rules have been stressed, while the principles have been submerged, so that the teaching of rules has not resulted in the improvement of the student.

The People's College, realizing this, has, through the author of this work, revolutionized the teaching of the fundamental principles that underlie the use of language. The stress is laid upon principles instead of rules, so that the student, whether he remember a rule or not, will never forget the application of these principles to the use of the written and spoken word.

The assertion is ventured that no more practical and effective method can be devised for the rapid and thorough teaching of these principles. Moreover, the importance of this new departure in method cannot be over-estimated, when we consider that only through the use of language can information be disseminated concerning other branches of learning. This science, then, lies at the very base of all real education, and a mastery of it puts the student in possession of the only weapon by means of which he may master all other sciences.

The author has, with peculiar aptitude, grasped the fundamental character of the foregoing facts and has adapted the study of language to the real principles involved. All the dry rules that are the witnesses of principles in the ordinary text are done away, while the principles evidenced by those rules come forth to the light in practical application, with a beauty of expression and a real utility that render the mastery of the subject an entertaining excursion into the realms of learning, rather than a dry imprisonment of the faculties in an effort to memorize misunderstood rules without apparent reason or real use.

It is the principle behind the rule that has power in it. When this is understood, the method pursued by the author in this course will be universally applied to all branches of learning, and will end forever the imprisonment of children for the useless worship of rules.

The author's grasp of this fact and the exemplification of it, contained in this work are even more far-reaching than the foregoing would indicate. It really means the application of a new viewpoint to life itself. It means the questioning of the utility of authority; the questioning of the utility of institutions; the application, we might say, of such a test as this: Does any rule, does any authority, does any principle, conserve the interests of humanity? If not, away with it. This means rationalism, the use of common sense. It means that at last the race is beginning to consciously direct its own destiny.

It is with a profound sense of the necessity of education as a part of the evolutionary process now in the conscious grasp of the race, and with a conviction of the fundamental importance of the new viewpoint so ably presented by the author that we dedicate this work "To the Education of the Workers by the Workers."

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PLAIN ENGLISH

I. Language Study 9
II. Nouns and Verbs 18
III. Parts of Speech 27
IV. Nouns 38
V. Verbs 50
VI. Inflection of Verbs 58
VII. Time Forms of Verbs 69
VIII. Time Forms, Cont'd. 78
IX. Participles and Infinitives 88
X. Helping Verbs 97
XI. Verbs--Common Errors 106
XII. Pronouns 115
XIII. Pronouns, Cont'd. 127
XIV. Adjectives 138
XV. Adjectives, Cont'd. 148
XVI. Adverbs 160
XVII. Adverbs, Cont'd. 169
XVIII. Prepositions 179
XIX. Prepositions, Cont'd. 189
XX. Conjunctions 200
XXI. Conjunctions, Cont'd. 212
XXII. Adjective Clauses 222
XXIII. Independent Constructions 232
XXIV. Sentence Building 243
XXV. Sentence Analysis 255
XXVI. Sentence Building 267
XXVII. Sentence Building 278
XXVIII. The Use of Capitals 288
XXIX. Punctuation 299
XXX. Punctuation, Cont'd. 310

SPELLING

I. Definition 17
II. Vowels and Consonants 26
III. Diacritical Marks 36
IV. Digraphs 49
V. Diphthongs 57
VI. Syllabification 68
VII. Syllabification, Cont'd. 77
VIII. Accent 87
IX. Compound Words 96
X. Prefixes and Suffixes 105
XI. Derivatives 114
XII. Derivatives, Cont'd. 126
XIII. Silent E 137
XIV. Words Ending in Y 146
XV. Words with ei or ie 159
XVI. Homonyms 168
XVII. Derivative Nouns 178
XVIII. Verbs with Prepositions 187
XIX. Derivative Prepositions 199
XX. Derivative Adverbs 211
XXI. Derivative Adjectives 221
XXII. Words in able and ible 231
XXIII. Simplified Spelling 241
XXIV. Verbs with Suffixes 254
XXV. Cognate Sounds 265
XXVI. Words beginning with dis 277
XXVII. The prefixes in, un and mis 287
XXVIII. Synonyms 297
XXIX. Antonyms 308
XXX. Common Errors 320

PLAIN ENGLISH

Lesson I

Open Letter

Dear Comrade:

You are beginning a course of study in the use of Plain English. We do not know what your previous study may have been, but the object of this course is to give the basic principles and practice of the use of the English Language for the benefit of those who have not had the opportunity of a high school education and possibly have not finished in the grade school.

For this reason we have avoided, as much as possible, the statement of rules and formulas to be learned by rote and have made the few rules which it is necessary to know, grow naturally out of the need for them in the development of expression in language.

We have taken for granted several things in the preparation of this course. First, we assume that you have never studied grammar, or if you have, that you will be glad to review it in simplified form. This course does not follow the lines laid down by technical grammarians. It has been worked out on the basis of plain, common sense. Our purpose is not to make of you a grammarian, versed in the knowledge of rules and reasons, but to give you the power to express yourself more readily, fluently and correctly--in other words to speak and write _good_ English.

Second, we assume that you are interested and willing to work and eager to increase your store of knowledge. Your progress in this branch of knowledge will depend, to a large extent, upon your own efforts. We have endeavored to avoid unnecessary and uninteresting rules and make the course as simple, clear and plain as possible; but that does not mean you will not have to work in order to master this study. We trust it will be pleasant and interesting work, bringing you joy as it brings you a growing sense of power.

Probably no two people will use the same plan of work. Your work, to be a pleasure, must express your own individuality. However, we want to make a few suggestions which we know from experience you will find helpful.

+1st.+ +Be Systematic.+ Find some time each day which you can regularly spend in study. Do not be discouraged if it is only fifteen minutes each day. The student who will spend fifteen minutes every day regularly in intensive study can easily complete this course within the prescribed time.

+2d.+ +Concentrate.+ By this we mean that when you study, you should do it to the exclusion of everything else. Keep your mind upon the subject. You may find this difficult at first. Your mind will wander; but you will soon acquire the student habit if you persevere.

+3d.+ +Have Faith in Yourself.+ Do not be easily discouraged. You have the power to master this subject and _you will_. You will find it of immeasurable value to you to be able to speak and write fluently and correctly. Those whom you admire for their ready use of good English were not born with the "gift of gab." They learned how to speak by studying the rules of grammar, the meaning of words, just as you are studying them. What they have done, _you will do_.

+4th.+ +Go Slowly and Surely.+ Do not skim through these lessons. Be sure you understand thoroughly as you go along. Read carefully and _think_ for yourself. If there is anything you do not understand at any time, write us and ask about it. These lessons have been carefully prepared and are for your benefit. Make them yours and call upon us freely for help. This is your College and its only ideal is service.

+5th.+ +Get a Note-Book.+ Make your note-book your work-shop. Write in it an outline of each lesson. Fill it with notes, examples, anything which is of interest on the subject. Note down your own frequent mistakes in the use of English. Watch the conversation of your friends; listen to good speakers. Write down the mistakes you notice. Whenever you hear a word which seems particularly good, or when you see one in your reading, write it in your note-book and make it part of your vocabulary. You will find your interest continually growing and also your ability to express the thoughts you yearn to express.

If we can bring to you an increasing joy in life because of a growing power of expression; if we can enlarge your ability to serve the world; if we can, through the study of this wonderful language of ours, open wider the door of opportunity for you,--our comrade,--The People's College will have served its purpose and realized its ideal.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

GOOD ENGLISH--WHAT IS IT?

+1.+ People seem to differ in their idea as to what constitutes "Good English." Have you never seen a man suddenly called upon to make a formal speech or introduced into the company of distinguished men and women? Quite often, he will drop his simple every-day mode of speech and speak in stilted, unnatural language, using all the "big" words he can possibly remember. He no doubt fondly imagines he is making an impression and using "good" English.

The purpose of language is to make one's self understood, and, of course, this can be done in very simple and crude English. The man who breaks every rule of grammar, intersperses his remarks with every variety of slang phrase, may make himself understood, but he is not using _good_ English.

+2.+ +Good English is that which is good for its purpose and conforms to the standards of usage.+

We have one purpose when we write a business letter and quite another when we are writing or speaking of the great issues of life. There is a place for the simple, direct, plain, unadorned language of every-day business life--the life of the work-a-day world--and there is a place also for the beauty and charm of the language of poetry. If we are talking with the man who works beside us of the work of the day, we will naturally use plain, simple, forceful words. But, if we are speaking to our comrades, striving to arouse them out of their lethargy, to stir them to action as men and women, we will just as naturally use the fine and noble words which touch the depths of human emotion--the heights of human endeavor.

+3.+ There are certain rules for the use of English which have grown up through the years, to which we must conform. These are not arbitrary. They have not been made by any man or any set of men. In fact, they are constantly changing, as the common usage of the people forces the changes. For these rules are only the expression of the common usage, and as usage changes, the rules change.

But these changes come slowly, so we can set down in a book the rules which express the established usage of today. The ability to use good English does not mean the ability to use long, high-sounding words. To be a master of good English means to be able to use the word that meets your need and use it correctly.

Do not strive for _effect_, strive for _effective expression_.

USE YOUR DICTIONARY

+4.+ Do you know that the average individual cripples through life with a vocabulary of a few hundred words when he might easily have at his command as many thousands?

We are misers with our words. Here hid away in this book we call the dictionary is a wealth of words, a rich mine of expression, and yet in our every-day conversation we halt and stammer, using meaningless words and phrases largely made up of current slang.

Never let a word pass by that you do not understand thoroughly. Look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Dollars may be difficult to earn and more difficult to keep, but here is a wealth easily gained and the more you use it the more you possess it.

You will find your dictionary an exceedingly interesting book when you get acquainted with it.

Use it constantly; make it your familiar companion.

OUR LANGUAGE

+5.+ Did you ever stop to think what the world would be if we had no way of communicating, one with another? Think of Helen Keller, shut up in her prison-house of silence. Her only mode of communication with her fellows is through the sense of touch.

Every form of life that has consciousness has some way of expressing its feelings. Every animal, by the movements of its body or the tones of its voice, expresses its emotions of pain, pleasure, rage, hate, joy, hunger and the many passions that sway its life. The child knows without being taught how to express its wants. We understand its cry of hunger, its scream of pain, its laugh of delight. This is the natural language, the language of feeling. It is the universal language that needs no rules and no interpreter. Life on every plane knows and understands it.

WHEN WE BEGIN TO THINK

+6.+ Our feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communicate. The natural language satisfies a child for a time, but as the child grows he begins to _think_, then he feels the need of a more effective means of expressing himself. You can express your feelings to a certain extent by the natural language. You can make one know that you are glad by the expression of the face, the attitude of the body or the tone of the voice. But could you make anyone understand _why_ you are glad, by these signs and gestures?

+7.+ To express thoughts and ideas, man had to devise another sort of language. So the language of _words_ grew up out of the need to communicate ideas to other people. As man's ability to think grew, so his language grew. At first, this language was only a spoken language. The ideas of one generation were handed down to the next by the spoken word. Gradually a crude form of writing was invented from which our written language has developed. This has made it possible to put the wisdom of the ages into books for the benefit of the world.

+8.+ +Hence, language is the means of expressing thought and feeling.+ It has grown out of our need for expression.

+A word is a symbol of an idea.+ It is a sound or combination of sounds which we use to represent an idea. The use of words makes it possible for us to readily convey our thoughts to other people.

Through the medium of words we are able to communicate to others our thoughts, not only of the external world about us, but also of the mental world in which we live. We can tell of our loves, our hates, our dreams and our ideals. Animals find the natural language of looks and tones and gestures sufficient because they live almost wholly upon the physical plane. But man lives in a mental world as well as in a physical one, and must have a spoken and written language by which to express his thoughts.

Exercise 1

Select from the following sentences those which it is possible to express by a look or tone or gesture, and those which can not be expressed without words:

1. I am glad.
2. I am glad because men are struggling for freedom.
3. I am hungry.
4. I am hungry for the chance for an education.
5. Come.
6. Come, let us reason together.
7. I am afraid.
8. I am afraid that we must wait long for peace.
9. Go.
10. Go, search the world over for the truth.
11. I am disgusted.
12. I am disgusted with those who will not think for themselves.
13. I am tired.
14. I am tired of these petty squabbles among comrades.

OUR EXPRESSION

+9.+ Our knowledge of language opens up a new world to us. We can communicate with those about us; we can open the storehouse of the knowledge of the past as recorded in books, or as two of our writers have expressed it:

Have you ever rightly considered what the mere ability to read
means--that it is the key which admits to the world of thought and
fancy and imagination--to the company of saint and sage, of the
wisest and wittiest at their wisest and wittiest moments--that it
enables us to see with the keenest eyes, hear with the finest ears
and listen to the sweetest voices of all time?--_Lowell_.

Strip man of his books and his papers, and he becomes a mere slave,
ignorant of his own resources, ignorant of his rights and
opportunities. The difference between the free citizen of today and
the savage of yesterday is almost entirely a thing of books. The man
who dislikes books can never be entirely happy, and he who loves a
good book can never be wholly miserable.--_Hillis_.

Have you never felt that struggle within and the sense of defeat when you have tried to make some one feel as you feel, understand as you understand, see some great truth as you see it, and could not find the words with which to express your ideas?

+10.+ The mastery of words gives; first, _the ability to understand the spoken or written thoughts of others_; second, _the ability to adequately express our own thoughts_; and third, _the ability to think clearly and to grow in our intellectual life_.

A connected chain of reasoning is impossible without the knowledge of the words that express the development of the ideas and the varying shades of meaning. To gain this mastery, you must know the words of our language and their use. Words are the symbols of ideas and perform certain functions in expressing our thoughts. This, simply stated, is all that the study of English Grammar comprises--_the study of English words and their use in the expression of thought and feeling_.

THE THOUGHT AND THE WORD

+11.+ We have found that the invention of words grew out of the ability to _think_ and the need for expression. But we first _thought_! So, in order to express yourself clearly you must first _think_ clearly. Any thought can be simply and clearly expressed. When you read something difficult of understanding, where the thought is buried under an avalanche of words, you can be assured the writer was not thinking clearly. He did not have the perfect mastery of his thought. On the other hand, one may have a valuable thought in mind and not be able to express it because he does not have the words at his command. In the one case, we have words and no idea; in the other, the idea and no words.

This study is intended to enable you to master words, the tools of expression. In whatever work you are engaged, it was first necessary to learn to use the tools with which you work. So, you must master the use of English words, the tools of your expression. You can in that way learn to express your thoughts clearly and exactly. You will not need to resort to slang, or to the tiresome repetition of a few words.

The best of everything is none too good for you. It is your right, your heritage, and the best in the English language will bring you into the company and comradeship of the men and women who have striven and toiled for humanity, who will talk to you of dreams and deeds worth while, who will place in your hands the key to a new world.

A COMPLETE THOUGHT

+12.+ When we want to express a thought we use more than one word. Words are the symbols of ideas, but a thought is the expression of the relation between ideas. For example, I say _man_, and you get an idea or an image in your mind of a man, but I have not said anything about any man. But if I say, _Man works_, then I have expressed a thought. I have related the idea of a man and the idea of work and have expressed a complete thought.

So we express our thoughts by _groups of words_. The very smallest group of words which will express a complete thought must, therefore, contain two words. If I say _men_, _fire_, _flowers_, and stop, you wonder what I mean, for I have not expressed a thought. Or, I might say, _work_, _burns_, _bloom_, and you would still be in the dark as to my meaning; but, when I say, _Men work_, _Fire burns_, _Flowers bloom_, you understand, for I have told you my complete thought. I have put two words together in a way to make sense; I have formed a sentence.

+13.+ If we say, _Go_ or _Wait_, in the form of a command or entreaty, the single word seems to make complete sense and to form a sentence in itself. But this is only because _you_, who are to do the going or the waiting, is clearly implied. The words _go_ or _wait_, by themselves, do not make sense or form a sentence unless they are uttered in the commanding or beseeching tone of voice which makes you understand that _You go_ or _You wait_ is the intended meaning. With the exception of words used in this way as a command or entreaty, it is always necessary to use at least two words to express a complete thought.

But will any two words make a sentence--express a complete thought?

+14.+ Which of these combinations of words are sentences and which are not?

Busy men.
Men travel.
Snow flies.
Blue sky.
Red flag.
Rustling trees.
Workers strike.
Bees sting.
Grass grows.
Cold winds.
Green fields.
Happy children.

_Busy men_ does not express a complete thought. We are wondering _busy men do what?_ But, _men travel_ is a complete thought. It makes sense and forms a sentence, and tells us what men _do_. In the words, _busy men_, we have spoken the name of something but have made no assertion concerning it. In the two words, _men travel_, we have spoken the name _men_ and we have told what they _do_.

If we were walking down the street together we might say:

The street is crowded to-day.
Does the open road attract you?
See the jostling crowds.

Or if we were discussing the class struggle, we might say:

Two classes have always existed.
To which class do you belong?
Join your class in the struggle.

In every one of these six groups of words we have a complete thought expressed. Each of these groups of words we call a sentence.

+15.+ +A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.+

Exercise 2

Write in each blank space the word necessary to express a complete thought.

Men...... ......fade.

Leaves...... ......bloom.

Water...... ......run.

Fire...... ......write.

Women...... ......grow.

Children...... ......speak.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

+16.+ We have found that every sentence must have at least two words, one word to name that about which something is said and another word which does the saying or makes the assertion. In the sentence, _Men work_, we have these two parts; _men_ which is the part about which something is said, and _work_ which tells what men do.

+The part about which something is said is called the subject.+

In this sentence, _Men work_, _men_, therefore, is the subject, for it names that about which something is said.

+17.+ +The part that asserts or says something about the subject is called the predicate.+

Therefore in this sentence, _Men work_, _work_ is the predicate. In the following sentences draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate, thus, _~Birds~ =fly=_.

Ships sail.
Soldiers fight.
Flowers fade.
Horses neigh.
Flags wave.
Snow comes.
War rages.
Winds blow.
Fish swim.

+18.+ We may add other words to the subject or the predicate and so enlarge their meaning, as for instance we may say:

The stately ships sail proudly away.
The war in Europe rages furiously.
The soldiers in the army fight like men gone mad.

Yet in every one of these sentences you will find the subject and the predicate,--_Ships sail_, _War rages_, _Soldiers fight_.

Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate, and it is a very important part of the study of sentences to be able to distinguish quickly and readily the subject and the predicate. Find that about which something is said, and that will always be the subject. Find that which is said about the subject, and that will be the predicate.

+Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.+

+The subject of a sentence names that about which something is said.+

+The predicate tells that which is said about the subject.+

Exercise 3

In the following sentences add other words to the subject and to the predicate to enlarge their meaning, then draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate:

Ships sail.
Tides flow.
Stars shine.
Rain falls.
Children play.
Nature sleeps.
Waves break.
War rages.
Birds sing.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences the subject and the predicate have other words added to enlarge their meaning. Find the subject and predicate and draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate, as in the sentence,

_The ~workers~ of the world =build= palaces for other people._

1. Our success lies in solidarity.
2. New occasions teach new duties.
3. Two classes exist in the world.
4. Labor creates all wealth.
5. The workers fight all battles.
6. Our time calls for earnest deeds.
7. Knowledge unlocks the door of life.
8. Ignorance bars the path to progress.
9. Few people think for themselves.
10. Hope stirs us to action.

SPELLING

LESSON 1

+Spelling is the process of naming or writing in proper order the letters of a word.+ There is nothing that marks us so quickly as lacking in the qualities that go to make up a good education as our inability to spell the words most commonly used.

Spelling in English is rather difficult. If each letter represented but one sound, spelling would be an easy matter. Every word would be spelled just as it sounds. This is the goal of those who advocate phonetic spelling. Phonetic spelling simply means spelling according to sound. But our alphabet does not have a letter for every sound.

There are some forty-two different sounds used in English words and we have only twenty-six letters in the alphabet. Therefore some letters must do duty for several sounds. Then we have words which contain letters which are not sounded at all when the word is pronounced, so, all in all, spelling is a matter of memorizing.

The best way to become an accurate speller is to read much, to observe closely the forms of words and to write frequently. Always spell any word of which you are uncertain aloud several times and write it out several times. In this way you have aided the memory both through the eye and through the ear. If you are not sure of the spelling of a word do not use it until you have looked it up in the dictionary and made sure.

The words in this lesson are taken out of Lesson 1, Plain English Course. There are thirty in all, five for each day of the week. (1) Look up the meaning in the dictionary. (2) Learn the correct spelling. (3) Learn the correct pronunciation. (4) Use the word in a sentence of your own construction. (5) Use it during the day in your conversation; strive to make it a part of your working vocabulary.

+Monday+

Mode
English
Grammar
Expression
Complete

+Tuesday+

Language
Emotion
Group
Mastery
Dictionary

+Wednesday+

Thought
Symbol
Ability
Idea
Knowledge

+Thursday+

Subject
Predicate
Vocabulary
Practice
History

+Friday+

Memory
Sentence
Write
Right
Purpose

+Saturday+

Propose
Growth
Learn
Teach
Pronounce

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 2

Dear Comrade:

Review Lesson 1 before taking up this lesson. Do not try to learn by rote the contents of these lessons. Our endeavor is to make you see the reason for every rule and definition before they are given. We want you to see unfolding before you the development of language and through this evolution you can catch a glimpse of the developing life of man. Language like customs, religion, government, has grown with the economic advancement of man. As man has evolved on the economic plane, the material plane, as he has improved his means of providing for himself food and clothes and shelter, he has developed a language suited to his needs.

So we can trace the growth of the race as we study the development of language from the sign language of the primitive savage to the language of the philosopher of today by which he makes known to us the story of the stars, and the innermost secrets of our hearts and minds. Civilization began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and the use of writing. So the study of language becomes not a dull and stupid conning of useless rules and formulas, but an absorbing study of a living, growing, changing thing that mirrors forth the very life of man.

Think while you study. As you look for the definition of words in your dictionary and realize how many shades of meaning we can express in words, remember that this power is a heritage that comes to us from a long past of incessant struggle.

We of to-day are also writing history in words. By our efforts we are adding new words to the language and giving old words a richer meaning. _Brotherhood_, _justice_, for example! The world is coming to understand these glorious words more fully and giving them a new interpretation.

You will see a new beauty and glory in words after you have finished this course and you will have a mastery of this wonderful language of ours.

Watch carefully the use of words in your reading. Especially this week distinguish the nouns and verbs. Use your dictionary constantly and add a few words to your vocabulary every day.

Whenever there is a word used in these lessons which you do not thoroughly understand, look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Make a list in your note book of the words you look up and at the end of the week go over them again and see if you have them clearly in mind. Watch also the pronunciation of the words. Do not try to do everything all at once, nor should you be discouraged if your progress seems slow. We approach the goal one step at a time and each step takes us nearer and nearer. Just keep steadily at it, Comrade.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES

+19.+ We have found that we use sentences to express our thoughts. But we also find that we use these sentences in different ways for different purposes. Can you notice any difference in the following sentences?

Two classes have always existed.
To which class do you belong?
Join your class in the struggle.

When I say, _Two classes have always existed_, I am making a simple assertion, stating what I know or believe to be true.

When I say, _To which class do you belong?_ I am asking a question.

When I say, _Join your class in the struggle_, I am giving a command or making a request.

+20.+ +These three kinds of sentences are called assertive, interrogative and imperative.+

+An assertive sentence states a fact or an opinion.+

+An interrogative sentence asks a question.+

+An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request or expresses a wish.+

+21.+ Any of these three kinds of sentences may be exclamatory; that is, it may express surprise, excitement, impatience, or some other emotion. For example:

Hurrah! Freedom is coming!

This is an assertion expressed as an exclamation.

Oh! Why should war continue?

Here we have a question in the form of an exclamation.

Come! Keep your courage up.

In this, we have a command, an imperative sentence, expressed in the form of an exclamation.

+An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, excitement or some other emotion.+

In these three forms of sentences, the assertive, the interrogative and the imperative, together with the exclamatory, we are able to express every thought and feeling which demands expression, either for practical or artistic purposes.

The sentence is the basis of spoken and written language and as we trace its development we trace the history of the evolution of man and the growth of his power of expression, as he has developed his powers of mind.

+22.+ +Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.+

+Every assertive and imperative sentence should end with a period.+

+Every interrogative sentence should end with a question mark.+

The word in an exclamatory sentence which expresses strong emotion is followed by an exclamation point. The sentence itself if in interrogative form should be followed by a question mark; if in the assertive or the imperative form it may be followed either by an exclamation point or a period.

Exercise 1

Mark the assertive sentences among the following with an _a_ in the blank space. Mark the interrogative sentences with a _q_ for question; the imperative sentences with a _c_ for command; and the exclamatory with an _e_ for exclamation.

1. ...... Books are the true levelers.
2. ...... Put not your trust in princes.
3. ...... To err is human; to forgive divine.
4. ...... What are the rights of a child?
5. ...... Seize common occasions and make them great.
6. ...... Not until all are free, is any free.
7. ...... Freemen! Shall not we demand our own?
8. ...... Is a world of happiness but a Utopian dream?
9. ...... He who will not work, shall not eat.
10. ...... Strike at the polls for freedom!
11. ...... Do the majority want social justice?
12. ...... A friend is the hope of the heart.
13. ...... How beautiful is the vision of peace!
14. ...... Acquire the thinking habit.
15. ...... Is it glorious to die for our country?
16. ...... Lo! Women are waking and claiming their own!
17. ...... Claim your right to the best.
18. ...... What is the highest good?
19. ...... Workers of the world, unite!
20. ...... To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.

WORDS--THEIR USES

+23.+ We have learned from our study that we use sentences to express our thoughts. These sentences are made up of words; therefore we call words _parts of speech_. Words are only fractions or parts of speech, and it is by combining them into sentences that we are able to express our thoughts.

There are many thousands of words in the English language. It would be impossible for us to study each word separately. But these words, like people, are divided into classes, so we can study each class of words. These thousands of words are divided into classes much as people are, or rather as people ought to be; for words are divided into classes according to the work which they do. In the Industrial Commonwealth there will be no upper or lower class, but men will be divided into groups according to the work which they do. There will be various industrial groups, groups of agricultural workers, groups of clerical workers, etc. So words are divided into classes according to the work which they do in helping us to express our ideas.

+24.+ +Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their use in sentences.+

+There are eight of these classes of words, called parts of speech.+

THE NAMES OF THINGS

+25.+ What a word _does_ determines what part of speech it is. When primitive man, long ago, first began to use words, in all probability the first words which he invented were those used to name familiar objects about him. He invented a word for _man_, _boy_, _tree_, _animal_, etc. Gradually, all the things he met in his daily life received a name. About one half of the words in our language are of this class, the _names_ of things.

Every word which is used as a name of something is called a _noun_. This word _noun_ is derived from the Latin word which means _name_, so it is quite the same thing as saying _name_. Notice the following sentences:

Boys run.
Fish swim.
Horses neigh.
Soldiers march.
Flags wave.
Flowers fade.
Girls study.
Winds blow.
Men work.

All of the words used like _boys_, _girls_, _fish_, _horses_, _soldiers_, _flag_, _winds_, _flowers_ and _men_, are the names of objects, therefore all of these words are _nouns_. The subject of a sentence is always a noun or a word used as a noun. However, we may use in a sentence many nouns besides the noun which is used as the subject, the noun about which the statement is made. We will study the use of these nouns later in our lessons.

_The famous palace of the kings of the Moors, at Granada, in Spain, was called the Alhambra._ We have six nouns in this sentence, _palace_, _kings_, _Moors_, _Granada_, _Spain_ and _Alhambra_, but the noun _palace_ is the noun which is the subject--the noun which is the name of that about which something is said. _Palace_ is the subject; and _was called_ is the predicate in this sentence.

+26.+ +A noun is a word used as the name of something.+

Now we want to learn to distinguish every word that is used as a name. Pick out the nouns as you read your books and papers until you are able to tell every word which is used as a noun, the name of something.

In the following paragraph, the nouns are printed in italics. Carefully study these nouns:

The _fire_ in the _grate_, the _lamp_ by the _bedside_, the _water_ in the _tumbler_, the _fly_ on the _ceiling_ above, the _flower_ in the _vase_ on the _table_, all _things_ have their _history_ and can reveal to us _nature's_ invisible _forces_.

Exercise 2

Underscore every noun in the following quotation:

The whole history of the earth has been one of gradual development, of
progress, of slow and painful climbing through the ages. Not only have
the hills and the mountains, the rivers and the stars, the trees and
the cattle, the beasts and the birds, been developing; but man
himself--his mind and his body--has been developing. Men are marvelous
little creatures; they have weighed the sun in their balances,
measured the stars and analyzed the light and beauty of the rainbow;
they have sounded the depths of the ocean; they have learned how the
sun and the mountains were born and the rivers were laid in their
mighty beds; they have learned how the seas became salt, what the
stars are made of. They have learned so much, and yet when it comes to
matters of time and space, and law and motion, they still know so
little. The only man who is conscious of his ignorance is he who has
learned a great deal.--_McMillan_.

WORDS THAT ASSERT

+27.+ After the primitive man had invented names for the things about him, probably his next step was to invent words of action. He very naturally wanted to tell what all of these various things _did_. So the words that tell what things do, the words of action, the words that assert, came into the language. A child follows much the same development. As you can readily observe, it first names the objects about it, then learns the words that tell what these objects do.

So the words that tell what things _do_, become the second class of words. These words we call _verbs_. The word _verb_, like the word _noun_, is taken into our language from the Latin. In Latin, the word _verbum_ means _the word_; and the verb is practically _the_ word in a sentence, for we cannot have a sentence without a verb. You may string a number of words together, but if you do not have an asserting word, you will not have a sentence.

Notice the following sentences:

Men work.
Flowers fade.
Snow flies.
Winds blow.

In these sentences, the words _work_, _fade_, _flies_ and _blow_, are the words used to assert or say something of the subject, hence they are the verbs in these sentences.

+28.+ Sometimes it takes more than one word to express the action or make the assertion. Notice the following sentences:

The men are working.
The boy has been studying.

In the first sentence it takes two words, _are working_, to make the assertion; in the second, three are required, _has been studying_. These groups of words are called _verb phrases_.

+29.+ +A verb is a word that asserts.+

+A verb phrase is a group of words used as a single verb.+

The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master. It is not hard to find the verb in short sentences, but in longer sentences it is sometimes difficult.

For example:

The sun shines.
The man walks.
The boys strike.

We very easily see that _shine_, _walk_ and _strike_ are the verbs in these sentences. But let us add other words, as for example:

The sun shines brightly.
The man walks for his health.
The boys strike the dog.

Now we are very apt to confuse the verb with the words which state _how_ and _why_ the action is performed, or the _object_ towards which the action is directed. But in these sentences, _shine_ and _walks_ and _strike_ are still the verbs, just as in the first sentences. The verb asserts the action; the other words merely give additional information about _how_ or _why_ or _upon what_ the action is performed.

+30.+ Another thing which makes it difficult for us to distinguish verbs in English is that the same word may be used both as a noun and as a verb; but always remember that words are separated into classes according to the work which they do. When a word is used as a _name_ it is a _noun_; when it is used as an _asserting_ word it is a _verb_. Note the following sentences:

The _play_ made the child tired.
The children _play_ in the yard.

In the first sentence _play_ is a noun, the subject of the verb _made_. In the second sentence _play_ is the verb, telling what the children _do_. Always classify words according to the work which they perform in the sentence. This will help you very much in finding your verb.

+31.+ Then we have some verbs which do not assert action but express rather a connection or relation between the subject and some other word or words. For example:

The dog belongs to the man.
The girl is happy.

In these sentences _belongs_ and _is_ are the verbs. _Belongs_ asserts or shows the relation between _the dog_ and _the man_. _Is_ shows the relation between _the girl_ and _happy_. If we simply say _girl_ and _happy_, we do not show any connection between them or make any statement relating the two, but when we say, _The girl is happy_, we are asserting something, and the word _is_ makes the assertion.

Or when we say, _The girl was happy_, or _The girl will be_ or _may be happy_, in each of these cases, it is the verb or verb phrase _was_ or _will be_ or _may be_, that asserts or shows the relation between the subject _girl_ and the descriptive word _happy_. You will observe that the verbs _will be_ and _may be_ are composed of more than one word and are _verb phrases_.

We will study the verb in succeeding lessons, but let us remember from this lesson that the word or group of words that makes the assertion in the sentence is the verb. Remember too that every sentence must contain a verb.

Get this basic principle firmly fixed in mind that what a word _does_ decides what it _is_--to what part of speech it belongs, and that every class of words fulfills its own function in sentence building.

+32.+ Remember:--

+Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate.+

+Every sentence must express a complete thought.+

+Every sentence must contain a verb.+

+A noun is the name of something.+

+A verb is a word that asserts.+

+What a word does determines what it is.+

Study carefully the following quotation. The verbs are printed in _italics_.

Slowly, painfully, _proceeds_ the struggle of man against the power of
Mammon. The past _is written_ in tears and blood. The future _is_ dim
and unknown, but the final outcome of this world-wide struggle _is_
not in doubt. Freedom _will conquer_ slavery, truth _will prevail_
over error, justice _will triumph_ over injustice, the light _will
vanquish_ the darkness; and humanity _will rise_ in the glory of
universal brotherhood.--_Warren_.

Exercise 3

Underscore all verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation:

+The Dream of Labor+: Ours is not the cause of one class, of one sex, of one tribe, of one city, of one state, of one continent.

It is the wish for a better world where Man shall be Man; where the beast shall become subdued; where everything shall lead to complete development; where the good of each shall be bound up in the good of all; where all shall feel the sorrows of each and shall run to his rescue.

A glimpse of this ideal takes us into the Land of Promise, where peace and plenty shall reign supreme; where brothers shall no longer battle among themselves, but for one another; where the atmosphere shall be laden with love, the love that saves; where the hate that kills shall be unknown; where heart and brain shall work together and shall make life better and more complete; where the fullness of life shall be for all and where men and women shall be as happy at their work as little children at their play.

The mere glimpse into that land makes life worth living, makes work worth doing, makes dreams worth dreaming, gives us hope and faith--the faith we need in the labor for our cause, the faith which shall help us win.--_Oscar Leonard_.

Exercise 4

We have found that there are a number of words in English which may be used either as nouns or verbs, depending upon the function they serve in the sentence. In the following sentences underscore the nouns with a single line, the verbs with two lines:

1. They _man_ the boats.
2. The _man_ has a boat.
3. The women _pass_ this way.
4. They held the _pass_ for hours.
5. Little children _work_ in the mines.
6. The _work_ of the world is done by machinery today.
7. The armies will _cross_ the bridge.
8. He built a _cross_ of rude stones.
9. The leopard cannot _change_ its spots.
10. We will force a _change_ in the law.

Exercise 5

In the following poem, mark every noun and every verb and verb phrase. You will find the verb phrases in several places divided by the word _not_, as in _I do not obey_. _Do obey_ is the verb phrase. We will learn to what part of speech _not_ belongs a little later.