Chapter I (4)

The earth shall rise on new foundations.
We have been naught, we shall be all.
No more tradition's chains shall bind us.
Oh! Liberty! Can man resign thee?
Can dungeon's bolts and bars confine thee?
Capital could never have existed if labor had not first existed.
What can I do? I can talk out when others are silent. I can say man
when others say money.
Do you hear the children weeping, O my brothers?
Political freedom can exist only where there is industrial freedom.
Political democracy can exist only where there is industrial
democracy.
Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow.
If there is anything that cannot bear free thought, let it crack.
No doctrine, however established, should be protected from discussion.
Society can overlook murder, adultery or swindling; it never forgives
the preaching of a new gospel.
The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the
blood of patriots and tyrants.
Every man is a consumer and ought to be a producer.
No picture of life can have any variety which does not admit the
odious facts.
I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty
or give me death.

Exercise 8

Note the use of the helping verbs in the following quotation. Could you use _might_ or _must_ or _ought_ anywhere and strengthen the emphasis?

"I have looked at this claim by the light of history and my own
confidence, and it seems to me, so looked at, to be a most just claim,
and that resistance to it means nothing short of a denial of the whole
of civilization.

This then is the claim:

It is right and necessary that all men should have work to do which
shall be worth doing and be of itself pleasant to do; and which should
be done under such conditions as would make it neither over-wearisome
nor over-anxious.

Turn that claim about as I may, think of it as long as I can, I cannot
find that it is an exorbitant claim; yet if society would or could
admit it, the face of the earth would be changed; discontent and
strife and dishonesty would be ended. To feel that we were doing work
useful to others and pleasant to ourselves, and that such work and its
due reward could not fail us! What serious harm could happen to us
then? And the price to be paid for so making the world happy, must be
revolution."--_William Morris_.

SPELLING

LESSON 10

Simple words are sometimes spoken of as root words. _Root_ means that from which something grows. We know our language is a living, growing thing and these root words are the roots where the growth begins. One way in which this growth is accomplished and new words added to our language is by placing syllables before or after the root word--the simple word--as, for example: _unmanly_.

In this we have a syllable placed before and a syllable placed after the root word _man_. The syllable placed before the root word is called the prefix from the Latin _pre_ meaning _before_ and the Latin word to place. Therefore, prefix means literally _to place before_.

+A prefix consists of one or more syllables placed before a word to qualify its meaning.+

The syllable placed after the root word, or simple word, is called the suffix, from the Latin _sub_ meaning after and the Latin word to place. _Subfix_ the word should be literally, but for the sake of the sound--the euphony, the good sound--we say _suffix_.

+A suffix consists of one or more syllables placed after a word to qualify its meaning.+

+The words made by adding prefixes and suffixes are called derivative words.+

You remember we used a suffix in forming participles. The present participle is formed by adding the suffix _ing_ to the simple form of the verb. The past participle is formed by adding the suffix _ed_ to the simple form of the verb.

The words in the spelling lesson for this week are derivative words formed by adding a prefix or suffix, or both, to the simple word. Draw a line through the prefix and the suffix and leave the simple or root word.

+Monday+

Wonderful
Prosperous
Disloyalty
Uncovered
Government

+Tuesday+

Memorize
Unreality
Co-operation
Dependent
Truly

+Wednesday+

Beautify
Countless
Uncomfortable
Dishonesty
Producer

+Thursday+

Existence
Untruthfulness
Discontentment
Victory
Removable

+Friday+

Impurity
Unwillingness
Indebted
Overwearisome
Enjoyable

+Saturday+

Obligation
Hopeless
Endanger
Precaution
Denial

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 11

Dear Comrade:

As we begin the study of the story of the alphabet and the evolution of written speech, we discover that primitive man imagined the art of writing to have had divine origin, to have been handed down from the powers above.

It is natural for us to personify and envelop in mystery the things that we do not understand. So these primitive people have attributed the discovery of the art of writing to the gods and have looked upon the parchment containing the written word which they cannot understand, as possessing magical power; but as we come to learn the origin and causes of things, they are divested of their mystery and become no longer gods and enslavers of men. We understand the laws that govern their action and they become our servants. Take lightning for example. Primitive people personified the lightning or called it the thunder bolts of Jove or attributed it to an act of divine providence. We have learned the laws that govern the action of electricity and so this mighty giant is no longer a god to whom we bow in submission, and who slays us at his whim. He has become our most faithful servant who travels along the wires at our behest and obeys our every bidding. So in the early stages, the art of writing belonged only to the favored few and was made the means of enslavement of the common people instead of the means of liberation.

Knowledge has always been power and the ruling classes of the world, desiring power over the people, have striven to keep knowledge within their own circle; so the art of writing was known only to the few. The few books in circulation were laboriously written by hand and circulated, largely among the clergy, who used it as priests have ever used their power--from medicine man to Pope,--for the enslavement of the people and the protection of the privileges of a few. This is aptly illustrated in the law which was known as "the benefit of clergy" which was not entirely repealed until the year 1827. Under this statute, exemption from trial for criminal offenses was given to the clergy and also to any man who could read. If a person were sentenced to death for some criminal offense, the bishop of that community might claim him as a clerk and if, when given a Latin book, he could read a verse or two, the court would declare "he reads like a clerk" and the offender was only burned in the hand and then set free.

The invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century which made possible the diffusion of knowledge among the people, was the beginning of the emancipation of the workers of the world. But while we realize, perhaps, what this art of writing means to us and by the knowledge of its growth and development no longer ascribe it to divine origin or consider it a blessing designed by a supreme being for a favored few, still most of us know very little of the interesting evolution which made possible the alphabet which is the basis of our written and spoken language of to-day. When we realize how through all these long centuries man has been struggling, striving, evolving, developing, reaching out toward fuller, freer and richer life, it gives us courage in our struggle and makes us see ourselves, not as individuals alone, but as links in a mighty chain clasping hands with that primitive man of the past, from whom we have inherited the power we now possess, and reaching forth also to clasp the hands of those who shall come and handing on to them the things for which we have struggled and added to the inheritance of the past.

Next week we will have the story of man's first beginning in the art of writing.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

THE VERB "BE"

+185.+ The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master because it has more form changes than any other part of speech.

In this lesson we are going to emphasize the most important things to remember in the study of the verb and also call attention to the most common mistakes.

+186.+ First, master that little verb be in all its forms. The only way to do this is to commit to memory these forms. Say them over and over until any other form does not sound right.

+Present+ +Past+ +Future+

_Singular_ _Singular_ _Singular_

1. I am. I was. I shall be.
2. You are. You were. You will be.
3. He is. He was. He will be.

_Plural_ _Plural_ _Plural_

1. We are. We were. We shall be.
2. You are. You were. You will be.
3. They are. They were. They will be.

_Pres. Perf._ _Past Perf._ _Fut. Perf._

Have been. Had been. Shall have been.

+187.+ Do not use _aint_ for _is not_ or _am not_. Do not say, _He aint here_, or _I aint going_. Say, _He isn't here_; _I am not going_.

A FREQUENT MISTAKE

+188.+ Perhaps one of the most frequent mistakes is the confusion in the use of the past time form and the past participle. Remember that the past time form is never used except in expressing past time; never use it in forming a verb phrase. Take the verb _do_, for example--say, _He did the work_, never, _He done the work_; but we should say, _He has done the work_, never, _He has did the work_. _Say_ and _seen_ are confused in the same manner. Watch this carefully.

Exercise 1

Underline the correct word in the following:

1. Who did--done it?
2. He sung--sang well.
3. He sunk--sank before we could reach him.
4. She written--wrote him a letter.
5. He taken--took the book.
6. They swum--swam the river.
7. I saw--seen him do it.
8. They drank--drunk too much.
9. He soon began--begun to fail.
10. The lad ran--run home.
11. They come--came yesterday.

WITH HELPING VERBS

+189.+ Never use the past time form with the helping verbs _has_, _had_, _was_ and _were_. Always use the past participle. Watch this carefully. For example, never say, _He has went_. _Went_ is the past time form. Say, _He has gone_.

Exercise 2

Underscore the correct word in the following sentences:

1. He had tore--torn the book.
2. Have you ever sang--sung this tune?
3. They have showed--shown us how to win.
4. She has went--gone away.
5. The trees were shook--shaken by the wind.
6. He was chose--chosen for leader.
7. He has rose--risen from the ranks.
8. It was wrote--written by him.
9. He has took--taken the prize.
10. He was gave--given the money.
11. I have forgot--forgotten the rule.
12. The river was froze--frozen over.
13. The machine was broke--broken.
14. It was wore--worn out.
15. The meal was ate--eaten in silence.

PAST TIME FORMS

+190.+ Watch your speech to see if you use an incorrect verb form for the past time form. Study the table of irregular verbs and refer to it frequently. We often make the mistake of forming the past time form by adding _ed_ when properly it is formed irregularly. For example: we often say _drawed_ for _drew_, _throwed_ for _threw_, etc.

Exercise 3

Draw a line under the correct form in the following:

1. He grew--growed rapidly.
2. He knew--knowed better.
3. He catched--caught the ball.
4. He drew--drawed the water.
5. They threw--throwed him over.
6. I drinked--drank the water.
7. I climbed--clumb the tree.
8. I seed--saw him do it.
9. She teached--taught school.

VERBS OF SIMILAR FORM

+191.+ Do not use one verb for another of similar form but different meaning. The following are the most common of these:

+Lay+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; as, _to lay the book down_. Principal parts: _Present_, lay; _Past_, laid; _Past participle_, laid.

+Lie+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to recline, to rest; as, _to lie in bed_. Principal parts: _Present_, lie; _Past_, lay; _Past participle_, lain.

+Set+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; as, _to set the table_. Principal parts: _Present_, set; _Past_, set; _Past participle_, set.

+Sit+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to rest, as, _to sit in a chair_. Principal parts: _Present_, sit; _Past_, sat; _Past participle_, sat.

+Raise+ (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to cause to rise, to lift up. Principal parts: _Present_, raise; _Past_, raised; _Past participle_, raised.

+Rise+ (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to get up, to ascend. Principal parts: _Present_, rise; _Past_, rose; _Past participle_, risen.

+192.+ +NOTE--These three verbs need an object to complete their meaning:+

_Present_ _Past_ _Past Participle_

set set set
lay laid laid
raise raised raised

+193.+ +NOTE--These three verbs need no object:+

_Present_ _Past_ _Past Participle_

sit sat sat
lie lay lain
rise rose risen

Exercise 4

Fill in the following blanks with the correct form of the verbs _sit_, _set_, _lay_, _lie_, _raise_ and _rise_:

1. I......it on the table and there it.......
2. They......the battle ship, Maine.
3. Where did you......it?
4. A mile of pipe has been.......
5. The miners......a large strike fund.
6. She......down to sleep.
7. The body......in state three days.
8. The farmers of the U. S.......an enormous wheat crop.
9. The city......on the right bank.
10. We have......the corner stone.
11. When wages are......, prices are......too.
12. He......in bed all morning.
13. ......down Fido.
14. The sun......at six this morning.
15. She has been......there all day.
16. The ship......to during the storm.
17. They have been......new tracks.
18. The hen is......on the eggs.
19. Somebody said, "Early to bed and early to......,
Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise."
20. He......motionless for an hour.
21. He......out the trees in rows.
22. He will......in his position.
23. The court will......in May.
24. Where did he......?
25. She......the table while he......there.
26. He......the clock for six o'clock.
27. The water has......two feet since the rain.
28. He......the book down and......on it.
29. The hen has been......a week.
30. ......it on the table.
31. He......in the shade and watched her......the plants.

COMMON ERRORS

+194.+ Remember that in the present time form the third person singular takes the s-form, but the s-form is never used _except_ with the _third person singular_. We often make the mistake of using the _s-form_ with a _plural_ subject. Notice carefully the following sentences, and correct the errors. All of the sentences are wrong.

1. The days is getting shorter.
2. The men has struck.
3. The trains was late.
4. These papers is written for you.
5. You was disappointed, wasn't you?
6. There is several coming.
7. The nights was dark and cloudy.
8. The clouds has gathered.
9. They was anxious to come.

+195.+ +When two subjects are connected by _and_, the s-form of the verb must not be used+, unless both subjects refer to one person; as:

The president and the secretary (two persons) were late.
The president and secretary (one person) was elected.

+196.+ +But when the two subjects are connected by _or_ or _nor_ then use the s-form of the verb+; as:

Neither Germany nor Russia admits a war of offense.
Either the House or the Senate rejects the bill.

+197.+ +Never use the infinitive sign _to_ by itself+; as:

I have not written and do not expect _to_.
He has not gone nor does he intend _to_.

+198.+ +Never use don't for doesn't.+ The use of _don't_ for _doesn't_ is a very common mistake. _Don't_ is a contraction of _do not_ and _doesn't_ of _does not_. When you are in doubt as to which to use, think or speak the two words in full and see if the verb agrees with the subject. _Do not_ is used with a plural subject, and _does not_ with a singular subject. For example: _He don't believe me_. This sentence in full would be, _He do not believe me_, which is incorrect. _He does not_ (_doesn't_) _believe me_ is correct. Or, _They doesn't believe me_. This sentence in full would read, _They does not believe me_, which is incorrect. _They do not_ (_don't_) _believe me_ is correct.

+199.+ +Do not use _has got_, or _have got_ for _must_.+ For example, do not say, _We have got to go_. Say, _We must go_. Not, _He has got to do what I say_; but, _He must do as I say_.

+200.+ +Do not say _had ought_.+ For example: _You had ought to know better_. Omit the _had_; it is unnecessary and incorrect. Say, _You ought to know better_.

+201.+ +Do not say _says I_ or _thinks I_.+

Says I, "Will you go?"
Says he, "That's what will happen."
Thinks I to myself, "I'll show you."

These are incorrect. Say instead:

I said, "Will you go?"
He said, "That's what will happen."
I thought, "I'll show you."

Exercise 5

Mark all the verbs in the following quotations and note carefully their use.

1. Speak properly and in as few words as you can but always plainly;
for the end of speech is not ostentation but to be
understood.--_Penn_.

2. "Freedom's battle, once begun,
Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son,
Though baffled oft, is ever won."

Note the use of _may_ and _can_ in this quotation:

3. Knowledge cannot be stolen from us. It cannot be bought or sold. We
may be poor, and the sheriff may come and sell our furniture, or
drive away our cow, or take our pet lamb and leave us homeless and
penniless; but he cannot lay the law's hand upon the jewelry of our
minds.--_E. Burritt_.

Note the use of _shall_ and _will_ and _would_ and _should_ in the following. Richard Grant White says: "I do not know in English literature another passage in which the distinction between _shall_ and _will_ and _would_ and _should_ is at once so elegantly, so variously, so precisely, and so compactly illustrated."

4. "How long I shall love him I can no more tell,
Than, had I a fever, when I should be well.
My passion shall kill me before I will show it,
And yet I would give all the world he did know it;
But oh how I sigh, when I think, should he woo me,
I cannot refuse what I know would undo me."

5. I want it said of me by those who know me best that I always
plucked a thistle and planted a flower where I thought a flower
would grow.--_Abraham Lincoln_.

Exercise 6

Note the nouns as well as the verbs in the following quotation. Note also the use of infinitives and participles. Mark every verb and use it in a sentence of your own.

+Faith and Truth+

You say "Believe;" I say "Trust."

Between those two words is a great gulf fixed.

The idea that there can be a moral obligation to believe external
facts is unworthy of a freeman, but to trust is as much the true
nature of man as it is that of a babe to draw in its mother's
milk.

You say "Creed;" I say "Faith."

A creed at best is but a sorry caricature of a faith.

Faith is the proper atmosphere of man, trust is his native buoyancy,
and his only obligation is to follow the highest law of his being.

You have one supreme duty above all creeds and conventions--namely,
to think honestly, and say what you think.

Have you doubts about your creed? say so; only thus has the true faith
ever advanced.

It is not God, but the devil, who whispers: "Think at your peril!"

Do you see flaws in the ancient structure of respectability and law
and order? Say so; only thus has the condition of man ever
improved.

Have courage to be the heretic and traitor that you are by nature, and
do not worry about the consequences.

Be a creator, as you were born to be, and spurn beyond all infamies
the wretched role of a repeater and apologist.

The world lives and grows by heresy and treason.

It dies by conformity to error and loyalty to wrong.

_Ernest Crosby_.

Exercise 7

In the following paragraph, the predicates are printed in italics, and the participles and infinitives in italic capitals. Study carefully.

If it _were taught_ to every child, and in every school and college,
that it _is_ morally wrong for anyone _TO LIVE_ upon the _COMBINED_
labor of his fellowmen without _CONTRIBUTING_ an approximately equal
amount of useful labor, whether physical or mental, in return, all
kinds of _GAMBLING_, as well as many other kinds of useless
occupations, _would be seen_ _TO BE_ of the same nature as direct
dishonesty or fraud, and, therefore _would_ soon _come_ _TO BE
CONSIDERED_ disgraceful as well as immoral.

_Alfred Russel Wallace_.

Exercise 8

Underscore all the verbs in the following and note the participles, the infinitives and the various time forms; also the helping verbs:

What, speaking in quite unofficial language, is the net purport of
war? To my knowledge, for example, there dwell and toil, in the
British village of Dumrudge, usually some five hundred souls. From
these, by certain 'natural enemies' of the French, there are selected,
say thirty able-bodied men; Dumrudge, at her own expense, has suckled
and nursed them; she has, not without difficulty and sorrow, fed them
up to manhood and trained them in the crafts, so that one can weave,
another build and another hammer. Nevertheless, amidst much weeping
and swearing, they are selected; all dressed in red and shipped away,
at the public charges, some two thousand miles, or, say only to the
south of Spain, and fed there till wanted. And now to that same spot
in the south of Spain are thirty similar French artisans, in like
manner, wending their ways; till at length the thirty stand facing the
thirty, each with his gun in his hand. Straightway, the word 'Fire' is
given, and they blow the souls out of one another; and in the place of
the sixty brisk, useful craftsmen, the world has sixty dead carcasses,
which it must bury and anew shed tears for.

Had these men any quarrel? Busy as the devil is, not the smallest!
They lived far enough apart; were the entirest strangers; nay, in so
wide a universe, there was even, unconsciously, by commerce, some
mutual helpfulness between them.

How then?

Simpleton! Their governors had fallen out; and instead of shooting one
another, had these poor blockheads shoot.--_Carlyle_.

SPELLING

LESSON 11

There are but few rules which can be learned to aid in the spelling of English words. The spelling of words must be largely mastered by concentration and effort of the memory. It will help you to memorize the correct spelling if you will write each word a number of times. This gives you a visual image of the word. Then spell it aloud a number of times. This will give you an auditory image.

Words which you find difficult to master, write in a list by themselves and review frequently. There are a few rules, however, which are helpful to know. There is one rule of spelling we want to learn this week concerning words formed by adding a suffix.

+A word of one syllable which ends in a single consonant before which stands a single vowel, doubles the final consonant when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added.+

For example: _mat_, _matted_, _matting_; _sun_, _sunned_, _sunning_.

_Mat_ ends in _t_, a single consonant which is preceded by the single vowel _a_,--so you double the _t_ when you add the suffix _ed_ or _ing_, which begin with a vowel.

Notice these: _Blend_, _blended_, _blending_; _Help_, _helped_, _helping_.

These words do not end in a single consonant, so you do not double the consonant.

Notice also: _Lean_, _leaned_, _leaning_; _Rain_, _rained_, _raining_.

These words end in a single consonant, but before the consonant is a double vowel, _ea_ in _lean_ and _ai_ in _rain_. So we do not double the final consonant.

This same rule holds true of any suffix, beginning with a vowel, as _er_ and _est_, for example: _sad_, _sadder_, _saddest_. _Slim_, _slimmer_, _slimmest_.

Learn to spell the following words. Add the suffixes _ed_ and _ing_ to the words for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday. Add _er_ and _est_ to the words for Thursday, Friday and Saturday.

+Monday+

Chat
Cheat
Grin
Groan
Suit

+Tuesday+

Sap
Soap
Bet
Beat
Rot

+Wednesday+

Talk
Teach
Gain
Stir
Plan

+Thursday+

Thin
Dear
Flat
Cheap
Straight

+Friday+

Clean
Brief
Fair
Shrill
Wet

+Saturday+

Strong
Great
Mad
Fleet
Fat

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 12

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are beginning the study of still another part of speech. You will notice that in words, at least, we give credit and place in society only because of _work performed_. In the society of men, people are given place and position too often because of outward dress and form or because of some special privilege. They are not given their place in society because of the work which they do or because they perform any useful function. In fact, in our topsy-turvy world, those who perform no work at all, but are simply parasites upon society, have claimed for themselves the best of everything and the highest positions.

Surely some time we shall see a society as successfully organized as our society of words, when men will be received, not because of that which they possess, but because of that which they do and are. Man has really laid the foundation for an ideal commonwealth in his organization of words into a spoken and written language.

When we think back across the centuries and think of the primitive man as he dwelt in trees to protect himself from the wild animals, we wonder what sort of speech he used then. Possibly it was only a little more articulate than the speech of some animals.

But man had within him the instinct to question, and this has been the root of all his progress. We can imagine these primitive men witnessing the wonder of fire, as the terrible unknown god of the lightning set fire to the forest in which they lived; but after the fear had subsided, some adventurous, inquiring forefather of ours ventured near the ashes, and began to investigate concerning this fearful and wonderful thing.

So gradually they discovered the use of fire, and with it a wonderful new future opened before the primitive man. With these great discoveries, he needed a better form of communication with his comrades, so articulate speech developed. But when we go back into the beginning of written speech, it is difficult for us to trace it to its beginning.

The first evidence we find was of man as a sign maker. On the walls of caves in France and Belgium and here in America, we have found rude sketches which the scientists tell us date back to the Ice Age and the Old Stone Age. Here the primitive man has drawn for us crude pictures describing different phases of his life, the animals about him, the hunt and the chase, and in these pictures we find the very beginning of our alphabet of to-day.

How much more wonderful it makes our spoken and written language to know that man has developed it himself. It has not been handed down by some god or powers above; but the spirit of rebellion against the things that be; the great desire to know more and to find out the reason _why_ of all the things around us,--these have been the forces that have led the race from the animal-like beings that lived in trees to the race of today that understands in a large measure the laws that govern life.

It is only as we, through this spirit of rebellion, this same divine discontent with the things that are, seek to do our own thinking that we can add our share to the heritage of the race. Let us have the same courage that must have inspired the heart of that primitive man who dared to venture and inquire concerning the fearful things of nature round about him. Let us think for ourselves. Ask always the question "why" and demand the reason for all things. Thus we shall free ourselves and help to free the race.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

IN PLACE OF A NOUN

+202.+ You remember in our study of the parts of speech we found that we have one part of speech that can be used in place of a noun. This is a very helpful part of speech for it saves us a great deal of tiresome repetition. Notice the following sentences:

John Smith is a machinist.
John Smith works at the machine.
The machine is John Smith's master.

This is awkward and the repetition is tiresome. So we say instead:

John Smith is a machinist.
He works at the machine.
It is his master.

You readily understand who and what we mean by _he_ and _it_ and _his_, and we will all agree that the latter is a much better way of making the statements. These words like _he_ and _his_ and _it_, which we use in place of the noun, we call _pronouns_. _Pro_ means literally in the Latin, _for_ or _in place of_; so when we say pronoun we are practically saying, in place of a noun.

+A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.+

+203.+ The word for which a pronoun stands or the noun in whose place it is used is called its antecedent. _Ante_ means _before_ and _cedent_ comes from the Latin word meaning _go_, hence antecedent means literally, _going before_.

Notice this sentence: _The manager spoke to the men before he left and told them to stop at the office_. _Manager_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _he_, and _men_ is the antecedent of the pronoun _them_.

+The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent.+

KINDS OF PRONOUNS

+204.+ The Latin language has had a great deal of influence upon English. Many of our words are taken from the Latin. You remember that all of the names of our parts of speech are derived from Latin words. We also feel the influence of the Latin language in the way in which we number our personal pronouns. The Romans naturally thought that one would think of one's self first, and so the pronouns referring to one's self, or the person speaking, are called the _first_ person pronouns. They are, _I_, _my_, _mine_, _me_ and _we_, _our_, _ours_, and _us_.

Then they naturally thought that one would think second of the person spoken to, so the pronouns referring to the person spoken to are called the _second_ person pronouns. Formerly _thou_ was used in speaking to one person. In German and many other languages this form is still used, but in English we do not today use the singular form _thou_ with its variations, _thy_, _thine_, and _thee_, except in poetry or poetic prose. In every-day speech we use _you_ and its forms, _your_ and _yours_, for both the singular and the plural.

Then the Romans considered last the person or thing of whom they were speaking; so pronouns referring to the person or thing spoken of are called the _third_ person pronouns. These are _he_, _she_, and _it_, with their other forms, _his_, _him_, _her_, _hers_, _its_, in the singular, and _they_, _their_, _theirs_ and _them_ in the plural.

+A personal pronoun is one that denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.+

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS

+205.+ All of these forms of pronouns which we have named are simple forms; but we have several personal pronouns which have a compound form; that is, a form made by the addition of _self_ or _selves_ to the simple forms.

These are called compound personal pronouns. They are, in the singular, _myself_, _thyself_, _yourself_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, and in the plural, _ourselves_, _yourselves_ and _themselves_.

The compound personal pronouns have two uses, reflexive and emphatic.

Reflexive

+206.+ A compound personal pronoun has a reflexive use when the actor becomes the object of its own action or in other words when the subject and the object refer to the same thing; as in this sentence, _He has hurt himself_, _himself_ is the object of the incomplete verb _has hurt_, but it refers to the subject _he_. Reflexive is from the Latin _re_ meaning _back_ and from the Latin verb meaning _throw_, so reflexive means literally _thrown_ back. These pronouns throw their meaning back to the subject.

Emphatic

+207.+ A compound personal pronoun has also an emphatic use when it directs especial attention to the noun or pronoun to which it refers. For example in the sentence, _He did the work himself_, or, _He, himself, did the work_, _himself_ gives emphasis or intensifies the meaning of the pronoun _he_.

Remember a compound personal pronoun is correctly used only in these two ways, reflexive and emphatic. For example, the following sentences are incorrect:

This is for yourself and your comrade.
Ourselves will find out the reason.

The correct form would be:

This is for you and your comrade.
We, ourselves, will find out the reason.

+208.+ You can readily distinguish between the reflexive and the emphatic use. In the reflexive, the compound personal pronoun is always the _object_ of a verb or preposition, and the subject of the sentence is its antecedent. The subject and the object always refer to the same thing.

In the emphatic use, the compound personal pronoun is neither the subject nor the object, but is thrown into the sentence simply to render it emphatic, and to call special attention to its antecedent.

Exercise 1

Supply the compound personal pronoun in the following blanks and tell whether the use is reflexive or emphatic.

1. He discovered the truth.......
2. The workers have robbed......by their ignorance.
3. You must educate.......
4. You must do the work.......
5. He must defend.......
6. Capitalism overreaches.......
7. The people will rule.......
8. We will settle the question.......

Write six sentences in which the compound personal pronouns are correctly used.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL

+209.+ Personal pronouns, like nouns, have number form. Nouns simply add _s_ to the singular form to denote the plural, but in personal pronouns we have different words which we use to express one or more than one person or thing. In the first, second, and third person forms, personal pronouns also have different forms for the object form, the possessive and the subject form. The following table gives the singular and plural of the subject form,--that is the form which is used as the subject of the sentence.

+Subject Form+

_Singular_ _Plural_

_First person._ I We
_Second person._ You You
_Third person._ He, she, it. They

+Compound Personal Pronouns+

_Singular_ _Plural_

_First._ Myself Ourselves
_Second._ Yourself Yourselves
_Third._ Himself, herself, itself. Themselves

+210.+ Remember that the first person refers to the person speaking, the second to the person spoken to, and the third person to the person or things spoken of. When we speak of things, we never use the first or second person, unless we are speaking of them in a personified form. So in the third person singular, we have the pronoun _it_ which refers to one thing. In the plural, we have no special pronoun referring to things, but the pronoun _they_ is used to refer both to persons and things.

Exercise 2

Which of the following pronouns refer to the person speaking, which to the person spoken to, and which to the person or thing spoken of? Which are singular, which plural?

I will defend my principles.
Give them to me for they are mine.
Do you believe him to be your friend?
We saw their mistake at once.
They acknowledged it was their fault.
Success will be your portion if you persevere.
He struggles for his rights; she does not understand her rights.
It forces us to struggle for our education.
Woman craves her freedom.
Workers of the world, unite; you have a world to gain and nothing to
lose but your chains.

Form sentences of your own containing all these pronouns.

POSSESSIVE FORM

+211.+ You will note in these sentences above that we have used the pronoun _my_ and _your_ and _his_ and _her_ as _my principles_, _your friend_, _his rights_, _her freedom_. This is the possessive form of these personal pronouns, the form that denotes ownership or possession. You remember that nouns had a possessive form, a form to denote possession or ownership, as, _The man's book._ _The boy's school._ _The worker's college._ So pronouns also have a possessive form which we use to show that an object belongs to such and such a person or thing. If I want to tell you that I own or possess a home, I say, _I own my home_. Each personal pronoun has its possessive form, thus:

+Singular+

_Subject Form_ _Possessive_

_First person._ I My, mine
_Second person._ You Your, yours
_Third person._ He, she, it His, her, hers, its

+Plural+

_Subject Form_ _Possessive_

_First person._ We Our, ours
_Second person._ You Your, yours
_Third person._ They Their, theirs

POSSESSIVE FORM

+212.+ You will notice that the possessive forms, _my_, _our_, _her_, _your_, _its_, _his_ and _their_, are always used with the name of the object possessed. As for example; _my work_, _our library_, _her delight_, _your task_, _its purpose_, _his home_, _their mistake_.

+213.+ The possessive forms, _mine_, _thine_, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_ and _theirs_, are always used by themselves and are used either as subject, object or complement. As for example:

That letter is mine.
The work is hers.
Thine is the glory.
Is that yours?
Theirs not to reason why; theirs but to do and die.

The possessive form _his_ may be used either in connection with the name of the object possessed or by itself. For example:

This is _his_ home.
This home is _his_.

OBJECT FORM

+214.+ Pronouns have one form which nouns do not have. We use the same form for the noun no matter whether it is the subject or the object. For example:

The man saw me.
I saw the man.

In the first sentence _man_ is the subject of the verb _saw_, and in the second sentence _man_ is the object of the verb _saw_. The same word is used; but you will notice that in the first sentence _me_ is the object of the verb _saw_, and in the second _I_ is the subject; yet both refer to the same person, the first person, the person speaking.

So we have a different form of the pronoun for the object, for example: _I saw him._ _He saw me._ _She watched us._ _We watched her._ _You found them._ _Him_, _me_, _us_, _her_, and _them_ in these sentences are used as the objects of the verbs, _see_, _watch_ and _found_, and are called the object forms of the pronouns. _You_ and _it_ have the same form for both the subject and object; as, _You did it._ _It frightens you._ _Her_ is used as both the possessive form and the object form, as, _Her work tires her._

+215.+ The following table gives the subject and the object forms of the personal pronouns, and these should never be confused in their usage. We must not use the object form as the subject of the verb, nor the subject form as the object of the verb.

+Singular+

_Subject_ _Object_

_First._ I Me
_Second._ You You
_Third._ He, she, it Him, her, it

+Plural+

_Subject_ _Object_

_First._ We Us
_Second._ You You
_Third._ They Them

GENDER

+216.+ You notice in all of these tables that there are three forms given for the third person singular, _he_, _she_, and _it_. These are the only forms in which pronouns express gender. In all other forms the gender can be determined only by the gender of the antecedent.

+He, representing a male, is masculine.+

+She, representing a female, is the feminine.+

+It represents a sexless thing, and hence is said to be of the neuter gender.+

THE LITTLE VERB _BE_

+217.+ You remember when we studied verbs, we had the incomplete verb that took an object; the complete verb that needed no object, since it was complete in itself; and one other kind of a verb. Do you remember this third kind of verb? This third kind is the copulative verb, and the copulative verb which we use most frequently is the one in the use of which we make the most mistakes.

It is that troublesome, bothersome, little verb _be_, which is so difficult to master. You remember it is an incomplete verb, but instead of taking an object, it takes a complement or completing word. So when you see a pronoun with any form of this verb _be_, you must use the _subject_ form and not the _object_ form. This copulative verb _be_ is simply a connecting word, not a verb that asserts action or takes an object.

+218.+ Here is where we make so many mistakes. We say, _It was me_, _It was them_, _It was him_, _It wasn't her_; instead of, _It was I_, _It was they_, _It was he_, _It wasn't she_. We have used the incorrect form in this particular so often that the correct form has a strange sound to our ears.

The only way to remedy this is to repeat over and over aloud the correct form until it has a familiar sound. Don't think this is putting words, as you should do in everything. We of the working class have built the world in its beauty. Why should we live in shacks, dress in shoddy, talk in slang? There is no reason except that we endure it. When the united working class demands its own, it will receive it. Demand yours and arouse the stupid from their sleep as rapidly as you can.

Repeat the following sentences aloud ten times every day this week and see if the correct form does not come to your lips more readily. We can learn the rule, but only continued practice and watchfulness can break us of our old habits.

It is I who seek my own.
It shall be they who are defeated.
It was I who was ignorant.
It is they who cause all wars.
It is he who must be aroused.
It is we who strive for freedom.
It shall be I who shall win.
It was she who was enslaved.
It shall be we who shall demand equality.
It shall be they who shall conquer.

Agreement

+219.+ Pronouns are very agreeable members of the co-operative commonwealth of words. They strive to agree with their antecedents. Sometimes we do not allow the pronoun to agree, and then our sentence is incorrect.

+A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person.+

For example, if you are referring to one man, you must use a masculine pronoun, singular, third person form, as _I saw the man but he did not see me_. _Man_ is the antecedent. It is singular, masculine, third person and so we use the pronoun _he_.

_The girl came, but she could not stay._ In this sentence _girl_ is the antecedent; it is singular, feminine, third person, and so we use the pronoun _she_.

_The boys did not come when the teacher called them._ In this sentence _boys_ is the antecedent; it is plural, masculine, third person, and so we use the pronoun _them_.

+220.+ +Sometimes there are two words used as the antecedent, joined by _and_.+ We use a singular pronoun in referring to them if they denote the same person or thing; as:

The secretary and treasurer (one person) resigned _his_ position.
My comrade and friend (one person) gave me _his_ help.

+221.+ +But two nouns joined by _and_, that mean different persons or things, must be represented by a plural pronoun, thus+:

Marx and Engels (two persons) wrote _their_ call to liberty, the
Communist-Manifesto.
Men and women will struggle for _their_ freedom.
Childhood and youth should have _their_ rightful joys.

+222.+ +Use the singular pronoun when the nouns are kept separate by the use of _each_, _every_, _many a_, or _no_.+

Each man and boy must do _his_ part. (Not _their_ part.)
Every soldier and every officer must do _his_ duty.
Many a city and many a village gave _its_ best to the army.
No comrade and no Socialist will give _his_ consent to war.

+223.+ +If you have two singular nouns as antecedents, joined by _or_, or _nor_, use the singular pronoun+, thus:

Either Germany or France must abandon _its_ position.
Neither Wilson nor Bryan kept _his_ promise to the people.

+224.+ +When you use a collective noun and are speaking of the collection as a whole, use a singular pronoun+, as:

The committee will make _its_ report.
The audience was hearty in _its_ appreciation.
The jury has returned _its_ verdict.

+225.+ +But if you are referring to the individuals of the collection separately, use a plural pronoun+; as:

The committee adjourned for _their_ dinner.
The audience kept _their_ seats until the close.
The jury argued until _their_ nerves were on edge.

PERSONIFICATION

+226.+ We sometimes speak of things as if they were persons, and so use either masculine or feminine pronouns in referring to them. Such objects are said to be personified. Thus, we say:

The sun his ceaseless course doth run.
The moon sheds her silvery ray.
Nature dons her robes of green.

Here we speak of the sun as though it were a man or possessing the qualities of a man and use the pronoun _his_. Then we speak of the moon and nature as though they were women and use the pronoun in the feminine form.

REMEMBER

+227.+ +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent.+

+Use the subject form of the pronoun if the pronoun is the subject of the sentence.+

+Use the object form when the pronoun is the object of a verb or a preposition.+

+Use the compound personal pronouns only in their reflexive or emphatic use.+

+With all forms of the verb _be_, use the subject form of the pronouns.+

SUMMARY

SUBJECT POSSESSIVE OBJECT
First person (_Singular_ I my (mine) me
(_Plural_ we our (ours) us

Second person (_Singular_
(_Plural_ you your (yours) you

Third person (_Sing. Masc._ he his him
(_Sing. Fem._ she her (hers) her
(_Sing. Neut._ it its it
(_Plural_ they their (theirs) them

Exercise 3

Read carefully the following beautiful dream of Olive Schreiner's. Mark all of the personal pronouns and note carefully their use and by referring to the table above decide just what form each pronoun is. Watch carefully too for the antecedents of the pronouns and note the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent.

"I THOUGHT I STOOD"