Chapter II (1)

Once more I stood at the gate of Heaven, I and another. We held fast
by one another; We were very tired. We looked up at the great gates;
angels opened them, and we went in. The mud was on our garments. We
walked across the marble floor, and up to the great throne. Then the
angels divided us. Her, they set upon the top step, but me, upon the
bottom; for, they said, "Last time this woman came here she left red
foot-marks on the floor; we had to wash them out with our tears. Let
her not go up."

Then she with whom I came, looked back and stretched out her hands to
me; and I went and stood beside her. And the angels, they, the shining
ones who never sinned and never suffered, walked by us, to and fro, up
and down; I think we should have felt a little lonely there if it had
not been for one another, the angels were so bright.

God asked me what I had come for; and I drew my sister forward a
little that He might see her.

God said, "How is it you are here together today?"

I said, "She was upon the ground in the street, and they passed over
her; I lay down by her, and she put her arms around my neck, and so I
lifted her, and we two rose together."

God said, "Whom are you now come to accuse before Me?"

I said, "We are come to accuse no man."

And God bent and said, "My children--what is it that you seek?"

And she beside me drew my hand that I should speak for both.

I said, "We have come to ask that Thou shouldst speak to Man, our
brother, and give us a message for him that he might understand, and
that he might----"

God said, "Go, take the message down to him!"

I said, "But what _is_ the message?"

God said, "Upon your hearts it is written; take it down to him."

And we turned to go; the angels went with us to the door. They looked
at us.

And one said, "Ah! but their dresses are beautiful!"

And the other said, "I thought it was mire when they came in, but see,
it is all golden!"

But another said, "Hush, it is the light from their faces!"

And we went down to him.

--_Olive Schreiner_.

The Cry of the People

Tremble before your chattels,
Lords of the scheme of things!
Fighters of all earth's battles,
Ours is the might of kings!
Guided by seers and sages,
The world's heart-beat for a drum,
Snapping the chains of ages,
Out of the night we come!

Lend us no ear that pities!
Offer no almoner's hand!
Alms for the builders of cities!
When will you understand?
Down with your pride of birth
And your golden gods of trade!
A man is worth to his mother, Earth,
All that a man has made!

We are the workers and makers!
We are no longer dumb!
Tremble, O Shirkers and Takers!
Sweeping the earth--we come!
Ranked in the world-wide dawn,
Marching into the day!
The night is gone and the sword is drawn
And the scabbard is thrown away!

--_Neihardt_.

SPELLING

LESSON 12

Last week we learned the rule governing the spelling of derivatives of _one_ syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel when we add a suffix beginning with a vowel.

The same rule applies to words of two or more syllables, accented on the last syllable.

For example:

_Compel_, compelled, compelling.
_Prefer_, preferred, preferring.

+Words accented on the last syllable, when they end in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant when you add a suffix beginning with a vowel.+

When these words take a suffix that begins with a _consonant_, they do _not_ double the final consonant; as, _preferment_.

Words accented on any syllable but the last, do _not_ double the final consonant; as, _offer_, _offered_, _offering_.

Words that have two vowels before a single final consonant do not double the final consonant; as, _reveal_, _revealed_, _revealing_.

Words that end in a double consonant or any two consonants, keep the two consonants, no matter what suffix they take; as, _indent_, _indented_; _skill_, _skilled_, _skillful_.

The only exception to this rule is when the addition of the suffix throws the accent back to a preceding syllable. When this is the case, the final consonant is not doubled. For example: _refer_, _referred_, _ref'erence_; _confer_, _conferring_, _con'ference_.

Look up the following words in the dictionary, watch for the accent, mark and add the suffixes, _ed_, _ing_, _ence_ or _ance_, if possible.

+Monday+

Repel
Alter
Prefer
Debar
Answer

+Tuesday+

Inter
Offer
Demur
Wonder
Succeed

+Wednesday+

Detain
Combat
Compel
Occur
Cancel

+Thursday+

Permit
Travel
Repeal
Control
Profit

+Friday+

Forbid
Neglect
Expel
Render
Infer

+Saturday+

Benefit
Retain
Submit
Reveal
Limit

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 13

Dear Comrade:

Did you ever tie a knot in your handkerchief to help you remember to get something you felt almost sure you would forget? Well, tying a knot in a cord was one of the first ways devised by our ancestors of long ago to aid them to remember. They also used this plan to send word to those at a distance or to keep track of things for succeeding generations. A relic of this old device of our forefathers is also found in the rosary on which the Roman Catholic counts his beads as an aid to memory.

There are some primitive tribes to-day who still use knotted strings as an aid to memory. These consist of a main cord, and fastened at given distances are finer cords of different colors. Each cord is knotted in different ways to mean different things and each color, too, has its own meaning. A red string stands for soldiers, a yellow for gold, and a green for corn, and so on, while a single knot may mean ten, two single knots twenty, a double knot 100, two double knots 200. In this way, they keep a record of things, transmit orders and use them for various purposes.

Only a generation ago the tax gatherers in the Island of Hawaii kept account of the assessable property on lines of cordage knotted in this manner, and these cords in some cases were three thousand feet long. The method of keeping track of things by means of a notched stick is easily within the memory of many people living today. For in England in the early part of the last century, accounts of debts to the government were kept by means of tally sticks, which were merely notched sticks.

Such methods as these were the only ways primitive man had of keeping track of things before he had discovered the art of written speech. And even after written speech was known and used, these old methods persisted.

Gradually, step by step, man has come along the path of progress. Adventurous spirits, not satisfied with the old way of doing things, sought new ways. The conservatives of their day thought them dangerous people, no doubt, and feared that they would destroy the very foundations of society. And this they oft-times did, but only that there might rise a more perfect form of society. It is the seeking, questioning mind that demands the reason for all things, that seeks ever better ways of doing things. They have always throughout the ages refused to bow to the authority of the past but have dared to live their own lives. To them we owe the progress of the world and we are the inheritors of their spirit.

Let us prove our kinship by daring to live our own lives and think our own thoughts.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

+228+. You recall that in our first lesson we studied concerning the four different kinds of sentences which we use in expressing our thoughts, the _assertive_, the _interrogative_, the _imperative_ and the _exclamatory_. The interrogative sentence is the form which we use in asking a question, _interrogative_ being derived from the Latin _inter_, meaning _between_, and _rogare_, _to ask_, meaning literally _to ask between_. The interrogative sentence differs from the assertive sentence in the arrangement of the words; for in order to ask questions, we usually place the predicate, or part of it at least, before the subject, thus:

_Can_ you _use_ good English?
_Did_ you _spell_ the word correctly?
_Has_ he _studied_ grammar?

In these sentences, you note that the helping verbs, _can_, _did_ and _has_, are placed first instead of the subject. It is by this arrangement that we put the sentence in the interrogative form.

+229.+ Frequently, however, in asking questions we wish to ask concerning a person or thing whose name we do not know. So we need a word to refer to the unknown object. See how these uses of words grow out of our need! We have three interrogative pronouns, _who_ and _which_ and _what_, that we use to meet this need. Notice the use of these three pronouns in the following sentences:

_Who_ wrote the Communist Manifesto?
_Which_ of the two men is the better known?
_What_ are the closing words of this famous document?

In these sentences, _who_ and _which_ and _what_ are the interrogative pronouns, used to ask questions concerning the unknown persons or objects.

+230.+ +Who refers only to human beings or to personified objects.+

+Which refers either to human beings, animals or things.+

+What refers only to things.+

_Which_ and _what_ have the same form for both the subject and the object. _Who_ has a different form for all three forms, the subject form, the possessive form, and the object form. It uses the same form, however, both in singular and plural.

_Subject form_ _Possessive form_ _Object form_

Who Whose Whom

+231.+ We often make mistakes in the use of the different forms of the pronoun _who_. We often use the subject form for the object form, using _who_ where we should have used _whom_. For example:

Who did you see?

The correct form is:

Whom did you see?

The pronoun _whom_ is the object of the verb _see_, hence the object form should be used. However, the use of the subject form _who_ instead of _whom_ is coming into such general use today that some grammarians accept it as a permissible usage. The will of the people influences language, as it does all other human institutions, and gradually creates new rules.

Write three sentences, using _who_, _which_ and _what_ as interrogative pronouns.

+An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question.+

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

+232.+ There is one other class of pronouns which plays a great part in our speech and is a wonderful help to us. For example, suppose I want to tell you several things about this book. I say: _I am reading this book. It interests me greatly._ Now it would be a great advantage to me if I could put these two sentences together, and we have for this use a pronoun which makes it possible for us to combine these sentences, and so I say:

The book which I am reading interests me greatly.

Thus I am able to unite two short sentences into a long sentence, which conveys my meaning better than the two short sentences and gives a smoother bit of reading. We have four pronouns which we use in this way, _who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_ and they are called relative pronouns because they refer or relate to some noun in the sentence and they also serve to connect two statements.

+233.+ +A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to an antecedent and at the same time connects two statements.+

A relative pronoun always relates to its antecedent and at the same time connects the statement that it introduces with the one that contains the antecedent to which it relates, as in the sentence above, _The book which I am reading, interests me greatly._ _Which_ is the relative pronoun; first, because it relates to the antecedent, _book_; and second, because it connects the statement, _I am reading_, with the rest of the sentence. Notice these sentences also:

The man who thinks will not enlist in the army.
We will destroy the system that enslaves us.

_Who_ and _that_ are the relative pronouns in these two sentences and their antecedents are _man_ and _system_, and they connect the statements, _who thinks_ and _that enslaves us_, with the rest of the sentence.

+234.+ +Who is used to relate to persons.+

+Which is used to relate only to animals and things.+

+That may relate to either persons, animals or things.+

+What relates to things.+

Note that _which_, as an interrogative, may refer to persons as well as to animals and things; but as a relative, _which_ never refers to persons.

+235+. Note that we use the same pronouns _who_, _which_ and _what_ as both relative and interrogative pronouns. You will not be confused in this matter if you will remember that they are called interrogative pronouns only when they are used to ask questions. When they are used as interrogative pronouns they never have an antecedent. _Who_ and _which_ and _what_ are always relative pronouns when used in an assertive sentence and referring to an antecedent.

_That_ and _what_ have the same form for both the subject and object forms. They have no possessive form. _Who_ has a different form for the subject form and the possessive form and the object form. _Which_ has the same form for subject and object forms, and a different form for the possessive form. Note the following:

_Subject form_ _Possessive form_ _Object form_

who whose whom
which whose which

I know the man _who_ called him.
I know the man _whose_ voice I hear.
I know the man _whom_ they called.

In these three sentences we have the pronoun _who_ used in its three forms, subject, possessive and object form. We should be very careful not to confuse the subject and the object forms of the pronoun _who_.

This is the book _which_ tells the truth.
This is the book _whose_ author is in prison.
This is the book _which_ I wanted.

In these three sentences we have the pronoun _which_ used in its three forms, _subject_ form, _possessive_ form and _object_ form. In the first sentence the pronoun is the subject of the verb _tells_; in the second sentence, it is used in the possessive form with the noun _author_; in the third sentence, it is used as the object of the verb _wanted_.

+236.+ _What_ differs from the other relative pronouns in that its antecedent is never expressed, for it is implied in the word itself. _What_ is always equivalent to _that which_, or _the thing which_. For example, the sentence, _Do not tell what I have told you_, is equivalent to saying, _Do not tell that which I have told you_, or _the thing which I have told you_.

+237+. Never use _what_ in a sentence as a _relative_ pronoun unless you can replace it and make good sense by using _that which_, or _the thing which_ in place of _what_.

For example, do not say, _I know that what he would say_. This is incorrect. You should say, _I know that which he would say_, or _I know what he would say_, using _what_ in place of _that which_. Here is a sentence that occurred in an English examination recently, which illustrates most aptly this point. _A subject is that what something is said about._ Here _what_ is used incorrectly. _A subject is that about which something is said_, would have been the correct form.

Watch for this in your speech for it is a most common error and to the educated ear is harsh and marks the speaker as uneducated. All of these mistakes which we make so commonly will require a considerable amount of effort to overcome, but the result is worth the effort, for even those about us who will not take the pains or give the required time and effort to acquiring an education for themselves, will give greater heed to the speech of those who do speak correctly, and will readily acknowledge the leadership of those who have given the time and effort to self-development.

+238.+ The antecedent of _who_ is sometimes omitted and understood; for example, _Who follows the cause must endure hardship_, _He_, is understood and omitted. _He who follows the cause must endure hardship._

+239.+ The relative pronoun itself is often omitted. For example:

These are the men (whom) you must help.
The words (that) you use and the deeds (that) you do, are your judges.

+240.+ The relative pronouns have compound forms also, such as _whoever_, _whosoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_, _whatever_ and _whatsoever_, which are used in the same manner as the simple forms.

COMMON ERRORS

+241.+ Here are a number of common errors which only constant practice and watchfulness can overcome. Study these over and watch your conversation closely. Force yourself to speak correctly for a time, and soon correct speech will become a habit.

+1.+ +Do not use both a noun and a pronoun as the subject of a sentence+; as, _John, he waited for me._ _Mary, she refused to go._ Leave out the pronouns _he_ and _she_ in these sentences. They are unnecessary and incorrect.

+2.+ +Never use+ _hern_, _ourn_, _hisn_ or _yourn_ for _hers_, _ours_, _his_ and _yours_; as, _The book is hisn._ _Ourn stopped on the first._ _Did you get yourn?_ Say: _This book is his._ _Ours stopped on the first._ _Did you get yours?_

+3.+ +Never say+ _hisself_ for _himself_. There is no such word as _hisself_. Do not say, _He hurt hisself_. Say, _He hurt himself_.

+4.+ +Do not say+ _them_ for _those_; as, _Did you bring them songs?_ _Them things are not right._ Say, _Did you bring those songs?_ _Those things are not right._

+5.+ +Do not use an apostrophe in writing the possessive forms of pronouns+, as _her's_, _our's_, _it's_. Leave out the apostrophe and write _hers_, _ours_, _its_.

+6.+ +Do not use _who_ to relate to animals or things+; as, _The dog who bit me was killed_. Say, _The dog that bit me was killed_.

+7.+ +Do not use _myself_ as the subject+. It can be used only as an emphatic or reflexive pronoun. It is correct to say, _I found the book myself_, and _I hurt myself_. But do not say, _They asked my friend and myself_, or _Myself and my wife will go_. Say, _They asked my friend and me_. _My wife and I will go._

+8.+ +Avoid the use of pronouns when the reference to the antecedent is not clear.+ Better repeat the nouns or re-write the sentence. For example:

He said to his friend that if he did not feel better soon he thought
he had better go home.

Now you can interpret this in at least four different ways. No one but the speaker can ever know to whom the pronouns _he_ refer, whether to the speaker or to his friend. Or in the sentence,

A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short.

Who was short, _A_ or _B_? _John's father died before he was born._ Did John's father die before John was born or did John's father die before John's father, himself, was born? Be careful in the use of pronouns in this way.

+9.+ +Remember that _I_, _we_, _he_, _she_, _they_ and _who_ are always used as subject forms and also as the complement of all forms of the verb _be_.+

+10.+ +Remember that _me_, _him_, _her_, _them_, _us_ and _whom_ are always object forms+. Never say, _They charged he and I too much_. Say, _They charged him and me too much_. In an attempt to speak correctly and follow the niceties of English, this mistake is so often made. Always use the object form as the object of a verb or preposition.

+11.+ +When a participle is used as a _noun_, and a pronoun is used with it, the pronoun should always be in the _possessive_ form+. We make this mistake so frequently. For example, we say: _Us going there was a mistake_. We should have used the possessive form, _Our going there was a mistake_. _I have never known of him being absent from work._ We should say: _I have never known of his being absent from work_. _Did he tell you about me joining with them?_ This should be, _Did he tell you about my joining with them?_ _You talking to him set him to thinking._ This should be, _Your talking to him set him to thinking_. Watch this and wherever you have used a participle as a _noun_, use the pronoun in the _possessive_ form, as you would with any other noun.

+12.+ +Watch carefully that the number of the pronoun always agrees with the number of its antecedent.+ If you are speaking of one person or thing use a singular pronoun. If you are speaking of more than one person or thing in your antecedent, use the plural pronoun. For example: _Each man must do his own work._ _The soldiers fully understood their danger._

+13.+ +When a singular noun, in the common gender (this means that it may name either a male or female being), is the antecedent of the pronoun, it is customary for us to use the masculine pronoun.+ For example:

Every student should send in _his_ examination paper promptly.

Every member of the class may select _his_ own subject.

Do not use the pronoun _their_ when the antecedent is a singular noun.

SUMMARY

Pronoun--In Place of a Noun

CLASSES

_Personal_ {Simple-- {1st Person, _speaking_.
{Compound-- {2nd Person, _spoken to_.
{3rd Person, _spoken of_.

_Interrogative_ {To ask questions.
{_Who_, _which_ and _what_.

_Relative_ {To refer to another word and connect two statements.
{_Who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_.

Exercise 1

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _I_, _me_, or _myself_, in the blank spaces:

1. My partner and......joined the union.
2. They asked Henry and......to go.
3. May my friend and......call?
4. I will attend to that.......
5. Let my comrade and......go with you.
6. Are you sure it was......?
7. I blame......for joining with them.
8. They accused......of bothering them.
9. I am nearly beside......with grief.
10. The manager dismissed the men......among the rest.

Exercise 2

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _we_, _us_ or _ourselves_ in the blank spaces:

1. They are better off than.......
2. The French as well as......claim a war of defense.
3. Can you blame......who have always stood by you?
4. We will do that for.......
5. Between......comrades there should be no differences.
6. They gave......men work.
7. Do not trouble;......will attend to this.......
8. They sent a special notice to our friends and.......

Exercise 3

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _thou_, _thee_, _thy_ or _thyself_ in the blank spaces:

1. To......be true, and it follows as the night the day......
canst not then be false to any man.
2. Paul,......art beside......; much learning hath made ......mad.
3. ......shalt love......neighbor as.......
4. Trust....... Every heart vibrates to that iron string.

Exercise 4

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _he_, _him_, or _himself_ in the blank spaces:

1. ......and John are to blame.
2. I think it was.......
3. My friend and......called on you.
4. He blamed......for the accident.
5. You are no better than.......
6. I shall call for you and.......
7. You and......must come on time.
8. He found the place.......
9. There should be no quarrel between you and......who loves you.
10. If you were......would you go?

Exercise 5

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of _she_, _her_, or _herself_ in the blank spaces:

1. They asked Mary and......to go.
2. Mary and......went.
3. May......and I go with you?
4. Let......and Harry go.
5. Is that Mary? Yes, it is.......
6. There are many points of difference between......and me.
7. You are more beautiful than.......
8. She brought it to me.......
9. If......and I join you, will you go?
10. They must not quarrel over......and me.

Exercise 6

Complete the following sentences using the correct form of _they_, _them_, or _themselves_ in the blank spaces:

1. They gave......up.
2. ......and I will finish the work.
3. I found......where......hath thrown......down to rest.
4. I am sure it was......for I saw......plainly.
5. The workers enslave......by their lack of solidarity.
6. ......must learn the lesson.......

Exercise 7

Cross out the wrong word in the following sentences:

1. Everybody do--does as he pleases--they please.
2. No one should waste his--their opportunities.
3. The jury rendered its--their verdict.
4. If anyone wishes war, let him--them do the fighting.
5. The audience displayed its--their approval by its--their applause.
6. The audience remained quietly in its--their seats.
7. The jury adjourned for its--their dinner.
8. Nobody willingly gives up his--their rights.
9. Each one may express his--their opinion.
10. Every man received his--their wages.

Exercise 8

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of the pronouns _who_, _whose_, or _whom_:

1. ......do you think I am?
2. I am the man......you taught yesterday.
3. With......are you going?
4. The contract was let to a man......we are sure cannot fulfill it.
5. The contractor......wishes to bid will come tomorrow.
6. On......are you depending?
7. The friends......counsel I took, stood by me.
8. He is a man......I am sure will succeed.
9. We tried to talk to those......we thought would understand us.
10. For......did you work?

Exercise 9

Insert _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _which_, _that_ or _what_ in the blanks in the following sentences:

1. Man is the only animal......uses a written speech.
2. Can you save......you earn?
3. Ricardo's law was that the workers always receive a
wage......permits them to produce and reproduce.
4. Have you read the book "War, What For"......Kirkpatrick wrote.
5. Newspapers......distort the news......they print to serve the
ruling class are dangerous foes to the workers.
6. The massacre at Ludlow was an event......aroused the working
class.
7. They......live by the labor of others are drones in society and
should be given the fate......they deserve.
8. The big machine gun......will destroy slavery is the printing
press.
9. The man......leadership we should follow is he......preaches
social equality.
10. We know......we need and we will demand......is our right.

Exercise 10

In the following quotations note the use of the pronouns and mark whether they are _personal_, _relative_ or _interrogative_, whether they are used in the _subject_ form, _possessive_ form or _object_ form:

1. "Camerado, I give you my hand,
I give you my love more precious than money,
I give you myself before preaching or law;
Will you give me yourself, will you come travel with me,
Shall we stick by each other as long as we live?"

2. "I think I could turn and live with animals they are so placid and
self-contained,
I stand and look at them long and long, they do not sweat and whine
about their condition,
They do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their sins,
They do not make me sick discussing their duty to God;
Not one is dis-satisfied, not one is demented with the mania of
owning things.
Not one kneels to another nor to his kind, that lived thousands of
years ago,
Not one is respectable or unhappy over the whole earth."
--_Whitman_.

Exercise 11

Note the omission of the antecedent in the first sentence, also the use of the relative _what_ in the last sentence of the first paragraph:

"Whoso would be a man, must be nonconformist. He who would gather
immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must
explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity
of our own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the
suffrage of the world. I remember an answer which, when quite young, I
was prompted to make to a valued adviser who was wont to importune me
with the dear old doctrines of the church. On my saying, "What have I
to do with the sacredness of traditions, if I live wholly from
within?" my friend suggested--"But these impulses may be from below,
not from above." I replied, "They do not seem to me to be such; but if
I am the devil's child, I will live then from the devil." No law can
be sacred to me but that of my nature. Good and bad are but names very
readily transferable to that or this; the only right is what is after
my constitution; the only wrong what is against it.

A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by
little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a
great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself
with his shadow on the wall. Out upon your guarded lips! Sew them up
with pack threads, do. Else, if you would be a man, speak what you
think today in words as hard as cannon balls, and tomorrow speak what
tomorrow thinks in hard words again, though you contradict everything
you said today. Ah, then, exclaim the aged ladies, you shall be sure
to be misunderstood. Misunderstood! It is a right fool's word. Is it
so bad then to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and
Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and
Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be
great is to be misunderstood."--_Emerson_.

SPELLING

LESSON 13

There are a few more rules governing the spelling of derivative words. Words ending in silent _e_ keep the _e_ before the suffix beginning with a consonant. Notice the following words:

excite excitement
like likeness
force forceful
shame shameless
lone lonesome
live lively

Words ending in silent _e_ drop the _e_ before the suffix beginning with a vowel, as:

excite excitable
live living
grieve grievous
force forcible

Some words ending in silent _e_ retain the _e_ before the suffix beginning with a vowel, to prevent a change in the pronunciation or to preserve the identity of the word. Notice the following words:

peace peaceable
courage courageous
singe singeing
change changeable
shoe shoeing
notice noticeable

These are words ending in the soft sound of _c_ and _g_, where the _e_ is retained to preserve the correct pronunciation of the _c_ and _g_, and with some few words like _toe_, _dye_, etc., where the dropping of the _e_ would lose the identity of the word.

The _e_ is dropped in a few words before the suffix beginning with a consonant, as in _wholly_, _nursling_, _judgment_, _wisdom_, _lodgment_.

Add the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_ to the words in Monday's lesson; the suffix _able_ to the words for Tuesday and Wednesday; the suffixes _some_ and _ous_ to the words for Thursday; the suffixes _ly_ or _ness_ to the words for Friday and Saturday.

+Monday+

Excite
Advise
Chastise
Disfranchise
Enslave

+Tuesday+

Manage
Receive
Blame
Exchange
Imagine

+Wednesday+

Admire
Service
Desire
Peace
Pronounce

+Thursday+

Whole
Meddle
Courage
Advantage
Outrage

+Friday+

Accurate
Positive
False
Definite
Distinct

+Saturday+

Agreeable
Careful
Awful
Sure
Secure

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 14

Dear Comrade:

You remember our definition of a word; a word is the sign of an idea. In our lessons we have been studying the different kinds of words which we use in the expression of our complete thoughts. Probably the first step in the development of language was to name the objects about us. Then the next logical step would be to invent words which would tell what these objects did. So we have our nouns, which are the names of things; our verbs, which tell what these things do; and in these we have the foundation for spoken and written speech. We soon found, however, that the constant repetition of a name was tiresome and annoying, so we invented words which we could use in place of these nouns; and we have pronouns.

All of the things about us possess certain qualities and our next great need was for words to describe these qualities; so we have adjectives. Each adjective is a sign of an idea. It adds its part to the expression of our complete thought. So we find that each part of speech comes logically in its place to fill a certain need. Without any one of them, we would be crippled in our power of expression. Each different word is the sign of an idea and the combination of these ideas as represented by the various signs gives us the complete expression of our thought.

So primitive man in the development of written speech had signs to express the various things about him. Naturally his first sign was a picture, as nearly as he could draw it, of the object itself. If he wanted to tell you about a tree he drew a picture of the tree; the picture of a man represented a man, and so on. You will notice among children that this is the first development in their endeavor to express their thoughts in writing. They draw pictures. The average small child cannot understand why you read those strange marks on the page. They want you to read the pictures. To their mind that is the only way to communicate ideas.

These early forefathers of ours grew to be very adept at this picture writing. We have examples of this among the Indians of our own country. There is a picture on the face of a big rock on the shores of Lake Superior which records an expedition across the lake led by a noted Indian chief. Canoes are shown in the picture with the crew denoted by a series of upright strokes and there is a picture of the chief on horseback. You or I would have great difficulty in reading this picture writing, but an Indian could read it right off just as we would read a written page. Aids to memory such as knotted strings and tally sticks were the first step toward written speech. This picture writing was the second step toward the development of written speech.

We owe a great deal to the work which these primitive ancestors of ours accomplished. It took them years and years to develop through these different stages and our rapid development of the last few centuries has only been made possible because of this slow and patient building of the foundation. An understanding of this helps us to appreciate the place we occupy in this great struggle of the ages. The power of written speech opens up to us such tremendous possibilities. Let us make the most of them, that we too may hand on worth while things to those who follow us.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES

+242.+ Adjectives, like nouns and pronouns, are divided into classes. Adjectives are divided into two main classes, _qualifying_ and _limiting_.

+243.+ An adjective which qualifies a noun is one which names some quality which is possessed by the word which it modifies. When we say, _Trees grow_, we are making a general statement; that is, we are saying something that is true of any kind of trees. We have not described any particular tree. But when we say, _The tall trees grow_, _The old trees grow_, _The young trees grow_, the words _tall_, _old_ and _young_ describe certain qualities of the trees, which separate them into classes. So these adjectives are _qualifying adjectives_.

An adjective qualifies a noun when it attributes some quality to the noun, as, _The brave man_, _The sweet apple_, _The pretty girl_, _The large house_, etc.

+244.+ But if we say, _this tree_, _that tree_, _some trees_, _many trees_, _three trees_, or _four trees_, we are not giving any quality of the tree, but are pointing out a particular tree or trees and limiting the word to the ones pointed out. So such adjectives as _the_, _this_, _that_, _some_, _many_, _three_ and _four_ are limiting adjectives. An adjective limits a noun when it restricts or limits its meaning as to quantity or number.

+245.+ So adjectives are divided into two classes, _qualifying_ adjectives and _limiting_ adjectives.

+Words that limit or qualify other words are called _modifiers_ because they modify or affect the meaning of the words to which they are added.+ So adjectives are modifiers of the nouns and pronouns to which they are added because they modify or qualify or limit the meaning of the noun or pronoun.

The limiting adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _how many_. The qualifying adjectives answer the questions _which_ and _what kind_.

+246.+ +A qualifying adjective is an adjective which describes the noun it modifies by attributing to it some quality.+

+A limiting adjective is an adjective which merely shows which one or how many, without describing the noun it modifies.+

HOW TO DISCOVER AN ADJECTIVE

+247.+ Sometimes the noun may have several adjectives qualifying or modifying it; as,

The beautiful, old elm tree shades the lawn.

_The_, _beautiful_, _old_ and _elm_, all modify _tree_, telling something of the qualities or pointing out which tree we are speaking of. You can discover an adjective in a sentence by asking the questions, _which_, _what kind_, or _how many_; and the words that answer these questions will be the adjectives in the sentence. For example in this sentence:

Those three immense factories employ thousands of men.

_Factories_ is the noun, subject of the sentence. _Which_ factory is indicated by the adjective _those_. _How many_ factories is indicated by the adjective _three_. _What kind_ of factories is indicated by the adjective _immense_. So we have three adjectives answering the three questions, _which_, _what kind_ and _how many_.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences the adjectives are printed in _italics_. Study them carefully and determine which are qualifying and which are limiting adjectives. Note that the possessive nouns and possessive pronouns are _not_ adjectives. _Its_ in the phrases _its cruel fangs_ and _its savage claws_, is a possessive pronoun, third person singular. In the last sentence _beggar's_, _miser's_, and _Ingersoll's_, are nouns in the possessive form.

_This terrible_ war in Europe is slaughtering _the_ working-class.
_Gaunt_ famine follows war.
A _docile_, _meek_, _humble_, working-class makes war _possible_.
_The shrieking_ shell snarls like a _living_ thing; like _some wild_
beast in _ferocious_ glee it thrusts its _cruel_ fangs in earth and
rock and rends _living_ flesh with its _savage_ claws.
Its _fetid_ breath of _poison_ powder scorches in _the autumn_ winds.
_Shattered_ bones, _torn_ flesh and _flowing_ blood were mingled on
_the_ battlefield with _broken_ swords and _split_ rifles.
_The best modern_ rifles will force _a_ bullet through _five human_
bodies at _a_ range of _twelve hundred_ feet.
_The pitiful_ dead, _slain_ in war, sleep under _the solemn_ pines,
_the sad_ hemlock, _the tearful_ willow and _the embracing_ vines.
A world without _the_ beggar's _outstretched_ palm, _the_ miser's
_heartless_ _stony_ stare, _the piteous_ wail of want, _the livid_
lips of lies, _the cruel_ eyes of scorn, was Ingersoll's vision of
_the_ future.

QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES

+248.+ Qualifying adjectives are also called _descriptive_ adjectives because they describe the noun. They answer the questions _which_ and _what kind_.

You remember we found in the beginning of our study of English, that words were grouped into classes according to the work which they do in the sentence, not according to the form of the word itself. For instance, we have already found that some words, without changing their form, may be used either as a noun or as a verb. Take the word _oil_, for instance. I may say, _I oil the engine_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a verb telling what I do. But I may say, _The oil is gone_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a noun, subject of the sentence. The part of speech to which a word belongs in the English language, always depends upon the work which it does in the sentence.

+1.+ So we have nouns which are used as descriptive adjectives, for example the word _oil_, which we have found we can use either as a noun or a verb, may also be used as an adjective. For example; I may say, _the oil tank_. Here I have used the word _oil_ as a descriptive adjective modifying the word _tank_. So also we may say, _the oak tree_, _the stone curb_, _the earth wall_. In these expressions _oak_, _stone_ and _earth_ are nouns used as descriptive adjectives.

+2.+ We have descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns, as French, English, American. These are called proper adjectives; and since all proper nouns must begin with a capital letter, these proper adjectives, also, should always begin with a capital letter.

+3.+ We have also descriptive adjectives derived from verbs as _active_, _talkative_, _movable_, _desirable_, derived by the addition of suffixes to the verbs _act_, _talk_, _move_ and _desire_.

LIMITING ADJECTIVES

+249.+ Limiting adjectives are also divided into classes, the _numerals_, the _demonstratives_ and the _articles_.

Numeral Adjectives

+250.+ Numeral adjectives are those which limit nouns as to number or order. They are such adjectives as _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, etc., and _first_, _second_ and _third_, etc., as for example:

_Three_ men applied for work.
The train ran at the rate of _forty_ miles an hour.
There have always been _two_ classes in the world.
The _first_ martyr to anti-militarism was Jaures.
The _eighteenth_ day of March is the anniversary of the Paris Commune.

In these sentences the adjectives _three_, _forty_, _two_, _first_ and _eighteenth_ are all numeral adjectives. They limit the nouns which they modify as to number or order.

+Adjectives that limit nouns as to number or order are called numeral adjectives. Numeral adjectives answer the question how many or in what order.+

Demonstratives

+251.+ We have also a class of adjectives which are used to point out some particular person or thing. These are called _demonstrative_ adjectives. Demonstrate means literally _to point out_. So these adjectives point out from a number of things, one particular thing to our attention. These demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, _those_, _these_, _yonder_, _former_, _latter_ and _same_.

_These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of _this_ and _that_. _This_ and _these_ are used to point out things near at hand. _That_ and _those_ are used to point out things more distant, as _This is my book_. _These are my papers_, meaning _this book_ or _these papers_, close to me. By, _That is my pencil_ and _Those are my letters_, I mean _that pencil_, and _those letters_, which are farther away from me.

_Former_ and _latter_ are used to show which of two things already mentioned is referred to, and to point out things in point of time, not of place. For example, we may say:

We no longer observe the _former_ customs, but rather prefer the
_latter_.
He did not like his _former_ job but this _latter_ job pleases him.

You understand from this that we have been discussing and describing two kinds of work, and that the first in point of time was unpleasant and the second pleasant.

The demonstrative adjective _same_ refers to something of which we have just spoken, as for example, _He has gone to work, I must do the same thing_. These demonstrative adjectives answer the question which, so when you wish to discover a demonstrative in a sentence, ask the question _which_, and the answer will be the demonstrative adjective.

Exercise 2

1. _This_ study is very interesting.
2. _These_ comrades will stand by us.
3. _That_ solution will never deceive the people.
4. _Those_ books have opened our eyes.
5. _Yonder_ battle appals the world.
6. _Former_ investigations have had no results.
7. _This latter_ decision has reversed the _former_.
8. The class struggle has persisted through the centuries; we are
engaged in the _same_ struggle.

Make sentences of your own containing these demonstrative adjectives.

ARTICLES

+252.+ We have three adjectives which are used so commonly that we have put them in a class by themselves. These three little words are _a_, _an_ and _the_, and we call them articles. The word _article_ literally means a little joint or limb, and these three little words are so closely connected with the nouns with which they are used that they seem to be a part or joint or limb of the noun itself, and so we have called them articles.

_A_ and _an_ are called the _indefinite_ articles because they point out an object in a very indefinite manner. _The_ is called the _definite_ article for it points out in a more definite way.

We use _a_ before words beginning with a consonant sound, as _a man_, _a tree_, _a book_; and we use _an_ before words beginning with a vowel sound, as _an apple_, _an editor_, _an orange_, _an heir_. In _heir_ the _h_ is silent, and we say _an_ because the word begins with a vowel sound. _A_ is used before words beginning with _u_ because long _u_ is equivalent in sound to a consonant, for the blending of the sounds of which long _u_ is composed produces the initial sound of _y_, which is a consonant sound. For example, we say, _a university_, _a useful work_, etc., and not _an university_. Before words beginning with short _u_, use _an_, as, _an upstart_, etc.

In deciding whether to use _a_ or _an_, watch the initial _sound_ of the word, not the initial _letter_. If it is a vowel sound use _an_, if a consonant sound, use _a_.

Exercise 3

Underscore the correct article in the following sentences:

1. Bring me an--a apple.
2. He is a--an able orator.
3. A--an heir was born to the German King.
4. He built a--an house for his family.
5. He is an--a honest man.
6. He is a--an undertaker.
7. I had to take a--an upper berth.
8. He joined a--an union.
9. It is a--an unique book.
10. He is a--an unruly member of society.
11. He told a--an untruth.
12. He wears a--an uniform.
13. It is a--an honor to be chosen.

+253.+ When a singular noun is modified by several adjectives, only one of the articles _an_ or _a_ must be used if the noun denotes but _one_ object; but if the noun denotes more than one object the article must be repeated before each noun. For example, I say, _A red, white and blue flag_. You know I mean but one flag, containing the three colors, red, white and blue. But if I say, _A red, a white and a blue flag_, you know I mean three flags, one red, one white, and one blue.

Note the use of the article in the following sentences:

He wears a black and white suit.
He wears a black and a white suit.
He sold a red and white cow.
He sold a red and a white cow.
He bought a gas and coal stove.
He bought a gas and a coal stove.

The first sentences in each of the above series refers to only one object. The second sentences all refer to two objects.

+254.+ There are some rules concerning the article _the_ that it is well to know because we do not always say what we wish to say, if we do not observe these rules or customs of speech. For example, I say, _The editor and publisher of this book is unknown_. I have used the article _the_ but once, and I mean that the editor and publisher is one person. But I may say, _The editor and the publisher of this book are well known_. In this sentence I have used the article _the_ twice, _the_ editor and _the_ publisher, and I mean that the editor and the publisher are two different persons.

So when two or more nouns following each other denote the same person or thing, the article is not repeated, but when the nouns denote different persons or things, the article must be repeated before each noun. Be sure to use the proper form of the verb.

Note the following sentences and underscore the proper verb to complete the meaning:

The secretary and treasurer were--was here.
The secretary and the treasurer were--was elected.
The singer and artist were--was with me.
The singer and the artist were--was on the program.

Sometimes we have two things so closely associated in use that they may be considered as forming a single idea, so that we may use the article before the first one only. For example:

The pen and ink is gone.
He bought a horse and buggy.
The bread and butter is on the plate.

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES

+255.+ You remember we found in the study of pronouns that we have interrogative pronouns which we use in asking questions when we do not know the name of the object concerning which we are asking. We also have adjectives which we use in asking questions when we do not know the number or quality of the object concerning which we are asking. For example:

_Which_ book did you enjoy most?
_What_ work are you doing now?
_What_ machine did you order?

_Which_ and _what_ are the interrogative adjectives in these sentences.

+Interrogative adjectives are adjectives used in asking questions.+

INDEFINITES

+256.+ We have one more class of adjectives called indefinites.

+An indefinite adjective is one that does not denote any particular person or thing.+

All such adjectives as _each_, _every_, _either_, _neither_, _some_, _any_, _many_, _much_, _few_, _all_, _both_, _no_, _none_, _several_ and _certain_ are indefinite adjectives. We use them when we are not speaking of any particular person or thing, but are speaking in a broad, general sense and in an indefinite manner.

+257.+ The interrogative adjectives are sometimes used in this indefinite way. They are sometimes used to modify nouns when a direct question is not asked, and they are then used, not as interrogative adjectives, but as indefinite adjectives. For example:

He did not know which party to join.
I have not learned what time he will go.

In these sentences _which_ and _what_ are not used to ask questions, but are used to describe an unknown object.

Exercise 4

All the words in italics are adjectives. Decide to which class each adjective belongs.

Note in this exercise the compound words used as adjectives, as: _earth-born_, _self-made_, _new-lit_, _blood-rusted_. Look up the meaning of these adjectives and see if you can use other adjectives in their places and keep the same meaning. Note the use of _fellest_.

Slavery, _the earth-born_ Cyclops, _fellest_ of _the giant_ brood,
Sons of _brutish_ Force and Darkness, who have drenched _the_ earth
with blood,
_Famished_ in his _self-made_ desert, _blinded_ by our _purer_ day,
Gropes in yet _unblasted_ regions for his _miserable_ prey;--
Shall we guide his _gory_ fingers where our _helpless_ children play?
They have rights who dare maintain them; we are traitors to our sires,
_Smothering_ in their _holy_ ashes Freedom's _new-lit_ altar-fires;
Shall we make their creed our jailer? Shall we, in our haste to slay,
From the tombs of _the old_ prophets steal _the funeral_ lamps away
To light up _the_ martyr-fagots round _the_ prophets of to-day?

_New_ occasions teach _new_ duties; Time makes _ancient_ good,
_uncouth_;
They must upward still, and onward, who would keep _abreast_ of
Truth;
Lo, before us gleam her camp-fires! We ourselves must Pilgrims be,
Launch our Mayflower, and steer boldly through _the desperate winter_
sea,
Nor attempt _the_ Future's portal with _the_ Past's _blood-rusted_
key.
--_Lowell_.

Exercise 5

The following is from Oscar Wilde's story of _The Young King_. Oscar Wilde was a master of English, and if you have the opportunity, read all of this beautiful story and watch his use of adjectives. Mark the adjectives in this excerpt and use them in sentences of your own.

And as the young King slept he dreamed a dream, and this was his
dream. He thought that he was standing in a long, low attic, amidst
the whirr and clatter of many looms. The meager daylight peered in
through the grated windows and showed him the gaunt figures of the
weavers, bending over their cases. Pale, sickly-looking children were
crouched on the huge crossbeams. As the shuttles dashed through the
warp they lifted up the heavy battens, and when the shuttles stopped
they let the battens fall and pressed the threads together. Their
faces were pinched with famine, and their thin hands shook and
trembled. Some haggard women were seated at a table, sewing. A
horrible odor filled the place. The air was foul and heavy, and the
walls dripped and streamed with damp.

The young King went over to one of the weavers and stood by him and
watched him.

And the weaver looked at him angrily and said, "Why art thou watching
me? Art thou a spy set on us by our master?"

"Who is thy master?" asked the young King.

"Our master!" cried the weaver, bitterly. "He is a man like myself.
Indeed, there is but this difference between us--that he wears fine
clothes while I go in rags, and that while I am weak from hunger he
suffers not a little from overfeeding."

"The land is free," said the young King, "and thou art no man's
slave."