Chapter II (2)

"In war," answered the weaver, "the strong make slaves of the weak,
and in peace the rich make slaves of the poor. We must work to live,
and they give us such mean wages that we die. We toil for them all day
long, and they heap up gold in their coffers, and our children fade
away before their time, and the faces of those we love become hard and
evil. We tread out the grapes, another drinks the wine. We sow the
corn, and our own board is empty. We have chains, though no eye
beholds them; and are slaves, though men call us free."

"Is it so with all?" he asked.

"It is so with all," answered the weaver, "with the young as well as
with the old, with the women as well as with the men, with the little
children as well as with those who are stricken in years. The
merchants grind us down, and we must needs do their bidding. The
priest rides by and tells his beads, and no man has care of us.
Through our sunless lanes creeps Poverty with her hungry eyes, and Sin
with his sodden face follows close behind her. Misery wakes us in the
morning, and Shame sits with us at night. But what are these things to
thee? Thou art not one of us. Thy face is too happy." And he turned
away scowling, and threw the shuttle across the loom, and the
young King saw that it was threaded with a thread of gold.

And a great terror seized upon him, and he said to the weaver, "What
robe is this that thou art weaving?"

"It is the robe for the coronation of the young King," he answered;
"What is that to thee?"

And the young King gave a loud cry and woke and lo! he was in his own
chamber, and through the window he saw the great honey-colored moon
hanging in the dusky air.

SPELLING

LESSON 14

You remember in the formation of plurals, we learned that words ending in _y_ change _y_ to _i_ when _es_ is added; as, _lady, ladies_; _baby, babies_; _dry, dries_, etc.

There are several rules concerning words ending in _y_, knowledge of which will aid us greatly in spelling.

+1.+ +Words ending in _ie_ change the _ie_ to _y_ before _ing_ to prevent a confusing number of vowels.+ For example, _die, dying_; _lie, lying_; _tie, tying_.

+2.+ +Words of more than one syllable ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant, change _y_ into _i_ before all suffixes except those beginning with _i_.+ For example:

happy, happily, happiness;
witty, wittier, wittiest;
satisfy, satisfied, satisfying;
envy, enviable, envying.

This exception is made for suffixes beginning with _i_, the most common of which is _ing_, to avoid having a confusing number of _i's_.

+3.+ +Most words ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel retain the _y_ before a suffix.+ For example:

destroy, destroyer, destroying;
buy, buyer, buying;
essay, essayed, essayist.

The following words are exception to this rule:

laid,
paid,
said,
daily,
staid.

Make as many words as you can out of the words given in this week's spelling lesson by adding one or more of the following suffixes: _er_, _est_, _ed_, _es_, _ing_, _ly_, _ness_, _ful_, _ment_, _al_.

+Monday+

Beauty
Portray
Deny
Rare
Multiply

+Tuesday+

Mercy
Bury
Obey
Lovely
Envy

+Wednesday+

Tie
Defy
Study
Decry
Crazy

+Thursday+

Merry
Silly
Lusty
Imply
Day

+Friday+

Dismay
Duty
Employ
Satisfy
Pretty

+Saturday+

Pay
Joy
Journey
Qualify
Sorry

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 15

Dear Comrade:

In this week's lesson we are finishing the study of adjectives, which adds another part of speech to those which we have studied. We can see in the study of each additional part of speech how each part has its place in the expression of our ideas. We could not express ourselves fully if we lacked any of these parts of speech. Each one is not an arbitrary addition to our language but has come to us out of the need for it. We see that there are no arbitrary rules but in language, as in all things else, growing needs have developed more efficient tools. With these have grown up certain rules of action so we can have a common usage and system in our use of these tools. It has taken years of effort to accomplish this. The changes have been slow and gradual, and this language which we are studying is the finished product.

This slow development in the use of language, even in our own lives, makes us realize how many thousands of years it must have taken our primitive ancestors to reach a point where they could use the phonetic alphabet. We have found that at first they used simple aids to memory, as knotted strings and tally sticks. Then they began to draw pictures of things about them and so were able to communicate with one another by means of these pictures. When a man was going away from his cave and wanted to leave word for those who might come, telling them where he had gone and how soon he would return, he drew a picture of a man over the entrance with the arm extended in the direction in which he had gone. Then he drew another picture of a man in a sleeping position and also one of a man with both hands extended in the gesture which indicated many. These two pictures showed that he would be away over many nights. In some such rude manner as this, they were able to communicate with one another.

But man soon began to _think_, and he needed to express ideas concerning things of which he could not draw pictures. He could draw a picture of the sun, but how could he indicate light? How could he indicate the different professions in which men engaged, such as the farmer and priest, etc.?

He was forced to invent symbols or signs to express these ideas, so his writing was no longer a picture of some object, but he added to it symbols of abstract ideas. A circle which stood for the sun written with the crescent which stood for the moon, indicated light. The bee became a symbol of industry. An ostrich feather was a symbol of justice, because these feathers were supposed to be of equal length. A picture of a woman stood simply for a woman, but a picture of two women stood for strife, and three women stood for intrigue. These old ancestors of ours became wise quite early concerning some things. The symbol for a priest in the early Egyptian picture writing was a jackal. Perhaps not because he "devoured widows' houses," but because the jackal was a very watchful animal. The symbol for mother was a vulture because that bird was believed to nourish its young with its own blood.

It naturally required a good memory and a clear grasp of association to be able to read this sort of writing. It required many centuries for this slow development of written speech.

The development of language has been a marvelous growth and a wonderful heritage has come to us. Let us never be satisfied until we have a mastery of our language and find a way to express the ideas that surge within us. A mastery of these lessons will help us.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS

+258.+ From our study of the adjective, we know that it is a word used with a noun to qualify or limit its meaning. But a great many times we find these adjectives used without the noun which they modify. As, for example, I may say, _This is mine_, and the adjective _this_ is used alone without the noun which it modifies, and you are able to tell only by what I have been saying or by some action of mine to what I am referring when I say _this_.

When adjectives are used in this manner, they are used like pronouns--in place of a noun. So sometimes we find an adjective used with a noun, and sometimes used as a pronoun, in place of a noun; and since we name our parts of speech by the work which they do in the sentence, an adjective used in this way is not an adjective, but a pronoun or word used in place of a noun.

So these words are pronouns when they stand alone to represent things--when they are used in place of a noun. They are adjectives when they are used _with_ a noun to limit or qualify the noun. For example, I may say, _This tree is an elm, but that tree is an oak_. _This_ and _that_ in this sentence are adjectives used to modify the noun _tree_. But I may say, _This is an oak and that is an elm_, and in this sentence _this_ and _that_ are used without a noun, they are used as pronouns.

+259.+ Our being able to name every part of speech is not nearly so important as our being able to understand the functions of the different parts of speech and being able to use them correctly. But still it is well for us to be able to take a sentence and point out its different parts and tell what each part is and the function which it serves in the sentence. So sometimes in doing this we may find it difficult to tell whether certain words are adjectives or pronouns. We can distinguish between adjectives and pronouns by this rule:

When you cannot supply the noun which the adjective modifies, from the _same_ sentence, then the word which takes the place of the noun is a pronoun, but if you can supply the omitted noun from the same sentence, then the word is used as an adjective. Thus, we do not say that the noun is understood unless it has already been used in the same sentence and is omitted to avoid repetition. We make each sentence a law unto itself and classify each word in the sentence according to what it does in its own sentence.

So if a noun does not occur in the same sentence with the word about which we are in doubt as to whether it is a pronoun or adjective, it is a pronoun or word used in place of a noun. For example, in the sentence, _This book is good but that is better_; _book_ is understood after the word _that_ and left out to avoid tiresome repetition of the word _book_. Therefore _that_ is an adjective in this sentence. But if I say, _This is good, but that is better_; there is no noun understood, for there is no noun in the sentence which we can supply with _this_ and _that_. Therefore in this sentence _this_ and _that_ are pronouns, used in place of the noun. And since _this_ and _that_, when used as adjectives, are called demonstrative adjectives; therefore when _this_ and _that_, _these_ and _those_, and similar words, are used as pronouns they are called demonstrative pronouns.

+260.+ Be careful not to confuse the possessive pronouns with adjectives. Possessive pronouns modify the nouns with which they are used, but they are not adjectives, they are possessive pronouns. _My_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_ and _their_ are all possessive pronouns, not adjectives. Also be careful not to confuse nouns in the possessive form with adjectives.

ADJECTIVES AS NOUNS

+261.+ Sometimes you will find words, which we are accustomed to look upon as adjectives, used alone in the sentence without a noun which they modify. For example, we say, _The strong enslave the weak_. Here we have used the adjectives _strong_ and _weak_ without any accompanying noun. In sentences like this, these adjectives, being used as nouns, are classed as nouns. Remember, in your analysis of a sentence, that you name every word according to the work which it does in that sentence, so while these adjectives are doing the work of nouns, we will consider them as nouns.

These words are not used in the same manner in which demonstrative adjectives are used as pronouns. There is no noun omitted which might be inserted, but these adjectives are used rather to name a class. As, for example; when we say, _The strong_, _The weak_, we mean all those who are strong and all those who are weak, considered as a class. You will find adjectives used in this way quite often in your reading, and you will find that you use this construction very often in your ordinary speech. As, for example:

The rich look down upon the poor.
The wise instruct the ignorant.

Many examples will occur to you. Remember these adjectives are nouns when they do the work of nouns.

ADJECTIVES WITH PRONOUNS

+262.+ Since pronouns are used in place of nouns, they may have modifiers, also, just as nouns do. So you will often find adjectives used to modify pronouns. As, for example; _He, tired, weak and ill, was unable to hold his position_. Here, _tired_, _weak_ and _ill_ are adjectives modifying the pronoun _he_.

+263.+ We often find a participle used as an adjective with a pronoun. As, for example:

She, having finished her work, went home.
They, having completed the organization, left the city.
He, having been defeated, became discouraged.

In these sentences, the participles, _having finished_, _having completed_, and _having been defeated_, are used as adjectives to modify the pronouns _she_, _they_ and _he_.

COMPARISON

+264.+ We have found that adjectives are a very important part of our speech for without them we could not describe the various objects about us and make known to others our ideas concerning their various qualities. But with the addition of these helpful words we can describe very fully the qualities of the things with which we come into contact. We soon find, however, that there are varying degrees of these qualities. Some objects possess them in slight degree, some more fully and some in the highest degree. So we must have some way of expressing these varying degrees in the use of our adjectives.

This brings us to the study of comparison of adjectives. Suppose I say:

That orange is sweet, the one yonder is sweeter, but this one is
sweetest.

I have used the adjective _sweet_ expressing a quality possessed by oranges in three different forms, _sweet_, _sweeter_ and _sweetest_. This is the change in the form of adjectives to show different degrees of quality. This change is called comparison, because we use it when we compare one thing with another in respect to some quality which they possess, but possess in different degrees.

The form of the adjective which expresses a simple quality, as _sweet_, is called the positive degree. That which expresses a quality in a greater degree, as _sweeter_, is called the comparative degree. That which expresses a quality in the greatest degree, as _sweetest_, is called the superlative degree.

+265.+ +Comparison is the change of form of an adjective to denote different degrees of quality.+

+There are three degrees of comparison, positive, comparative and superlative.+

+The positive degree of an adjective denotes simple quality.+

+The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality.+

+The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality.+

+266.+ Most adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of two syllables regularly add _er_ to the positive to form the comparative degree, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative degree, as:

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_

sweet sweeter sweetest
cold colder coldest
soft softer softest
brave braver bravest
clear clearer clearest

+267.+ Adjectives ending in _y_ change _y_ to _i_ and add _er_ and _est_ to form the comparative and superlative degree, as:

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_

busy busier busiest
lazy lazier laziest
sly slier sliest
witty wittier wittiest

+268.+ Many adjectives cannot be compared by this change in the word itself, since the addition of _er_ and _est_ would make awkward or ill-sounding words. Hence we must employ another method to form the comparison of this sort of words. To say, _beautiful_, _beautifuller_, _beautifullest_, is awkward and does not sound well. So we say _beautiful_, _more beautiful_, _most beautiful_.

Many adjectives form the comparative and superlative degree by using _more_ and _most_ with the simple form of the adjective, as:

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_

beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
thankful more thankful most thankful
sensitive more sensitive most sensitive
wonderful more wonderful most wonderful

+269.+ Adjectives of two syllables, to which _er_ and _est_ are added to form the comparison, are chiefly those ending in _y_ or _le_, such as:

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_

happy happier happiest
noble nobler noblest
steady steadier steadiest
feeble feebler feeblest
able abler ablest
witty wittier wittiest

+270.+ Some adjectives, few in number, but which we use very often, are irregular in their comparison. The most important of these are as follows: (It would be well to memorize these.)

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_

good better best
well " "
bad worse worst
ill " "
much more most
many " "
little less least
late later latest
latter last
far farther farthest
(up) adv. upper uppermost
(in) adv. inner innermost

DESCENDING COMPARISON

+271.+ The change in form of adjectives in the positive, comparative and superlative shows that one object has more of a quality than others with which it is compared. But we also wish at times to express the fact that one object has less of the quality than is possessed by others with which it is compared; so we have what we may call the descending comparison, by means of phrases formed by using _less_ and _least_ instead of _more_ and _most_. Using _less_ with the positive degree means a degree less than the positive, while using _least_ expresses the lowest degree. For example:

Descending Comparison

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_

beautiful less beautiful least beautiful
intelligent less intelligent least intelligent
sensitive less sensitive least sensitive
thankful less thankful least thankful

PARTICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES

+272.+ You remember, when we studied the participle, that we found it was called a participle because it partook of the nature of two or more parts of speech. For example; in the sentence, _The singing of the birds greeted us_; _singing_ is a participle derived from the verb _sing_, and is used as a noun, the subject of the verb _greeted_.

But participles are used not only as nouns; they may also be used as adjectives. For example; we may say, _The singing birds greeted us_. Here the participle _singing_ describes the birds, telling what kind of birds greeted us, and is used as an adjective modifying the noun _birds_.

You will recall that we found there were two forms of the participle, the present participle and the past participle. The present participle is formed by adding _ing_ to the root form of the verb; and the past participle in regular verbs is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the root form, and in irregular verbs by a change in the verb form itself. These two simple forms of participles are often used as adjectives.

+273.+ The present participle is almost always active; that is, it refers to the actor. As, for example; _Vessels, carrying soldiers, are constantly arriving_. Here the present participle _carrying_ describes the noun _vessels_, and yet retains its function as a verb and has an object, _soldiers_. So it partakes of two parts of speech, the verb and the adjective.

+274.+ The past participle, when used alone, is almost always passive, for it refers not to the actor, but to what is acted upon, thus:

The army, beaten but not conquered, prepared for a siege.

In this sentence _beaten_ is the past participle of the irregular verb _beat_, and _conquered_ is the past participle of the regular verb _conquer_, and both modify the noun _army_, but refer to it, not as the actor, but as the receiver of the action. Hence, the past participle is also the _passive_ participle.

Note in the following sentences the use of the present and past participle as adjectives:

A _refreshing_ breeze came from the hills.
They escaped from the _burning_ building.
_Toiling_, _rejoicing_, _sorrowing_, onward through life he goes.
The man, _defeated_ in his purpose, gave up in despair.
The child, _driven_ in its youth to work, is robbed of the joy of
childhood.
The army, _forced_ to retreat, destroyed all in its path.
The children, _neglected_ by society, grow up without their rightful
opportunities.

Exercise 1

The adjectives and participles used as adjectives in the following sentences are printed in _italics_. Determine which adjectives are capable of comparison, and whether they are compared by adding _er_ or _est_, or by the use of _more_ and _most_.

In _a_ community _regulated_ by laws of demand and supply, but
_protected_ from _open_ violence, _the_ persons who become _rich_ are,
generally _speaking_, _industrious_, _resolute_, _proud_, _covetous_,
_prompt_, _methodical_, _sensible_, _unimaginative_, _insensitive_ and
_ignorant_. _The_ persons who remain _poor_ are _the_ entirely
_foolish_, _the_ entirely _wise_, _the idle_, _the reckless_, _the
humble_, _the thoughtful_, _the dull_, _the imaginative_, _the
sensitive_, _the well-informed_, _the improvident_, _the_ irregularly
and impulsively _wicked_, _the clumsy_ knave, _the open_ thief, and
_the_ entirely _merciful_, _just_ and _godly_ persons.--_Ruskin_.

PARTICIPLE PHRASES

+275.+ If you will refer now to Lesson 9 you will find that we studied in that lesson concerning participle phrases; that is, several words used as a participle. We found that these participle phrases may also be used as nouns; as, for example:

His having joined the union caused him to lose his position.

_Having joined_ is here a participle phrase used as a noun, subject of the verb _caused_. Participle phrases may also be used as adjectives.

You remember that we had four participle phrases, as follows:

+Present perfect+, _active_, having called.
+Present perfect+, _passive_, having been called.
+Progressive+, _active_, having been calling.
+Progressive+, _passive_, being called.

These participle phrases are used as adjectives to describe and modify nouns, thus:

The soldier, _having joined_ his comrades, fought in the trenches.
The nurse, _having been watching_ for days, was nearly exhausted.

The passive phrases also are used as adjectives, thus:

The woman, _having been hired_ by the manager, went to work.
The man, _being attacked_, fought bravely.

Here the participle phrases _having been hired_ and _being attacked_ are used as adjectives to modify the nouns _woman_ and _man_.

Use the participles and participle phrases of the verbs _see_ and _obey_ in sentences of your own.

USES OF ADJECTIVES

+276.+ In our use of adjectives, we find it convenient to use them in several different ways. The most common use is closely connected with the noun as a modifying word, seeming in a sense almost a part of the noun; as in the sentence, _These brave men have bequeathed to us splendid victories_. In this sentence _these_ and _brave_ are easily discovered to be adjectives, being used in such close connection with the noun.

But sometimes we find the adjectives a little farther away from the noun which it describes, and then it becomes a little more difficult to find. You will recall, in our study of the copulative verb _be_, that we found it was simply a connecting word, connecting that which followed the verb with its subject. So we often find an adjective used in the predicate with a copulative verb showing what is asserted of the subject. When an adjective is used in this way, it modifies the subject just as much as if it were directly connected by being placed immediately before the noun. For example:

The lesson was long and difficult.

_Long_ and _difficult_ are used in the predicate after the copulative verb _was_, but are used to modify the subject _lesson_ just as much as though we said instead, _It was a long and difficult lesson_. So watch carefully for adjectives used with the copulative verb _be_ in all its forms, _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_; and the phrases, _has been_, _will be_, _must be_, etc.

+277.+ You may find adjectives also used following the noun. As, for example: _The man, cool and resolute, awaited the attack_. _Cool_ and _resolute_ are adjectives modifying the noun _man_, but they follow the noun, instead of being placed before it.

COMMON ERRORS

+278.+ There are a number of common errors which we make in comparison, which we should be careful to avoid.

1. A number of adjectives cannot be compared for they in themselves express the highest degree of quality, so they have no shades of meaning and will not admit of comparison. For example: _full_, _empty_, _level_, _round_, _square_. If a thing is full or empty or level or round or square, it cannot be more full, or more empty, or more level, or more round, or more square. So do not compare adjectives that already express the highest degree of a quality. Also such words as _supreme_, _eternal_, and _infallible_, cannot be compared for they also express the highest degree of quality.

2. Do not use _more_ with the comparative form made by using _er_, or _most_ with the superlative form, made by using _est_. For example: do not say, _They cannot be more happier than they are_. Say, _They cannot be happier_; or _They cannot be more happy_. Use either form but never both. Do not say, _That is the most wisest plan_. Say either, _That is the wisest plan_; or _That is the most wise plan_, but never use both forms. Never use _most_ with a superlative form.

3. Do not use the superlative form in comparing _two_ objects. The superlative form is used only when more than two are compared. For example; do not say, _He is the smallest of the two_. Say, _He is the smaller of the two_. _Which is the largest end?_ is incorrect. _Which is the larger end?_ is correct. _Which is the oldest, John or Henry?_ is also incorrect. This should be, _Which is the older, John or Henry?_ Use the _comparative_ form always when comparing _two_ objects.

4. In stating a comparison, avoid comparing a thing with itself. For example; _New York is larger than any city in the United States_. In this sentence, when you say _any_ city in the United States, you are including New York; so you are really comparing New York with itself, and you are saying that New York is larger than itself. You should have said, _New York is larger than any other city in the United States_; or, _New York is the largest city in the United States_. When you compare an object with all others of its kind be sure that the word _other_ follows the comparative word _than_.

5. When an adjective denoting _one_ or _more than one_ modifies a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree in number. For example; _The house is 30 foot square_. _Thirty_ denotes more than one, so a plural noun should be used, and this sentence should be, _The house is 30 feet square_. _We are traveling at the rate of 40 mile an hour._ This should be, _We are traveling at the rate of 40 miles an hour_.

6. Only two adjectives, _this_ and _that_ change their form when modifying a plural noun. _These_ and _those_ are the plural forms of _this_ and _that_. So remember always to use _this_ and _that_ with singular nouns and _these_ and _those_ with plural nouns. For example; do not say, _These kind of people will never join us_. You should say, _This kind of people will never join us_. Or, _Those sort of flowers grows easily_. You should say, _That sort of flowers grows easily_.

7. Place your adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Put the adjective _with_ the noun which it modifies. For example; do not say, _a fresh bunch of flowers_, _a new pair of shoes_, _a salt barrel of pork_, _an old box of clothes_, _a cold cup of water_, _a new load of hay_. Put the adjective with the noun which it modifies, and say, _a bunch of fresh flowers_, _a pair of new shoes_, _a barrel of salt pork_, _a box of old clothes_, _a cup of cold water_, _a load of new hay_.

8. Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they qualify, but sometimes, especially in poetry or in the use of participles, they follow the nouns. They should not, however, be placed too far away from the noun which they modify or be unnecessarily separated from the noun. Where there are two or more adjectives used to qualify the same noun, place nearest the noun the adjective most closely connected with the object described and place farthest from the noun the adjective least closely connected with the noun. If they are all of the same rank, place them where they will sound best, usually according to their length, naming the shortest adjective first.

Correct the following sentences by arranging the adjectives in the proper order:

The summer sky was a blue, soft, beautiful sky.
He bought a brown, fine, big horse.
A gold, beautiful, expensive watch was given her.
The new, beautiful apartment building is on the corner.
He advertised for a young, intelligent, wide awake man.

9. Never use _them_ as an adjective. _Them_ is a pronoun. One of the worst mistakes which we can make is to use such phrases as _them things_, _them men_, _them books_. Say, _those things_, _those men_, _those books_.

10. Do not use _less_ for the comparative form of _few_. The comparative form of _few_ is _fewer_. _Less_ refers only to quantity, _fewer_ to number. For example:

He raised _less_ grain this year than last, because he has _fewer_
horses now than he had then.
He uses _fewer_ words because he has _less_ to say.
There are but _few_ people here today; there were still _fewer_ (not
less) yesterday.

Exercise 2

Correct the adjectives in this exercise:

1. Hand me the little knife.
2. He claims to be more infallible than anyone else.
3. Mary is the oldest of the two.
4. He was the bestest boy in school.
5. The barn is forty foot long.
6. Yonder is a happy crowd of children.
7. Which is the largest end?
8. I found the bestest book.
9. This is the most principal rule.
10. Give me a cold cup of water.
11. These kind of books will not do.
12. Give me them books.
13. Who is the tallest, you or John?

Exercise 3

Mark all the adjectives in this poem. Note especially the participles used as adjectives.

THE COLLECTION

I passed the plate in church.
There was a little silver, but the crisp bank-notes heaped
themselves up high before me;
And ever as the pile grew, the plate became warmer and warmer, until
it fairly burned my fingers, and a smell of scorching flesh rose
from it, and I perceived that some of the notes were beginning
to smolder and curl, half-browned, at the edges.
And then I saw through the smoke into the very substance of the
money, and I beheld what it really was:
I saw the stolen earnings of the poor, the wide margin of wages
pared down to starvation;
I saw the underpaid factory girl eking out her living on the street,
and the over-worked child, and the suicide of the discharged
miner;
I saw the poisonous gases from great manufactories, spreading
disease and death;
I saw despair and drudgery filling the dram-shop;
I saw rents screwed out of brother men for permission to live on
God's land;
I saw men shut out from the bosom of the earth and begging for the
poor privilege to work, in vain, and becoming tramps and paupers
and drunkards and lunatics, and crowding into almshouses, insane
asylums and prisons;
I saw ignorance and vice and crime growing rank in stifling, filthy
slums;
I saw shoddy cloth and adulterated food and lying goods of all
kinds, cheapening men and women, and vulgarizing the world;
I saw hideousness extending itself from coal-mine and foundry over
forest and river and field;
I saw money grabbed from fellow grabbers and swindled from fellow
swindlers, and underneath the workman forever spinning it out of
his vitals;
I saw the laboring world, thin and pale and bent and care-worn and
driven, pouring out this tribute from its toil and sweat into
the laps of the richly dressed men and women in the pews, who
only glanced at them to shrink from them with disgust;
I saw all this, and the plate burned my fingers so that I had to
hold it first in one hand and then in the other; and I was glad
when the parson in his white robes took the smoking pile from me
on the chancel steps and, turning about, lifted it up and laid
it on the altar.
It was an old-time altar, indeed, for it bore a burnt offering of
flesh and blood--a sweet savor unto the Moloch whom these people
worship with their daily round of human sacrifices.
The shambles are in the temple as of yore, and the tables of the
money-changers waiting to be overturned.

--_Ernest Crosby_.

SPELLING

LESSON 15

There is a class of words having the sound of long _e_, represented by the diphthong _ie_, and another class having the same sound represented by _ei_. It is a matter of perplexity at times to determine whether one of these words should be spelled with _ie_ or _ei_. Here is a little rhyme which you will find a valuable aid to the memory in spelling these words:

When the letter _c_ you spy,
Put the _e_ before the _i_.

For example, in such words as _deceit_, _receive_ and _ceiling_, the spelling is _ei_. On the other hand, when the diphthong is not preceded by the letter _c_, the spelling is _ie_, as in _grief_, _field_, _siege_, etc.

There are a few exceptions to this rule, such as _either_, _neither_, _leisure_, _seize_ and _weird_. Most words, however, conform to the rule--when preceded by _c_, _ei_ should be used; when preceded by any other letter, _ie_.

Observe that this rule applies only when there is a diphthong having the sound of long _e_. When the two letters do not have the sound of long _e_, as in _ancient_, the rule does not apply.

+Monday+

Deceive
Belief
Conceive
Brief
Ceiling

+Tuesday+

Field
Receive
Piece
Chief
Leisure

+Wednesday+

Receipt
Wield
Weird
Thief
Perceive

+Thursday+

Deceit
Yield
Grief
Seize
Conceit

+Friday+

Relieve
Neither
Liege
Shield
Niece

+Saturday+

Relief
Achievement
Reprieve
Lien
Siege

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 16

Dear Comrade:

We have been tracing the development of written speech in order that we might have a clearer understanding of our own language. We have found how our earliest ancestors communicated with each other by signs and an articulate speech that was probably a little better than that of some animals of today. They gradually developed this articulate speech and then began to have need for some form of written speech. That which distinguishes man from the animals primarily is his power to remember and to associate one idea with another. From this comes his ability to reason concerning the connection of these ideas. Without this power of associative memory we would not be able to reason. If you could not recall the things that happened yesterday and had not the power of imagination concerning the things that may happen tomorrow, your reasoning concerning today would not be above that of the animals.

So man soon found it necessary to have some way of recalling accurately, in a manner that he could depend upon, the things that happened yesterday and the day before and still farther back in time. So that his first step was the invention of simple aids to memory such as the knotted strings and tally sticks. Then he began to draw pictures of the objects about him which he could perceive by the five senses, the things which he could see and hear and touch and taste and smell.

But man, the Thinker, began to develop and he began to have ideas about things which he could not see and hear and touch and taste and smell. He began to think of abstract ideas such as light and darkness, love and hate, and if he was to have written speech he must have symbols which would express these ideas. So we have found that he used pictures of the things he perceived with his five senses to symbolize some of his abstract ideas, as for example; a picture of the sun and moon to represent light; the bee to symbolize industry; the ostrich feather to represent justice. But as his ideas began to develop you can readily see that in the course of time there were not enough symbols to go around and this sort of written speech became very confusing and very difficult to read.

Necessity is truly the mother of invention, and so this need of man forced him to invent something entirely new--something which had been undreamed of before. He began now to use pictures which were different in sense but the names of which had the same sound. You can find an example of this same thing on the Children's Puzzle Page in the rebus which is given for the children to solve. As for example: A picture of an eye, a saw, a boy, a swallow, a goose and a berry, and this would stand for the sentence, I saw a boy swallow a gooseberry.

Perhaps you have used the same idea in some guessing game where a mill, a walk and a key stands for Milwaukee. And so we have a new form of picture writing. Notice in this that an entirely new idea has entered in, for the picture may not stand for the whole word but may stand for one syllable of the word as in the example given above. The mill stands for one syllable, walk for another and key for another. This was a great step for it meant the division of the word into various sounds represented by the syllables.

What a new insight it gives us into life when we realize that not only our bodies but the environment in which we live, the machines with which we work and even the language which we use has been a product of man's own effort. Man has developed these things for himself through a constant and steady evolution. It makes us feel that we are part of one stupendous whole; we belong to the class which has done the work of the world and accomplished these mighty things. The same blood flows in us; the same power belongs to us. Truly, with this idea, we can stand erect and look the whole world in the face and demand the opportunity to live our own lives to the full.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

WORDS ADDED TO VERBS

+279.+ We have just finished the study of adjectives and we have found that adjectives are words added to nouns to qualify or to limit their meaning. Without this class of words it would be impossible for us to express all of our ideas, for we would be at a loss to describe the objects about us. Adjectives enable us to name the qualities or tell the number of the objects with which we come in contact.

The verb, we have found, expresses the action of these objects; in other words, the verb tells what things do. So with adjectives and verbs we can describe the objects named by the nouns and tell what they do. For example, I may say, _Men work_. Here I have used simply a noun and a verb; then I may add various adjectives to this and say, _Strong, industrious, ambitious men work_. By the use of these adjectives, I have told you about the kind of men who work; but I have said nothing about the action expressed in the verb _work_. I may want to tell you _how_ they work and _when_ they work; _where_ they work and _how much_; in other words, describe fully the action expressed in the verb _work_, so I say:

The men work busily.
The men work late.
The men work well.
The men work inside.
The men work hard.
The men work here.
The men work now.
The men work more.

Words like _busily_, _hard_, _late_, _here_, _well_, _now_, _inside_, and _more_, show _how_, _when_, _where_ and _how much_ the men work.

We could leave off these words and still have a sentence, since the other words make sense without them, but these words describe the action expressed in the verb.

Words used in this way are called adverbs because they are added to verbs to make our meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are added to nouns.

+280.+ The word adverb means, literally, _to the verb_, and one would suppose from this name that the adverb was strictly a verb modifier, but an adverb is used to modify other words as well. An adverb may be used to modify an adjective; for example, we might say: _The man was very busy_. _This lesson is too long._ Here _very_ and _too_ are added to the adjectives _busy_ and _long_ to qualify their meaning.

+281.+ You remember in the comparison of adjectives, we used the words _more_ and _most_ to make the comparative and superlative degrees. Here _more_ and _most_ are adverbs used with the adjectives to qualify their meaning. Adverbs used in this way will always answer the question, _how much_, _how long_, etc. In the sentence, _The man is very busy_, _very_ is used to answer the question _how_ busy. And in the sentence, _The lesson is too long_, the adverb _too_ answers the question _how_ long.

An adverb is also added to another adverb sometimes to answer the question _how_. For example; we say, _The man works very hard_. Here the adverb _hard_ tells _how_ the man works and _very_ modifies the adverb _hard_, and answers the question _how hard_. So we have our definition of an adverb:

+282.+ +An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.+

Remember that adjectives are used only with nouns or pronouns, but the adverb may be used with a verb or an adjective or another adverb. You remember that we had in our first lesson, as the definition of a word, that, _a word is a sign of an idea_. The idea is a part of a complete thought. See how all of these various words represent ideas, and each does its part to help us express our thoughts.

HOW TO TELL ADVERBS

+283.+ We need not have much difficulty in always being able to tell which words in a sentence are adverbs, for they will always answer one of the following questions: _How?_ _When?_ _Where?_ _Why?_ _How long?_ _How often?_ _How much?_ _How far?_ or _How little?_ etc. Just ask one of these questions and the word that answers it is the adverb in your sentence. Take the following sentence:

He _always_ came _down too rapidly_.

The word _always_ answers the question _when_. So _always_ is an adverb, describing the time of the action expressed in the verb _came_--He _always_ came. _Down_ answers the question _where_. So _down_ is the adverb describing the _place_ of the action. _Rapidly_ answers the question _how_, and is the adverb describing the _manner_ of the action. _Too_ also answers the question _how_, and modifies the adverb _rapidly_.

Exercise 1

Underscore the adverbs in the following sentences and tell which word they modify:

1. He writes correctly.
2. She answered quickly.
3. A very wonderful future awaits us.
4. You should not speak so hastily.
5. You can speak freely here.
6. He could never wait patiently.
7. We very often make mistakes.
8. She very seldom goes there.
9. He usually walks very rapidly.
10. I have read the lesson quite carefully.
11. We would willingly and cheerfully give our all for the cause.
12. He frequently comes here but I do not expect him today.
13. If we work diligently and faithfully we will soon learn to speak
correctly and fluently.
14. I am almost sure I can go there tomorrow.
15. It was more beautifully painted than the other.
16. We eagerly await the news from the front.
17. He always gladly obeyed his father.
18. She spoke quite simply and met with a very enthusiastic reception.
19. The difficulty can be easily and readily adjusted.

Exercise 2

Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify verbs:

slowly
here
now
gently
loudly
never
soon
carefully
nobly
down
seldom
easily

Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives:

quite
very
more
too
most
less
nearly
so

Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adverbs:

too
very
quite
less
more
most
least
so

CLASSES OF ADVERBS

+284.+ There are a good many adverbs in our language, yet they may be divided, according to their meaning, into six principal classes:

+1. Adverbs of time.+ These answer the question _when_, and are such adverbs as _now_, _then_, _soon_, _never_, _always_, etc.

+2. Adverbs of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and are such adverbs as _here_, _there_, _yonder_, _down_, _above_, _below_, etc.

+3. Adverbs of manner.+ These answer the question _how_, and are such adverbs as _well_, _ill_, _thus_, _so_, _slowly_, _hastily_, etc.

+4. Adverbs of degree.+ These answer the questions _how much_, _how little_, _how far_, etc., and are such adverbs as _much_, _very_, _almost_, _scarcely_, _hardly_, _more_, _quite_, _little_, etc.

+5. Adverbs of cause.+ These answer the question _why_, and are such adverbs as _therefore_, _accordingly_, _hence_, etc.

+6. Adverbs of number.+ These are such adverbs as _first_, _second_, _third_, etc.

Exercise 3

In the following sentences there are adverbs of each class used. Find the adverbs of the different classes.

1. We shall always be found in the forefront of the struggle.
2. It is much more effective to train the young.
3. He came first and remained through the entire program.
4. It is pleasant to know that we have done well.
5. Our comrades are fighting yonder in the trenches.
6. Therefore we shall never acknowledge defeat.
7. Come down and discuss the matter with us.
8. We would soon be able to agree if we understood the facts.
9. Study your lessons slowly and carefully.
10. He was scarcely able to tell his story.
11. Accordingly I am sending you full particulars of the plan.
12. He came third in the ranks.

INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS

+285.+ The adverbs _how_, _when_, _where_, _why_, _whither_, _whence_, etc., are used in asking questions, and when they are used in this way they are called interrogative adverbs. For example:

_How_ did it happen?
_Where_ are you going?
_Whence_ came he?
_When_ did he come?
_Why_ did you do it?
_Whither_ are you going?

These adverbs, _how_, _when_, _where_, _why_, _whence_ and _whither_, are used in these sentences to modify the verbs and ask the questions concerning the _time_ or _place_ or _manner_ of action expressed in the verb.

_How_ may also be used as an interrogative adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. For example:

How late did he stay?
How large is the house?

In the first sentence, the adverb _how_ modifies the adverb _late_, and introduces the question. In the second sentence _how_ modifies the adjective _large_ and introduces the question.

Exercise 4

Write sentences containing the interrogative adverbs _how_, _when_, _where_ and _why_, to modify verbs and ask simple questions.

Write sentences using the interrogative adverb _how_ to modify an adjective and an adverb and to introduce a question.

ADVERBS OF MODE

+286.+ There are some adverbs which scarcely fall into any of the above classes and cannot be said to answer any of these questions. They are such adverbs as _indeed_, _certainly_, _fairly_, _truly_, _surely_, _perhaps_ and _possibly_. These adverbs really modify the entire sentence, in a way, and are used to show how the statement is made,--whether in a positive or negative way or in a doubtful way. For example:

_Surely_ you will not leave me.
_Truly_ I cannot understand the matter as you do.
_Perhaps_ he knows no better.
_Indeed_, I cannot go with you.

Here, these adverbs, _truly_, _surely_, _perhaps_ and _indeed_, show the manner in which the entire statement is made; so they have been put in a class by themselves and called +adverbs of mode+. _Mode_ means literally _manner_, but these are not adverbs that express manner of action, like _slowly_ or _wisely_ or _well_ or _ill_. They express rather the manner in which the entire statement is made, and so really modify the whole sentence.

PHRASE ADVERBS

+287.+ We have certain little phrases which we have used so often that they have come to be used and regarded as single adverbs. They are such phrases as _of course_, _of late_, _for good_, _of old_, _at all_, _at length_, _by and by_, _over and over_, _again and again_, _through and through_, _hand in hand_, _ere long_, _in vain_, _to and fro_, _up and down_, _as usual_, _by far_, _at last_, _at least_, _in general_, _in short_, etc. These words which we find used so often in these phrases we may count as single adverbs.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

+288.+ Sometimes the same word may be used either as an adjective or as an adverb, and you may have some difficulty in telling whether it is an adjective or an adverb. Some of these words are: _better_, _little_, _late_, _far_, _hard_, _further_, _first_, _last_, _long_, _short_, _much_, _more_ and _high_. For example:

The _late_ news verifies our statement.
The man came _late_ to his work.

In the first sentence, the word _late_ is used as an adjective modifying the noun _news_. In the second sentence, the word _late_ is used as an adverb to modify the verb _came_.

+289.+ You can always distinguish between adjectives and adverbs by this rule: Adjectives modify _only nouns_ and _pronouns_, and the one essential characteristic of the adverb, as a limiting word, is that it is _always_ joined to some other part of speech than a noun. An adverb may modify a verb, adjective or other adverb, but never a noun or pronoun.

You recall the rule which we have made the very foundation of our study: namely, that every word is classified in the sentence according to the _work_ which it does in that sentence. So a word is an adjective when it limits or modifies or qualifies a noun or pronoun; a word is an adverb when it qualifies any part of speech other than a noun or pronoun, either a verb or an adjective or an adverb, or even an entire sentence, as is the case with adverbs of mode.

+290.+ Many adverbs are regularly made from nouns and adjectives by prefixes and suffixes. Adverbs are made from adjectives chiefly by adding the suffix _ly_, or by changing _ble_ to _bly_. For example: _honestly_, _rarely_, _dearly_, _ably_, _nobly_, _feebly_. But all words that end in _ly_ are not adverbs. Some adjectives end in _ly_ also, as, _kingly_, _courtly_, etc. The only way we can determine to which class a word belongs is by its use in the sentence.

Exercise 5

In the following sentences, tell whether the words printed in italics are used as adjectives or as adverbs: also note the words ending in _ly_. Some are adverbs and some adjectives.

1. The boy was very _little_.
2. It was a _little_ early to arrive.
3. It was a _hard_ lesson.
4. She works _hard_ every day.
5. I read the _first_ book.
6. I read the book _first_ then gave it to him.
7. He went to a _high_ mountain.
8. The eagle flew _high_ in the air.
9. We saw clearly the lovely picture.
10. He is a wonderfully jolly man.
11. His courtly manner failed when he saw his homely bride.
12. He speaks slowly and clearly.
13. They are very cleanly in their habits.

NOUNS AS ADVERBS

+291.+ Words that are ordinarily used as nouns, are sometimes used as adverbs. These are the nouns that denote time, distance, measure of value or direction. They are added to verbs and adjectives to denote the definite time at which a thing took place, or to denote the extent of time or distance and the measure of value, of weight, number or age. They are sometimes used to indicate direction. For example:

They were gone a _year_.
He talked an _hour_.
They will return next _week_.
They went _south_ for the winter.
They traveled 100 _miles_.
The wheat is a _foot_ high.
The man weighed 200 _pounds_.

In these sentences, the nouns, _year_, _miles_, _hour_, _foot_, _week_, _pounds_ and _south_ are used as adverbs. Remember every word is classified according to the work which it does in the sentence.

Exercise 6

Mark the adverbs in the following poem and determine what words they modify:

THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS

One more Unfortunate
Weary of breath,
Rashly importunate,
Gone to her death!

Take her up tenderly,
Lift her with care;
Fashion'd so slenderly,
Young, and so fair!

Look at her garments
Clinging like cerements;
Whilst the wave constantly
Drips from her clothing;
Take her up instantly,
Loving, not loathing.

Touch her not scornfully;
Think of her mournfully,
Gently and humanly;
Not of the stains of her--
All that remains of her
Now is pure womanly.

Make no deep scrutiny
Into her mutiny
Rash and undutiful;
Past all dishonor,
Death has left on her
Only the beautiful.

* * * * * * *