Chapter II (8)

In the following poem find all of the assertive, interrogative and imperative sentences. Mark all of the simple sentences and all of the complex sentences. Mark all of the dependent clauses and determine whether each is used as a noun, adjective or adverb clause. The verbs and the verb phrases are in italics.

_Shall_ you _complain_ who _feed_ the world,
Who _clothe_ the world,
Who _house_ the world?
_Shall_ you _complain_ who _are_ the world,
Of what the world _may do_?
As from this hour you _are_ the power,
The world _must follow_ you.

The world's life _hangs_ on your right hand,
Your strong right hand,
Your skilled right hand;
You _hold_ the whole world in your hand;
_See_ to it what you _do_!
For dark or light or wrong or right,
The world _is made_ by you.

Then _rise_ as you never _rose_ before,
Nor _hoped_ before,
Nor _dared_ before;
And _show_ as never _was shown_ before
The power that _lies_ in you.
_Stand_ all as one; _see_ justice done;
_Believe_ and _dare_ and _do_.

--_Charlotte Perkins Gilman_.

SPELLING

LESSON 26

In our last lesson we had examples of words in which the _s_ had the soft sound, and also of words in which the _s_ had the sound of _z_. In some English words, it is difficult to determine which sound to use. There are a number of words in English beginning with _dis_. In a few of the words, the _s_ has the sound of _z_, and in other words it has the sound of _s_. There are only a few words which are pronounced with the _diz_ sound. _Discern_, _dismal_ and _dissolve_ are always pronounced with the _diz_ sound. _Disease_ and _disaster_ are pronounced both ways. Some dictionaries give the _diz_ sound and some give the _dis_ sound.

The spelling lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains a number of words beginning with _dis_. Be sure of the pronunciation. Run through the words in the dictionary beginning with the _dis_ sound and mark those in which the _dis_ has the sound of _diz_.

We have also a number of words in the English language which end in _ise_ or _ize_, and we are often confused to know which ending to use. There is a rule, which has very few exceptions, which covers the use of _ise_ and _ize_. Words should be spelled with the _ize_ ending when the _ize_ can be cut off, and the word that is left can be used alone. For example; _author_, _authorize_. In this word you can cut off the _ize_ and the word _author_ can be used alone. But in the word _exercise_, if you cut off the _ise_, the remaining portion cannot be used alone.

_Recognize_ and _criticise_ are exceptions to this rule. When used as a suffix added to a noun or adjective to form a verb, _ize_ is the proper ending; as _theory_, _theorize_, _civil_, _civilize_, etc. Final _e_ or _y_ is dropped before _ize_, as in the words _memorize_, _sterilize_, etc.

The spelling lesson for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains a number of common words ending with _ize_ or _ise_. Study carefully this list and add as many words to it as you can.

+Monday+

Disappear
Distress
Discern
Disburse
Discipline

+Tuesday+

Discount
Discredit
Distribute
Dismal
Disseminate

+Wednesday+

Disguise
Distance
Dissolve
Discontent
Disposition

+Thursday+

Franchise
Civilize
Surprise
Organize
Compromise

+Friday+

Monopolize
Revise
Legalize
Enterprise
Capitalize

+Saturday+

Memorize
Advertise
Theorize
Comprise
Systematize

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 27

Dear Comrade:

Ingersoll said: "Words are the garments of thought and the robes of ideas." This is a beautiful and poetic way of expressing the relationship between words and thoughts. Words are really the body which we give to our thoughts. Until they are clothed in words, our thoughts are only ghosts of ideas. Other people cannot see or come into contact with them, and they can have but little influence upon the world.

Without thought, no language is possible. It is equally true that without language, no growth of thought is possible. It is futile to try to determine which is first, language or thought. The two are entirely necessary to each other and make possible social and individual development.

Every time that you add a word to your vocabulary, you have added to your mental equipment. You have also added greatly to your power of enjoyment. Through these words you will come into a new relationship to your fellow men. Each new word enlarges the circle of your acquaintance. A knowledge of language brings us into a circle of wonderful friends. When we have learned to read we need never more be lonely. Some one has written in a book somewhere just the thing we are hungry for at this moment.

In the pages of a book we can meet and talk with the great souls who have written in these pages their life's experience. No matter what mood you are in, you can find a book to suit that mood. No matter what your need, there is a book which meets that need. Form the habit of reading and you will find it a wonderful source of pleasure and of profit.

Nor do we need to be barred because of our lack of educational advantages in our youth. Buckle, the author of the greatest history that has ever been written, left school at the age of fourteen, and it is said that at that age, except a smattering of mathematics, he knew only how to read; but when he died at the age of forty, this man, who did not know his letters when he was eight years old, could read and write seven languages and was familiar with ten or twelve more. He had written a wonderful book and had become a teacher of teachers. Engraven upon his marble altar tomb is the following couplet:

"The written word remains long after the writer.
The writer is resting under the earth, but his words endure."

Good books are so cheap nowadays that they are within the reach of every one of us. Let us not be content to live in the narrow world of work and worry. Let us forget the struggle occasionally in the reading of books, and let us prepare ourselves, by reading and studying, for the battle for the emancipation of the workers of the world.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES

+450.+ +A simple sentence is a sentence which makes a single assertion, question or command.+

The simple sentence contains only words and phrases.

+451.+ +A complex sentence is one which contains a principal statement and one or more modifying statements.+

The statements made in addition to the principal statement are made in dependent clauses. The complex sentence has only one main clause and one or more dependent clauses.

+452.+ +A compound sentence is one which contains two or more independent clauses.+

These compound sentences may contain any number of dependent clauses but they must always have at least two independent or principal clauses. These principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for the principal clauses in a compound sentence are always of equal rank or order.

Exercise 1

Review the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and notice which conjunctions are used to unite principal clauses into single sentences. Use these co-ordinate conjunctions to unite the following pairs of simple sentences into compound sentences. For example:

The sun rises _and_ the day dawns.
The men work _but_ the boys play.

The sun rises. The day dawns.

He studies diligently. He learns rapidly.

He came early. He could not stay.

The weather is cold. The plants are not growing.

The men work. The boys play.

The day is cold. The wind is blowing.

Take the above sentences and use subordinate instead of co-ordinate conjunctions, and make complex sentences instead of compound out of each pair of simple sentences. For example:

_When_ the sun rises, the day dawns.
The men work _while_ the boys play.

KINDS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES

+453.+ +Compound sentences may be made up of two simple sentences.+

Rewrite the following compound sentences, making of each sentence two simple sentences:

The birds are singing and spring is here.
He believes in war but his brother is against it.
We must arouse ourselves or we shall be involved.
He will not study nor will he allow any one else to study.

+454.+ +A compound sentence may be made up of a simple sentence and a complex sentence, joined by a co-ordinate conjunction.+ For example:

John goes to school, but Mary stays at home in order that she may help
her mother.

This compound sentence is made up of the simple sentence, _John goes to school_, and the complex sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother_.

+455.+ +Both parts of the compound sentence may be complex; that is, both principal clauses in a compound sentence may contain dependent clauses.+ For example:

John goes to school where his brother goes, but Mary stays at home in
order that she may help her mother.

This compound sentence is made up of two complex sentences. The sentence, _John goes to school where his brother goes_, is complex because it contains the dependent clause, _where his brother goes_; the sentence, _Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother_, is complex because it contains the dependent clause, _in order that she may help her mother_.

Exercise 2

Read carefully the following sentences, determine which are simple sentences, which are complex and which are compound.

1. When the state is corrupt, then the laws are most multiplied.
2. To teach the alphabet is to inaugurate revolution.
3. Freedom degenerates unless it has to struggle in its own defense.
4. The destroyers have always been honored.
5. Liberty of thought is a mockery if liberty of speech is denied.
6. Where slavery is, there liberty cannot be; and where liberty is,
there slavery cannot be.
7. All our greatness was born of liberty and we cannot strangle the
mother without destroying her children.
8. In the twentieth century, war will be dead, but man will live.
9. The abuse of free speech dies in a day, but the denial entombs the
hope of the race.

SENTENCE ANALYSIS

+456.+ There is no more important part of the study of English than the analysis of sentences. The very best result that can come to one from the study of grammar is the logical habit of mind. The effort to analyze a difficult passage gives us a fuller appreciation of its meaning. This cultivates in us accuracy, both of thought and of expression. So, spend as much time as you can on the analysis of sentences.

The subject and the predicate are the very body of the sentence, upon which all the rest of the sentence is hung. The other parts of the sentence are but the drapery and the garments which clothe the body of the sentence. Hence, the most important thing in sentence analysis is to be able to discover the _subject_ and _predicate_.

In the expression of a thought, there are always two important essentials, that about which something is said,--which constitutes the subject,--and that which is said about the subject, which constitutes the predicate.

There may be a number of modifying words, phrases or subordinate clauses, but there is always a main clause which contains a simple subject and a simple predicate. Find these first, and you can then fit the modifying words and phrases and clauses into their proper places.

+457.+ Let us take for study and analysis the following paragraph from Jack London:

Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not
diminished since the day of the cave-man. It has increased a
thousand-fold. Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been
made. Why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the
cave-man lived?

Let us take the first sentence out of this paragraph and analyze it. _Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not diminished since the day of the cave-man._ What is the main word in this sentence--the word about which the entire statement is made? Clearly it is the word _efficiency_. _Efficiency_ is the noun which is the subject of the sentence.

Then you might ask _what sort of_ efficiency and _whose_ efficiency? What sort of efficiency is explained by the adjective phrase, _for food-getting and shelter-getting_. Whose efficiency is explained by the possessive noun, _man's_. Therefore, the complete subject is, _Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting_.

Now we are ready to consider the predicate. What has efficiency done? It _has not diminished_. _Has diminished_ is the verb phrase, which is the simple predicate of this sentence. It is modified by the adverb _not_, so we have _Man's efficiency has not diminished_. Then we might ask, _when_ has it not diminished? And this is answered by the phrase, _since the day of the cave-man_. So we have our complete predicate, _Has not diminished since the day of the cave-man_.

In this way we can analyze or break up into its different parts, every sentence. First find the subject, then ask what that subject does, and the answer will be the predicate or verb. Do not confuse the verb with the words which state _how_ or _why_ the action is performed, and do not confuse the verb with the _object_ of the action. The verb simply asserts the action. The other words will add the additional information as to how or why or when or upon whom the action was performed.

Let us finish the analysis of the sentences in the paragraph quoted from Jack London. In the second sentence, _It has increased a thousand-fold_, the personal pronoun _it_, which refers to the noun _efficiency_, is the subject of the sentence; and when you ask what _it_ has _done_, you find that the question is answered by the verb, _has increased_. Therefore, _has increased_ is the verb in the sentence. The noun, _thousand-fold_ is used as an adverb telling how much it has increased. It is an adverb-noun, which you will find explained in Section 291.

In the next sentence, _Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been made_, we find two _nouns_ about which a statement is made. _Artifices_ have been made and _inventions_ have been made; so _artifices_ and _inventions_ are both the _subjects_ of the sentence. Therefore, we have a compound subject with a single verb, _have been made_. _Artifices_ is modified by the adjective _wonderful_, and _inventions_ is modified by the adjective _marvelous_, so we have _wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions_, as the complete subject, and _have been made_, as the complete predicate.

In the last sentence, _Why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the cave-man lived?_, we find a sentence which is a trifle more difficult of analysis. It is written in the interrogative form. If you find it difficult to determine the subject and the verb or verb phrase in an interrogative sentence, rewrite the sentence in the assertive form, and you will find it easier to analyze.

When we rewrite this sentence we have, _Millions of modern men do live more miserably than the cave-man lived_. Now it is evident that the noun _millions_ is the subject of the sentence. We see quickly that _men_ cannot be the subject because it is the object of the preposition _of_, in the phrase, _of modern men_. So we decide that the noun _millions_ is the simple subject.

When we ask the question what millions _do_, our question is answered by the verb phrase, _do live_. So _do live_ is the simple predicate, and the skeleton of our sentence, the simple subject and the simple predicate, is _millions do live_. The subject _millions_ is modified by the adjective phrase _of modern men_.

Then we ask, _how_ do men live? And we find our question answered by _they live miserably_. But we are told _how_ miserably they live by the adverb _more_ and the adverb clause, _than the cave-man lived_, both modifying the adverb _miserably_. So we have our complete predicate, _do live more miserably than the cave-man lived_.

This interrogative sentence is introduced by the interrogative adverb _why_.

Do not drop this subject until you are able to determine readily the _subject_ and _predicate_ in every sentence and properly place all modifying words. There is nothing that will so increase your power of understanding what you read, and your ability to write clearly, as this facility in analyzing sentences.

Exercise 3

The following is Elbert Hubbard's description of the child-laborers of the Southern cotton-mills. Read it carefully. Notice that the sentences are all short sentences, and the cumulative effect of these short sentences is a picture of the condition of these child-workers which one can never forget. The subjects and predicates are in italics. When you have finished your study of this question, rewrite it from memory and then compare your version with the original version.

_I thought_ that _I would lift_ one of the little toilers. _I wanted_
to ascertain his weight. Straightway through his thirty-five pounds of
skin and bone there _ran_ a _tremor_ of fear. _He struggled_ forward
to tie a broken thread. _I attracted_ his attention by a touch. _I
offered_ him a silver dime. _He looked_ at me dumbly from a face _that
might have belonged_ to a man of sixty. _It was_ so furrowed, tightly
drawn and full of pain. _He did_ not _reach_ for the money. _He did_
not _know_ what _it was_. There _were dozens_ of such children in this
particular mill. A _physician who was_ with me _said_ that _they
would_ probably all _be_ dead in two years. Their _places would be_
easily _filled_, however, for there _were_ plenty _more_. _Pneumonia
carries_ off most of them. Their _systems are_ ripe for disease and
when _it comes_ there _is_ no _rebound_. _Medicine_ simply _does_ not
_act_. _Nature is whipped, beaten, discouraged._ _The child sinks_
into a stupor and _dies_.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences, mark the simple sentences, the complex sentences and the compound sentences, and analyze these sentences according to the rules given for analyzing simple sentences, complex sentences and compound sentences:

1. Force is no remedy.
2. Law grinds the poor, and the rich men rule the law.
3. Force and fraud are in war the two cardinal virtues.
4. Freedom is a new religion, a religion of our time.
5. Desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others.
6. An ambassador is a man who goes abroad to lie for the good of his
country.
7. A journalist is a man who stays at home to pursue the same
vocation.
8. Without free speech no search for truth is possible.
9. Liberty for the few is not liberty.
10. Liberty for me and slavery for you mean slavery for both.
11. No revolution ever rises above the intellectual level of those who
make it.
12. Men submit everywhere to oppression when they have only to lift
their heads to throw off the yoke.
13. Many politicians of our time are in the habit of saying that no
people ought to be free till they are fit to use freedom. The
maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story who resolved not to
go into the water till he had learned to swim. If men are to wait
for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery they may
indeed wait forever.

SUMMARY

+458.+ The following is a summary of that which we have learned in sentence building:

{ { Assertive
{ Use { Interrogative
Sentences are { { Imperative
classified { { Exclamatory
according to {
{ { Simple
{ Form { Complex
{ { Compound

Elements { +Words+, the eight parts of speech.
of { +Phrases+, adjective, adverb and verb phrases.
The Sentence. { +Clauses+, adjective, adverb and noun clauses.

+459.+
ESSENTIALS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE

+Subject+ +Predicate+

Subject Complete Verb
Subject Copulative Verb Predicate Complement
Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object
Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object Indirect Object

+460.+
THE SUBJECT

{ _Noun_--The _man_ came.
{ _Pronoun_--_He_ came.
+The simple subject+ { _Adjective_--The _poor_ came.
may be { _Infinitive_--_To find_ work is difficult.
{ _Participle_--_Walking_ is good exercise.
{ _Clause_--_What I learn_ cannot be lost.

+Complete subject+--Simple subject and modifiers.

Modifiers of the Subject

{ Word--_Wealthy_ men rule.
+Adjective+ { Phrase--Men _of wealth_ rule.
{ Clause--Men _who are wealthy_ rule.

+Possessive+--The _man's_ energy was great.

{ Word--The poet, _Lowell_, was the author.
+Appositive+ { Clause--The fact, _that you came_, pleases me.

{ The soldiers, _wounded and dying_, were
+Participle+ { left on the field

+Infinitive+--A plan _to end the war_ was discussed.

+461.+
THE PREDICATE

+The simple+ { _Verb_--The man _came_.
+predicate+ { _Verb phrase_--The man _has been coming_ daily.

{ +Predicate Complement+--The man was a _hero_.
A COMPLETE { +Direct Object+--The man brought the _book_.
PREDICATE { +The Indirect Object+--The man brought _me_ the book.
_equals a verb {
or verb phrase { {_Word_--The man works _rapidly_.
and_ { +Adverb+ { _Phrase_--The man works _in the factory_.
{ +Modifiers+ { _Clause_--The man works _whenever he
{ can_.

{ _Words_--The man works hard.
SIMPLE SENTENCES { _Phrases_--The man _on your right_ works _in the
CONTAIN ONLY { factory._

{ _Words_, The man works steadily
+Complex sentences+ { _Phrases_ in the factory _whenever
+contain+ { and there is work_.
{ _Dependent clauses._

+Compound sentences contain+ two or more principal clauses, as:

_The sun rises_ and _the day dawns_.

+462.+ Take the simple subjects and simple predicates in Exercise 5, and build up sentences; first, by adding a word, then a phrase and then a clause to modify the subject; then add a word and a phrase and a clause to modify the predicate.

So long as you have only words and phrases you have simple sentences. When you add a dependent clause you have a complex sentence. When you unite two independent clauses in one sentence, then you have a compound sentence, and the connecting word will always be a co-ordinate conjunction. These will be readily distinguished for there are only a few co-ordinate conjunctions.

Go back to the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and find out what these are, and whenever you find two clauses connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions you know that you have a compound sentence. Remember that each clause must contain a subject and predicate of its own. When you have two words connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions you do not have a clause. Each clause must contain a subject and a predicate of its own.

+463.+ Here is an example of a sentence built up from a simple subject and a simple predicate:

SIMPLE SUBJECT ENLARGED

+Simple Subject and Predicate+--_Soldiers obey._

_Adjectives_ added--_The enlisted_ soldiers obey.

_Phrase_ added--The enlisted soldiers _in the trenches_ obey.

_Clause_ added--The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, _who are doomed to die_, obey.

SIMPLE PREDICATE ENLARGED

+Simple Subject and Predicate+--_Soldiers obey._

_Object_ added--Soldiers obey _orders_.

_Adverb_ added--Soldiers obey orders _quickly_.

_Phrase_ added--Soldiers obey orders quickly and _without question_.

_Clause_ added--Soldiers obey orders quickly and without question _because they are taught to do so_.

Combining our enlarged subject and predicate we have the sentence:

The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey
orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so.

This is a complex sentence because it contains dependent clauses. We might add another independent clause and make of this a compound sentence. For example:

The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey
orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so,
and _this is patriotism_.

Exercise 5

Enlarge the following simple subjects and simple predicates:

Men write.
Boys play.
People study.
The law rules.

Exercise 6

In the following poem underscore all of the dependent clauses.
Determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. Do you
find any simple or compound sentences in this poem?

MEN! whose
boast it is that ye
Come of fathers brave and free,
If there breathe on earth a slave,
Are you truly free and brave?
If ye do not feel the chain,
When it works a brother's pain,
Are ye not base slaves indeed,
Slaves unworthy to be freed?

Women! who shall one day bear
Sons to breathe New England air,
If ye hear without a blush,
Deeds to make the roused blood rush
Like red lava through your veins,
For your sisters now in chains,--
Answer! are you fit to be
Mothers of the brave and free?

Is true Freedom but to break
Fetters for our own dear sake,
And, with leathern hearts, forget
That we owe mankind a debt?
No! true freedom is to share
All the chains our brothers wear,
And, with heart and hand, to be
Earnest to make others free!

They are slaves who fear to speak
For the fallen and the weak;
They are slaves who will not choose
Hatred, scoffing, and abuse,
Rather than in silence shrink
From the truth they needs must think;
They are slaves who dare not be
In the right with two or three.

--_Lowell_.

SPELLING

LESSON 27

We have studied concerning the formation of derivatives by the addition of suffixes. Derivatives are also formed by the addition of prefixes. You remember that a prefix is a syllable which is placed before a simple word to form the derivative. Among the most common of these prefixes are _in_, _un_ and _mis_. The prefix _in_ used with an adjective or adverb means _not_; for example, _insane_ means _not_ sane; _incorrect_ means _not_ correct, etc.

The prefix _in_ used with a noun means _lack of_; for example, _inexperience_ means _lack of_ experience; _inability_ means _lack of_ ability, etc.

In words beginning with _m_ or _p_, _in_, meaning _not_ or _lack of_, is changed to _im_. This is done for the sake of euphony. The _n_ does not unite readily with the sound of _m_ or _p_. So we do not say _inmodest_ and _inpartial_, but _immodest_ and _impartial_.

The prefix _un_, used with participles, means _not_; for example, _unprepared_ means _not_ prepared; _unguarded_ means _not_ guarded, etc.

The prefix _un_ used with verbs, means to take off or to reverse; for example, _uncover_ means to take off the cover; _untwist_ means to reverse the process of the twisting.

The prefix _un_ used with adjectives means _not_; for example, _uncertain_ means _not_ certain; _uncommon_ means _not_ common.

The prefix _mis_ used with nouns or verbs, means _wrong_. For example, _mistreatment_ means _wrong_ treatment; _to misspell_ means to spell _wrong_.

Add the prefix _in_ to the nouns given in Monday's list; add the prefix _in_ to the adjectives given in Tuesday's list; add the prefix _im_ to the adjectives and nouns in Wednesday's lesson; add the prefix _un_ to the participles and adjectives in Thursday's lesson; add the prefix _un_ to the verbs in Friday's lesson, and add the prefix _mis_ to the nouns and verbs in Saturday's lesson.

+Monday+

Tolerance
Frequency
Competence
Efficiency
Coherence

+Tuesday+

Convenient
Expedient
Famous
Adequate
Solvent

+Wednesday+

Pertinent
Morality
Patience
Moderate
Pious

+Thursday+

Balanced
Biased
Gracious
Stable
Solicited

+Friday+

Burden
Veil
Fasten
Screw
Furl

+Saturday+

Construe
Apprehension
Inform
Guide
Judge

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 28

Dear Comrade:

We are beginning with this lesson the study of the use of capitals and of punctuation. The use of capitals as well as punctuation has nothing to do with our spoken words, but both are very important in our written language.

There is nothing that will mark us as uneducated more quickly than bad spelling, faulty punctuation and the incorrect use of capitals.

The rules for the use of capitals may seem somewhat arbitrary. After an understanding of them, however, you will discover that they are not arbitrary, but are based upon a single principle. The word which is of the most importance, or which should receive the most emphasis is the word which is capitalized, as for example, the principal words in a title, the first words in a sentence, proper names, etc.

Study these rules carefully, note the use of the capitals in your reading and watch your written language carefully for a time. Soon the proper use of capitals will seem easy and most natural. In the meantime do not fail to keep up your study of words. Add at least one word to your vocabulary every day.

Did you ever consider how we think in pictures? Nearly every word that we use calls up a certain image or picture in our minds. The content of words has grown and developed as our ability to think has developed.

Take, for example, words like head or hand. Head originally referred to a portion of the body of a living thing; then it was used to refer to some part of an inanimate object which might resemble or call up a picture of an animal's head, for example, the head of a pin. Again, it was used to refer to some part of an inanimate thing which was associated with the head of a human being, as the head of the bed. Then, by the power of association, since the head was considered the most conspicuous and important part of the body, that which was most conspicuous and important was called the head, as the head of the army, the head of the nation.

Then, since the head was the seat of the brain and of the mental faculties, the head was often used instead of the brain or mental faculties. We speak of a clear head or a cool head. Thus we have a number of idiomatic expressions. We may speak of the head of the river; or the subject matter was divided under four heads; or again, the matter came to a head; he is head and ears in debt; we cannot make head against the opposition, etc.

This transfer of our ideas from the physical to the mental and spiritual marks vividly the growth of the language and the development of thought. Trace the words like hands, arm, foot, eye, tongue, in their use, first as physical then as mental or spiritual.

This will be the most interesting pastime and will enlarge the content of the words which you use.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CAPITAL LETTERS

+464.+ In our written speech we often display our lack of education by our use of capital letters and punctuation. We may understand the use of words and be able to speak fairly well, but if we do not understand the proper use of capitals and of punctuation marks, our written language readily betrays our ignorance.

+465.+ There are a number of rules for the use of capitals which we must observe. Some of the writers in our magazines defy these rules of capitalization, in an effort to seem different from other people, perhaps. These rules for the use of capital letters, like all other rules, are not arbitrary rules laid down by any body of men, but are simply a statement of accepted usage among people. We should not feel that we should say this or that or we are violating a rule of grammar. We should feel rather that the majority of the people who speak and write good English do thus, and so, for this reason, I shall do it also.

This is simply obeying the standard of majority rule. If there is any good and sufficient reason why we feel this should not be a rule, we may be justified in breaking it and making a new rule. Many people feel that our spelling should be simplified and so they insist upon spelling certain words in a more simple way. They feel that they have good and sufficient reason for insisting upon this change and gradually if these reasons appeal to the majority as being good and sufficient reasons, then this simplified mode of spelling will become the accepted usage.

But there seems no good reason why any writer should scatter capital letters with a lavish hand throughout his writing. One feels as though a writer in so doing is expressing his desire to be different, in a very superficial manner. Let us be unique and individual in our thought. If this forces us to a different mode of living or of expression from the rest of the world, then we are justified in being different from the rest. We have thought and reason behind our action. This is far different from the attitude of one who poses as a radical and whose only protest is in the superficial external things. So let us learn and observe these rules for the use of capital letters.

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

+466.+ +Use a capital for the first word of every sentence.+

When you begin a new sentence always begin that sentence with a capital letter. Each sentence is a statement of a complete thought and is independent of every other sentence. The use of the capital letter indicates this independence and calls attention to the fact that you are beginning a new thought.

+467.+ +Begin every line of poetry with a capital letter.+ Sometimes in poetry, the line is too long to be printed on a single line and must be carried over into another line; in this case, the first word of the second line does _not_ begin with a capital letter.

+468.+ +Use a capital for every proper noun.+ This includes names of persons, countries, states, towns, cities, streets and geographical names, as the names of seas, lakes, mountains, rivers, etc.

+469.+ +The words North, South, East and West are capitalized when they are used to refer to geographical divisions.+ When these words simply refer to the points of the compass, they should not begin with a capital.

+470.+ +The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ should always be capitals.+ Never write the pronoun _I_ with a small _i_.

+471.+ +Every proper adjective should begin with a capital letter.+ Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. For example: the _Marxian_ philosophy, the _Darwinian_ theory, _Indian_ money, _Japanese_ labor, etc.

+472.+ +Always begin the names of the months and the days of the week with capital letters.+ For example: _January_, _February_, _August_, _Monday_, _Tuesday_, _Friday_, etc.

+473.+ +Use a capital letter for every name or title of the Deity.+ For example: _God_, _Jehovah_, _Christ_, _Jesus_, etc. It is also customary to capitalize all personal pronouns referring to God or Christ.

+474.+ +Begin with a capital letter names of all religious sects and political parties, also all adjectives derived from them.+ As for example: _Christian Church_, _Methodism_, _Republican Party_, _Mohammedan_, _Socialist_, etc.

+475.+ +Begin the names of all things spoken of as persons with a capital.+ In poetry or poetic prose we often speak of _war_, _fame_, _death_, _hope_, _fancy_, _liberty_, etc., as persons. Whenever these words are used in this way they should begin with a capital letter.

+476.+ +Use capital letters to begin important words in the title of a book or the subject of a composition.+ In titles the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs should begin with a capital, while the prepositions and conjunctions should begin with small letters. The articles, _the_, _a_ and _an_ are not capitalized unless they are the initial word in the title.

+477.+ +Use a capital to begin every direct quotation.+ The first word of an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter. A direct quotation is one which uses the exact words of the speaker. For example: _He said_, "_I will come_." This is a direct quotation, but _He said that he would come_, is an indirect quotation.

+478.+ +Use a capital to begin an important statement or to ask a question.+ For example: _Resolved; That the United States should democratize war. The question is, Shall the people determine the question of war?_

+479.+ +Use capitals for the chief items of any enumeration of particulars.+ For example;

The bill is as follows:
For Composition $20.00
For Press Work 10.00
Paper 25.00

+480.+ +Begin the words indicating titles of offices and honor with a capital.+ For example, _President Wilson_, _Doctor Smith_, _Professor Locke_. When you use a title of this kind as a general term, that is, not indicating any particular person, do not use a capital. As for example: _The society has had several presidents._ But if you use the title to take the place of the person's name, for example: _The President read the message to Congress_, always use a capital.

+481.+ +Use capitals for the titles at the beginning of a letter or in written composition and in direct address.+ For example: _My dear Father_, _My dear Mother_, _My dear Comrade_, _Dear Aunt Emma_, _Dear Friend_, _Dear Fellow Workers_, etc. Also in conversation.

Are you coming with me, Mother?
What did the Doctor say, Comrade Smith?

When these words are not used in direct address, however, they should not be capitalized. For example, at the close of a letter you would write:

Your sincere friend.
Your loving brother.

Or in conversation:

I asked my mother to go with me.
My brother wrote me concerning the matter.

+482.+ +Begin the names of important buildings and localities with a capital.+ For example:

Public Library, High School, The East Side, The Union Square, Central
Market, etc.

These words used in a general sense, however, should not begin with a capital letter. For example:

Our public libraries, our high schools, jails, prisons, post offices, etc.

+483.+ +The words state and territory, when they refer to particular divisions of the country, should be capitalized.+ For example:

The State of New York, The Territory of Alaska, The French Government, etc.

_State_ and _government_ are also capitalized when they are used in place of proper names. For example:

The State is based on exploitation.
The Government has issued an edict of war.

We do not use a capital in such expressions as:

Church and state, state affairs; they occupy a large territory, etc.

+484.+ +In directing letters or other matter for the mail, capitalize all words except prepositions, conjunctions or articles.+ These should be capitalized only when they begin a line.

Exercise 1

Draw a line under each word in the following that should be begun with a capital:

john joffre, lake michigan, day, thursday, friday, spring, august,
december, germany, country, france, man, jones, smith, doctor, doctor
george, professor moore, girl, mary, susan, methodist, mohammedan,
church, party, republican party, socialist, company, national electric
light company, river, mississippi river, the red river, essex county,
state of illinois, iowa, railway, new york, new york central railway,
the french revolution, novel, the sea wolf, poem, arrows in the gale,
american.

Exercise 2

Notice carefully the following quotations and sentences and capitalize every word that should begin with a capital letter.

1. iron, the twin brother of fire, the first born out of the matrix
of the earth, a witness everlasting to the glory of thy labor, am
i, o man.
2. therefore i say unto you, banish fear from your hearts.
3. but ye, plebs, populists, people, rebels, mob, proletariat, live
and abide forever.
4. and they came here from all parts of the earth, the syrians and
the armenians, the thracians and the tartars, the jews, the greeks
and the romans, the gauls and the angles and the huns and the
hibernians, even from the deserts of the sands to the deserts of
ice they came to listen unto his words.
5. marx and engels wrote the communist manifesto.
6. its closing words are; working men of all countries unite.
7. italy was the last of the great powers of europe to become
involved in the war.
8. john randolph submitted an amendment to the constitution providing
that the judges of the supreme court of the united states shall be
removed by the president on the joint address of both houses of
congress.
9. eugene v. debs spent six months in woodstock jail for exercising
his right of free speech.
10. col. the abbreviation for colorado, is easily confused with cal.
the abbreviation for california.
11. the people's college is a college maintained by the working
class.
12. william jennings bryan won his first nomination for president of
the united states by a very dramatic speech delivered in the
national democratic convention.
13. marion craig wentworth, a socialist playwright, has written a play
called "war brides."
14. the play closes with these words; a message to the emperor: i
refuse to bear my child until you promise there shall be no more
war.
15. olive schreiner's "woman and labor" is full of fascinating
thought.

Exercise 3

Notice carefully the use of capitals in the following quotations, and determine the reason for the use of every capital:

As the nobles of England wrung their independence from King John, and
as the tradesmen of France broke through the ring of privilege
enclosing the Three Estates; so today the millions who serve society
in arduous labor on the highways, and aloft on the scaffoldings, and
by the sides of the whirring machines, are demanding that they, too,
and their children, shall enjoy all of the blessings that justify and
make beautiful this life.--_Frank Walsh_.

"The toad beneath the harrow knows
Exactly where the tooth-point goes.
The butterfly beside the road
Doth preach contentment to that toad."

"When I came here, it was said that the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company
voted every man and woman in their employ without any regard to their
being naturalized or not; and even their mules, it used to be
remarked, were registered if they were fortunate enough to possess
names." _From a letter written by Mr. L. M. Bowers, Chairman of The
Board of Directors of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, to the
Secretary of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., under date of May 13,
1913._

Master, I've done Thy bidding, wrought in Thy many lands.
Not by my sins wilt Thou judge me, but by the work of my hands.
Master, I've done Thy bidding, and the light is low in the west,
And the long, long shift is over ... Master, I've earned it--Rest.

--_Robert Service_.

It's O! to be a slave
Along with the barbarous Turk,
Where woman has never a soul to save,
If this is Christian work!

--_Thos. Hood_.

While there is a lower class, I am in it.
While there is a criminal element, I am of it.
While there is a soul in jail, I am not free.

--_Eugene V. Debs_.

When Adam delved and Eve span,
Who was then the gentleman?

The vilest deeds, like poison weeds,
Bloom well in prison-air;
It is only what is good in man
That wastes and withers there:
Pale Anguish keeps the heavy gate,
And the Warder is Despair.

--_Oscar Wilde_.

ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS

+485.+ There are a number of words which we abbreviate or contract, in our every-day use. A contraction is a shortened form of the word used to save time or space and is made by omitting a letter or letters. The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission in a contracted word. As, for example:

B'ld'g, B'l'v'd, M'f'g.

When the word is contracted in this way and the apostrophe is used, these contractions are not followed by the period but are used just as the completely written word would be used. There is no accepted list of these contractions. We devise them according to our need at the moment.

An abbreviation, however, is an authorized contraction of the word. It is the shortening of a term which is habitually used to save time and space. The apostrophe is not used and the abbreviation should be followed by a period. As for example:

Bldg. Blvd. Mfg.

These abbreviations and contractions are very helpful to us in saving time and space but should not be used too frequently. Too many contractions or abbreviations make writing ridiculous. Take time to write out the majority of words. Only use abbreviations or contractions for certain accepted words. Avoid an excessive use of abbreviations.

COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS

+486.+ We quite often abbreviate the names of the months, especially those which have long names. Short names like _March_, _April_, _May_, _June_ and _July_, should never be abbreviated. For the other months we use in correspondence the abbreviations, _Jan._, _Feb._, _Aug._, _Sept._, _Oct._, _Nov._, _Dec._ Days of the week are also sometimes abbreviated as follows: _Sun._, _Mon._, _Tues._, _Wed._, _Thur._, _Fri._, _Sat._ Do not use these abbreviations too often. Spell out the names of the months and of the days of the week except in lists of dates or something that calls for abbreviations to save time or space.

_Mr._, _Mrs._, _Messrs._, _Jr._, _Sr._, are never spelled out, but are always written in the abbreviated form. You will often find _Doctor_ and _Professor_ abbreviated to _Dr._, _Prof._ This is permissible but it is always good form to write them out in full.

+487.+ We have abbreviated forms for a number of names; as for example: _Geo._, _Chas._, _Thos._, _Wm._, etc. But it is always much better to write these names out in full: _George_, _Charles_, _Thomas_, _William_, etc.

Remember that nicknames are not abbreviations and do not require a period after them. _Jim_, _Charley_, _Tom_, and _Bill_ are not abbreviations but nicknames.

In correspondence or in any circumstance that demands the saving of time or space, we abbreviate the names of states and territories, as follows:

Alabama, Ala.
Arizona, Ariz.
Arkansas, Ark.
California, Cal.
Colorado, Colo.
Connecticut, Conn.
Delaware, Del.
District of Columbia, D. C.
Florida, Fla.
Georgia, Ga.
Idaho, Ida.
Illinois, Ill.
Indiana, Ind.
Iowa, Ia.
Kansas, Kan.
Kentucky, Ky.
Louisiana, La.
Maine, Me.
Maryland, Md.
Massachusetts, Mass.
Michigan, Mich.
Minnesota, Minn.
Mississippi, Miss.
Missouri, Mo.
Montana, Mont.
Nebraska, Neb.
Nevada, Nev.
New Hampshire, N. H.
New Jersey, N. J.
New Mexico, N. M.
New York, N. Y.
North Carolina, N. C.
North Dakota, N. D.
Ohio, O.
Oklahoma, Okla.
Oregon, Ore.
Pennsylvania, Pa. or Penna.
Rhode Island, R. I.
South Carolina, S. C.
South Dakota, S. D.
Tennessee, Tenn.
Texas, Tex.
Vermont, Vt.
Virginia, Va.
Washington, Wash.
West Virginia, W. Va.
Wisconsin, Wis.
Wyoming, Wyo.

+488.+ Use _a. m._ and _p. m._ after dates in lists of dates or schedules of trains or for any similar purpose, but in the text of a letter or manuscript it is better to write them out in full. As for example, do not say:

I will arrive tomorrow a. m., or, You may call about eight p. m.

Say rather:

I will arrive tomorrow morning. You may call at eight o'clock this
evening.

The letters _a. m._ are the abbreviation for ante meridiem, Latin for before noon; and _p. m._ for post meridiem, meaning afternoon.

+489.+ Two consecutive years may be written 1914-15, but use 1915 rather than '15. In the heading of letters it is better to write the date out in full, as, _May 28, 1915_, instead of 5-28-15.

In the back of your dictionary you will find a complete list of accepted abbreviations used in writing and printing. The list that follows contains abbreviations most commonly used, especially in business correspondence:

@ for at
acct. for account
agt. for agent
amt. for amount
ans. for answer
asst. for assistant
atty. for attorney
av. for average
bal. for balance
bbl. for barrel
bdl. for bundle
bro. for brother
bros. for brothers
blk. for black
bls. for bales
bu. or bush. for bushels
Co. for company
chgd. for charged
C. O. D. for "cash on delivery"
cr. creditor
cts. cents
cwt. for hundred weight
cu. for cubic
do. for the same
dr. for debtor
doz. for dozen
ea. for "each"
et al. for "and others"
e. g. for example
etc. for "and so forth"
ft. for foot or feet
frt. freight
f. o. b. "free on board"
gal. gallon
guar. for guaranty
hdkfs. for handkerchiefs
h. p. horse power
in. for inches
ins. for insurance
inst. for this month
i. e. for "that is"
Jr. for junior
lb. for pound
memo. for memorandum
Mon. for Monday
mo. for month
mos. for months
mdse. for merchandise
mfg. for manufacturing
Mss. for manuscript
no. for number
N. B. for take notice
O. K. for "all correct"
oz. for ounce
% for per cent
pp. pages
pr. for pair
pt. for pint
pk. for peck
prox. for next month
qt. for quart
recd. for received
sec. for second
Sec. for secretary
Sr. for senior
Supt. for superintendent
ult. for last month
via by way of
viz. namely
vol. for volume
wt. for weight
yd. for yard
yds. for yards
yr. for year

Exercise 4

Write the proper abbreviations for the following words:

Building
Charles
Boulevard
Tuesday
Arkansas
Mississippi
Foot
Virginia
Georgia
Senior
By way of
Per cent
Charged
Avenue
October
Delaware
Professor
Thursday
Colorado
Kansas
Handkerchiefs
January
Secretary
Superintendent
Received
That is
Free on board
Monday
Oklahoma
July
Thomas
California
Company
Account
Friday
Merchandise
Number
All correct
Cash on delivery
And so forth
Colonel
Maine
August
William
Missouri
Brothers
Amount
Wyoming

SPELLING

LESSON 28

There is no way to learn to spell except by constant application. Watch in your reading the spelling of all words. Whenever you wish to add a certain word to your vocabulary, master immediately the spelling as well as the meaning of that word. Keep your dictionary handy; use it constantly in the study of your lessons. Do not guess at the spelling of the word. You are not likely to forget quickly the spelling of any word which you have taken the trouble to look up.

Read your examinations over carefully before sending them in, watching closely for any error in spelling and in punctuation. When your papers are graded and returned you, make a list of all the words which are misspelled and master then and there the spelling of these words. Do not be guilty of the same error twice. Remember that correct spelling is a mark of intelligence and scholarship and that nothing will so detract from the influence of your written work as incorrect spelling.

While there is always a certain word which more aptly expresses our meaning than any other, we can usually find two or more words which express practically the same meaning.

+Words which have nearly the same meaning are called synonyms.+

It is always an interesting exercise and will add greatly to your vocabulary to select a certain paragraph and go through it replacing certain words with other words which have practically the same meaning. It is this mastery of synonyms which gives the great writers and orators their power. They do not use the same word over and over again until our ears have grown weary of it. With their wonderful mastery of language they are never at a loss for words in which to re-clothe their meaning.

For the first three days of this week's work in spelling we have words and their synonyms. For the words given in the lessons for the last three days, look up in your dictionary a suitable synonym.

+Monday+

Abundant
Plenty

Precarious
Uncertain

Behavior
Conduct

+Tuesday+

Abuse
Invective

Hateful
Odious

Praise
Applause

+Wednesday+

Sufficient
Enough

Refuge
Asylum

Achieve
Attain

+Thursday+

Insolent
Revenge
Curb
Repudiate
Censure
Regret

+Friday+

Prosperity
Subterfuge
Event
Observe
Portion
Destroy

+Saturday+

Talkative
Indolent
Profit
Volunteer
Cordial
Enormous

There are a number of nouns very similar in form, yet different in meaning, which we very often use incorrectly.

Cross out in these sentences the incorrect word. Look them up in the dictionary and be sure of the exact meaning:

Roger's _essay_--_assay_ won him praise.
The _assay_--_essay_ indicated the quantity of gold in the metal.
The _completion_--_completeness_ of the course entitled me to a
Diploma.
The _completion_--_completeness_ of the arrangements fills us with
hope of success.
_Confidants_--_confidence_ often betray us.
The business world is built upon _confidants_--_confidence_.
The _conscience_--_consciousness_ of a religious person is very
sensitive.
The class struggle develops class _conscience_--_consciousness_.
The strikers listened to unwise _counsel_--_council_.
The _council_--_counsel_ refused the franchise.
You knew he was a _cultured_--_cultivated_ man, the moment you met
him.
It is a highly _cultured_--_cultivated_ plant.
I asked her for the _recipe_--_receipt_ for making cake.
He gave her a _receipt_--_recipe_ for the money.
_Emigration_---_immigration_ has reduced the population of Servia.
_Emigration_--_immigration_ is flooding the United States with cheap
labor.
Edison's _discovery_--_invention_ of the storage battery was a
momentous event.
The _discovery_--_invention_ of gold in Alaska attracted the attention
of the world.
The state placed a _limitation_--_limit_ upon the sale of liquor
within certain _limits_--_limitations_.

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 29

Dear Comrade:

The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in any man or woman. It is the things which we do for ourselves in any line of work that count the most for us. The things which come to us without any effort on our part do not stay with us very long nor do us much good while we have them.

Sometimes we feel discouraged because we have not had the opportunity to attend school as much as we would like. There is no gainsaying but that this is a tremendous handicap and yet, after all, it is not an insurmountable obstacle. It is much better to have the appetite without the food than to have the food without the appetite. There is always a chance of securing the food if we want it bad enough and will struggle hard enough. So in the matter of an education. Many a man who has never seen the inside of a college is better educated than those who have been through college.