Chapter II (3)

Alas! for the rarity
Of Christian charity
Under the sun!
O! it was pitiful!
Near a whole city full,
Home, she had none.

* * * * * * *

The bleak wind of March
Made her tremble and shiver;
But not the dark arch,
Or the black flowing river:
Mad from life's history
Glad to death's mystery
Swift to be hurled--
Anywhere, anywhere
Out of the world!

In she plunged boldly,
No matter how coldly
The rough river ran;
Over the brink of it,--
Picture it, think of it,
Dissolute Man!
Lave in it, drink of it,
Then, if you can!

Take her up tenderly,
Lift her with care;
Fashion'd so slenderly,
Young and so fair!

Ere her limbs frigidly
Stiffen too rigidly,
Decently, kindly,
Smooth and compose them;
And her eyes, close them,
Staring so blindly!

Dreadfully staring
Thro' muddy impurity,
As when with the daring
Last look of despairing
Fix'd on futurity.

Perishing gloomily,
Spurr'd by contumely,
Cold inhumanity,
Burning insanity,
Into her rest.
Cross her hands humbly
As if praying dumbly,
Over her breast!

Owning her weakness,
Her evil behavior,
And leaving, with meekness,
Her sins to her Saviour!

--_Thomas Hood_.

SPELLING

LESSON 16

The English language is truly a melting pot, into which have been thrown words from almost every language under the sun. This makes our spelling very confusing many times. Because of this also, we have in our language, words which have the same sound but different meaning, having come into the language from different sources. These words are called _homonyms_.

+Homonyms are words having the same sound but different meaning.+ For example:

Plane, plain;
write, right.

Synonyms are words which have the same meaning. For example:

Allow, permit;
lazy, idle.

Our spelling lesson for this week contains a list of most of the commonly used homonyms. Look up the meaning in the dictionary and use them correctly in sentences. You will note that in some instances there are three different words which have the same sound, but different meanings.

Notice especially _principal_ and _principle_. Perhaps there are no two words which we use frequently which are so confused in their spelling. _Principle_ is a noun. _Principal_ is an adjective. You can remember the correct spelling by remembering that _adjective_ begins with _a_. _Principal_, the adjective, is spelled with an _a_, _pal_.

Notice also the distinction between _two_, _to_ and _too_. Look these up carefully, for mistakes are very often made in the use of these three words. Also notice the words _no_ and _know_ and _here_ and _hear_.

+Monday+

Buy--by
Fair--fare
Meat--meet
Our--hour
Pain--pane

+Tuesday+

Deer--dear
Hear--here
New--knew
No--know
Peace--piece

+Wednesday+

Two--to--too
Pair--pare--pear
Birth--berth
Ore--oar
Ought--aught

+Thursday+

Seen--scene
Miner--minor
Aloud--allowed
Stare--stair
Would--wood

+Friday+

Bear--bare
Ascent--assent
Sight--site--cite
Rain--reign--rein
Rote--wrote

+Saturday+

Great--grate
Foul--fowl
Least--leased
Principle--principal
Sale--sail

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 17

Dear Comrade:

We are finishing in this lesson the study of a very important part of speech. Adverbs are a necessary part of our vocabulary, and most of us need a greater supply than we at present possess. We usually have a few adverbs and adjectives in our vocabulary which are continually overworked. Add a few new ones to your vocabulary this week.

Do not slight the exercises in these lessons. The study of the lesson is only the beginning of the theoretical knowledge. You do not really know a thing until you put it into practice. You may take a correspondence course on how to run an automobile but you can not really know how to run a machine until you have had the practical experience. There is only one way to become expert in the use of words and that is to use them. Every day try to talk to some one who thinks and reads. While talking watch their language and your own. When a word is used that you do not fully understand, look it up at your very first opportunity and if you like the word use it a number of times until it has become your word.

We have been following in these letters, which are our weekly talks together, the development of the alphabet. It is really a wonderful story. It brings to us most vividly the struggle of the men of the past. Last week we found how they began to use symbols to express syllables, parts of a word. We found that this was a great step in advance. Do you not see that this was not an eye picture but an ear picture? The symbol did not stand for the picture of the object it named but each symbol stood for the sound which composed part of the word.

After a while it dawned upon some one that all the words which man used were expressed by just a few sounds. We do not know just when this happened but we do know that it was a wonderful step in advance. Cumbersome pictures and symbols could be done away with now. The same idea could be expressed by a few signs which represented the few sounds which were used over and over again in all words. Let us not fail to realize what a great step in advance this was. These symbols represented sounds. The appeal was through the _ear gate_ of man, not through the _eye gate_.

Thus came about the birth of the alphabet, one of the greatest and most momentous triumphs of the human mind. Because of this discovery, we can now form thousands of combinations expressing all our ideas with only twenty-three or twenty-four symbols,--letters that represent sounds. Since we have at our command all of this rich fund of words, let us not be content to possess only a few for ourselves. Add a word daily to your vocabulary and you will soon be surprised at the ease and fluency of your spoken and written speech; and with this fluency in speech will come added power in every part of your life.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

+292.+ You will recall that we found that adjectives change in form to show different degrees of quality. A few adverbs are compared the same as adjectives. Some form the comparative and superlative degree in the regular way, just as adjectives, by adding _er_ and _est_; for example:

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_

soon sooner soonest
late later latest
often oftener oftenest
early earlier earliest
fast faster fastest

+293.+ Most adverbs form their comparative and superlative by the use of _more_ and _most_ or _less_ and _least_, just as adjectives do; for example:

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_

clearly more clearly most clearly
nobly more nobly most nobly
ably more ably most ably
truly more truly most truly

Or, in the descending comparison:

clearly less clearly least clearly
nobly less nobly least nobly
ably less ably least ably
truly less truly least truly

+294.+ The following adverbs are compared irregularly. It would be well to memorize this list:

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_

ill worse worst
well better best
badly worse worst
far further (farther) furthest (farthest)
little less least
much more most

Some adverbs are incapable of comparison, as _here_, _there_, _now_, _today_, _hence_, _therefore_, etc.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences mark which adverbs are used in the positive, which in the comparative and which in the superlative degree:

1. He came too late to get his letter.
2. I can understand clearly since you have explained the matter to me.
3. He speaks most truly concerning a matter of which he is well
informed.
4. If he comes quickly he will arrive in time.
5. I will be able to speak more effectively when I have studied the
subject.
6. Those who argue most ably are those who are in complete possession
of the facts.
7. He needs to take a course such as this very badly.
8. I am too weary to go farther today.
9. This is the least expensive of them all.
10. If he arrives later in the day I will not be able to see him.
11. I can understand him more clearly than I can his friend.
12. You must work more rapidly under the Taylor system of efficiency.
13. Those who are least trained lose their positions first.
14. Those who are best fitted for the positions do not always receive
them.

POSITION OF ADVERBS

+295.+ When we use an adverb with an adjective or other adverb, we usually place the adverb before the adjective or adverb which it modifies. For example:

She is _very_ studious.
Results come _rather_ slowly.
It is _quite_ evident.
He speaks _too_ rapidly.

When we use an adverb with the simple form of the verb, (that is, either the present or past time form or any time form in which we do not need to use a phrase), if the verb is a complete verb, we place the adverb after the verb. For example:

The boat arrived _safely_.
The man came _quickly_.
The boy ran _fast_.
The teacher spoke _hastily_.

But when the verb is an incomplete verb used in the simple form, the adverb usually precedes it in order not to come between the verb and its object. As, for example:

He _willingly_ gave his consent to the proposition.
She _gladly_ wrote the letter which we requested.
A soldier _always_ obeys the command of a superior officer.

When the object of the incomplete verb is short, then the adverb is sometimes placed after the object. As, for example:

I study my lessons _carefully_.
He wrote a letter _hastily_.

The object is more closely connected with the verb and so is placed nearer the verb. However, when the object is modified by a phrase the adverb is sometimes placed immediately after the verb, as:

I studied _carefully_ the lessons given for this month.
He wrote _hastily_ a short letter to his son.

When we use an adverb with a verb phrase, we usually place the adverb after the first word in the verb phrase. For example:

The boy has _always_ worked.
The workers will _then_ understand.
He will _surely_ have arrived by that time.

When the verb is in the passive form the adverb immediately precedes the principal verb, as for example:

The work can be _quickly_ finished.
The obstacles can be _readily_ overcome.
The lesson must be _carefully_ prepared.
The workers must be _thoroughly_ organized.

When an adverb of time and an adverb of manner or place are used to modify the same verb, the adverb of time is placed first and the adverb of manner or place second, as for example:

I _often_ stop _there_.
He _usually_ walks _very rapidly_.
They _soon_ learn to work _rapidly_.

If the sentence contains adverbs of time, of place, and of manner; the adverb of time should come first; of place, second; and of manner, third; as:

He _usually_ comes _here quickly_.

Exercise 2

Improve the location of the adverbs in the following sentences and observe how the change of place of the adverb may alter the meaning of the sentence:

1. I _only_ saw the President once.
2. Such prices are _only_ paid in times of great scarcity.
3. No man has _ever_ so much wealth that he does not want more.
4. It seems that the workers can be _never_ aroused.
5. I want to _briefly_ state the reason for my action.
6. I shall be glad to help you _always_.
7. I _only_ mention a few of the facts.
8. He _nearly_ walked to town.
9. We are told that the Japanese _chiefly_ live upon rice.
10. They expected them to sign a treaty _daily_.
11. Having _nearly_ lost all his money he feared _again_ to venture.

ADVERBS AND INFINITIVES

+296.+ You remember when we studied the infinitive in Lesson 9, we found that it was not good usage to split the infinitive; that is, to put the modifying word between _to_ and the verb. For example: _We ought to bravely stand for our rights_. The correct form of this is: _We ought to stand bravely for our rights_.

But we have found, also, that common usage breaks down the old rules and makes new rules and laws for itself, and so we frequently find the adverb placed between the infinitive and its sign.

Sometimes it seems difficult to express our meaning accurately in any other way; for example, when we say: _To almost succeed is not enough_, we do not make the statement as forceful or as nearly expressive of our real idea, if we try to put the adverb _almost_ in any other position. This is also true in such phrases as _to far exceed_, _to more than counterbalance_, _to fully appreciate_, and various other examples which you will readily find in your reading. The purpose of written and spoken language is to express our ideas adequately and accurately.

So we place our words in sentences to fulfill this purpose and not according to any stereotyped rule of grammarians. Ordinarily, though, it would be best not to place the adverb between the infinitive verb and its sign _to_. Do not split the infinitive unless by so doing you express your idea more accurately.

COMMON ERRORS

+297.+ The position in the sentence of such adverbs as, _only_, _also_ and _merely_, depends upon the meaning to be conveyed. The place where these adverbs occur in the sentences, may completely alter the meaning of the sentence. For example:

_Only the address can be written on this side._ We mean that nothing but the address can be written on this side.

_The address can only be written on this side._ We mean that the address cannot be printed, but must be written.

_The address can be written only on this side._ We mean that it cannot be written on any other side, but on this side only.

So you see that the place in which the adverb appears in the sentence depends upon the meaning to be conveyed and the adverb should be placed in the sentence so as to convey the meaning intended.

+Never use an adjective for an adverb.+ One common error is using an adjective for an adverb. Remember that adjectives modify nouns only. Whenever you use a word to modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, use an adverb. For example, _He speaks slow and plain_. This is incorrect. The sentence should be, _He speaks slowly and plainly_. Watch this carefully. It is a very common error.

+Another very common error is that of using an adverb instead of an adjective with the copulative verb.+ Never use an adverb in place of an adjective to complete a copulative verb. When a verb asserts an action on the part of the subject, the qualifying word that follows the verb is an adverb. For example, you would say:

The sea was calm.

Here we use an _adjective_ in the predicate, for we are describing the appearance of the sea, no action is expressed. But if we say: _He spoke calmly_, we use the adverb _calmly_, for the verb _spoke_ expresses an action on the part of the subject, and the adverb _calmly_ describes that action, it tells how he spoke. So we say: _The water looks clear_, but, _We see clearly_. _She appears truthful._ _They answered truthfully._ _She looked sweet._ _She smiled sweetly._

With all forms of the verb _be_, as _am_, _is_, _are_, _was_, _were_, _have been_, _has been_, _will be_, etc., use an adjective in the predicate; as, _He is glad_. _I am happy._ _They were eager._ _They will be sad._ Use an adjective in the predicate with verbs like _look_, _smell_, _taste_, _feel_, _appear_ and _seem_. For example: _He looks bad._ _It smells good._ _The candy tastes sweet_. _The man feels fine today._ _She appears anxious._ _He seems weary._

+Never use two negative words in the same sentence.+ The second negative destroys the first and we really make an affirmative statement. The two negatives neutralize each other and spoil the meaning of the sentence. For example, never say:

I don't want no education.
He didn't have no money.
Don't say nothing to nobody.
She never goes nowhere.
He won't say nothing to you.
He does not know nothing about it.
He never stops for nothing.
The stingy man gives nothing to nobody.

In all of these sentences we have used more than one negative; _not_ and _no_, or _not_ and _nothing_, or _never_ and _no_, or _never_ and _nothing_. Never use these double negatives. The correct forms of these sentences are:

I don't want any education.
He didn't have any money.
Don't say anything to any one.
She never goes anywhere.
He won't say anything to you.
He knows nothing about it.
He never stops for anything.
The stingy man gives nothing to any one.

+Where to place the negative adverb, not.+ In English we do not use the negative adverb _not_ with the common verb form, but when we use _not_ in a sentence, we use the auxiliary _do_. For example, we do not say:

I like it not.
They think not so.
He loves me not.
We strive not to succeed.

Only in poetry do we use such expressions as these. In ordinary English, we say:

I do not like it.
They do not think so.
He does not love me.
We do not strive to succeed.

+We often use _here_ and _there_ incorrectly after the words _this_ and _that_.+ For example, we say:

This here lesson is shorter than that there one was.

This should be: _This lesson is shorter than that one_.

Bring me that there book.
This here man will not listen.

These sentences should read:

Bring me that book.
This man will not listen.

Never use _here_ and _there_ in this manner.

+Another common mistake is using _most_ for _almost_.+

For example, we say:

We are most there.
I see her most every day.

These sentences should read:

We are almost there.
I see her almost every day.

_Most_ is the superlative degree of _much_, and should be used only in that meaning.

+We often use the adjective _real_ in place of _very_ or _quite_, to modify an adverb or an adjective.+

For example, we say:

I was real glad to know it.
She looked real nice.
You must come real soon.

Say instead:

I am very glad to know it.
She looked very nice.
You must come quite soon.

_Really_ is the adverb form of the adjective _real_. You might have said:

I am really glad to know it.

But never use _real_ when you mean _very_ or _quite_ or _really_.

+We use the adjective _some_ many times when we should use the adverb _somewhat_.+ For example, we say:

I am some anxious to hear from him.
I was some tired after my trip.

What we intended to say was:

I am somewhat anxious to hear from him.
I was somewhat tired after my trip.

+Do not use _what for_ when you mean _why_.+ Do not say:

What did you do that for?

Or worse still,

What for did you do that?

Say:

Why did you do that?

+Do not use _worse_ in place of _more_.+ Do not say:

I want to go worse than I ever did.

Say:

I want to go _more_ than I ever did.

+Observe the distinction between the words _further_ and _farther_.+ Farther always refers to distance, or extent. For example:

He could go no farther that day.
We will go farther into the matter some other time.

Further means more. For example:

He would say nothing further in regard to the subject.

+Never use _good_ as an adverb+. _Good_ is always an adjective. _Well_ is the adverb form. _Good_ and _well_ are compared in the same way, _good_, _better_, _best_, and _well_, _better_, _best_. So _better_ and _best_ can be used either as adjectives or adverbs; but _good_ is always an adjective. Do not say, _He talks good_. Say, _He talks well_. Note that _ill_ is both an adjective and an adverb and that _illy_ is always incorrect.

Exercise 3

Correct the adverbs in the following sentences. All but two of these sentences are wrong.

1. Come quick, I need you.
2. The boy feels badly.
3. Give me that there pencil.
4. I am some hungry.
5. The people learn slow.
6. He never stopped for nothing.
7. What did you say that for?
8. This here machine won't run.
9. I make a mistake most every time.
10. Watch careful every word.
11. The man works good.
12. The tone sounds harsh.
13. I don't want no dinner.
14. I hope it comes real soon.
15. I want to learn worse than ever.
16. She looked lovely.
17. She smiled sweet.
18. He sees good for one so old.
19. She answered correct.
20. He won't say nothing about it.
21. I will be real glad to see you.
22. That tastes sweetly.
23. The man acted too hasty.
24. We had most reached home.
25. They ride too rapid.

DO NOT USE TOO MANY ADVERBS

+298.+ Like adjectives it is better to use adverbs sparingly. This is especially true of the adverbs used to intensify our meaning. Do not use the adverbs, _very_, _awfully_, etc., with every other word. It makes our speech sound like that of a gushing school girl, to whom everything is _very, awfully sweet_. More than that, it does not leave us any words to use when we really want to be intense in speech. Save these words until the right occasion comes to use them.

Exercise 4

Adverbs should always be placed where there can be no doubt as to what they are intended to modify. A mistake in placing the adverb in the sentence often alters the meaning of the sentence. Choose the right word in each of the following sentences:

1. He looked glad--gladly when I told him the news.
2. Slaves have always been treated harsh--harshly.
3. I prefer my eggs boiled soft--softly.
4. The lecturer was tolerable--tolerably well informed.
5. Speak slower--more slowly so I can understand you.
6. The evening bells sound sweet--sweetly.
7. The house appears comfortable--comfortably and
pleasant--pleasantly.
8. If you will come quick--quickly you can hear the music.
9. I was exceeding--exceedingly glad to hear from you.
10. The bashful young man appeared very awkward--awkwardly.
11. The young lady looked beautiful--beautifully and she sang
beautiful--beautifully.
12. I looked quick--quickly in the direction of the sound.
13. The sun is shining bright--brightly today and the grass looks
green--greenly.

SPELLING

LESSON 17

In our study of adjectives we have found that we use them to express some quality possessed by a noun or pronoun which they modify. You will recall when we studied nouns, we had one class of nouns, called abstract nouns, which were the names of qualities. So we find that from these adjectives expressing quality we form nouns which we use as the name of that quality.

For example from the adjective _happy_, we form the noun _happiness_, which is the name of the quality described by the adjective _happy_, by the addition of the suffix _ness_. We use this suffix _ness_ quite often in forming these derivative nouns from adjectives but there are other suffixes also which we use; as for example, the suffix _ty_ as in _security_, formed from the adjective _secure_, changing the _e_ to _i_ and adding the suffix _ty_. When the word ends in _t_ we sometimes add only _y_ as in _honesty_, derived from the adjective _honest_.

You remember that an abstract noun may express not only quality but also action, considered apart from the actor; so abstract nouns may be made from verbs. For example:

_Running_, from the verb _run_; _settlement_, from the verb _settle_.

In our lesson for this week the list for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains adjectives of quality from which abstract nouns expressing quality can be made, by the addition of the proper suffix, either _ness_, _y_, _ty_ or _tion_. The list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday consists of verbs from which abstract nouns can be made by the addition of the suffixes _ment_ and _ing_.

Make from each adjective and verb in this week's lesson an abstract noun by the addition of the proper suffix. Be able to distinguish between the use of the qualifying adjective and the noun expressing quality.

+Monday+

Stately
Forgetful
Real
Concise
Noble

+Tuesday+

Slender
Empty
Equal
Righteous
Deliberate

+Wednesday+

Submissive
Dreadful
Eager
Sincere
Resolute

+Thursday+
Enlist
Defile
Adorn
Nourish
Commence

+Friday+

Content
Adjust
Induce
Indict
Adjourn

+Saturday+

Discourage
Refine
Acquire
Enrich
Infringe

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 18

Dear Comrade:

Last week we finished the study of adverbs and we found that they were a very important part of our vocabulary, and that most of us needed a greater supply than we at present possess. This is true of both adverbs and adjectives. While we do not use as many adverbs as adjectives in our ordinary speech, nevertheless, adverbs are a very important factor in expression. A great many adjectives can be readily turned into adverbs. They are adjectives when they are used to describe a noun, but by the addition of a suffix, they become adverbs used to describe the action expressed by the verb. So in adding to our stock of adjectives we also add adverbs to our vocabulary as well.

Watch your speech this week and make a list of the adverbs which you use most commonly, then go to your dictionary and see if you cannot find synonyms for these adverbs. Try using these synonyms for awhile and give the adverbs which you have been using for so long, a well earned rest. Remember that our vocabulary, and the power to use it, is like our muscles, it can only grow and develop by exercise.

The best exercise which you can possibly find for this purpose is conversation. We spend much more time in talking than in reading or in writing. Conversation is an inexpensive pleasure and it does not even require leisure always, for we can talk as we work; yet our conversation can become a great source of inspiration and of influence as well as a pleasant pastime. But do not spend your time in vapid and unprofitable conversation. Surely there is some one in the list of your acquaintances who would like to talk of things worth while. Hunt up this some one and spend some portion of your day in profitable conversation.

Remember also that a limited vocabulary means also a limited mental development. Did you ever stop to think that when we think clearly we think in words? Our thinking capacity is limited, unless we have the words to follow our ideas out to their logical conclusions.

This matter of vocabulary is a matter, too, that is exceedingly practical. It means success or failure to us in the work which we would like to do in the world. A command of words means added power and efficiency; it means the power to control, or at least affect, our environment; it means the power over men and things; it means the difference between being people of ability and influence and being obscure, inefficient members of society.

So feel when you are spending your time in increasing your vocabulary that you are not only adding to your enjoyment of life but that you are doing yourself the best practical turn; you are increasing your efficiency in putting yourself in a position where you can make your influence felt upon the people and circumstances about you. This effort upon your part will bear practical fruit in your every day life.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

A GROUP OF WORDS

+299.+ We have studied about the independent parts of speech, that is, the nouns and pronouns and verbs. These are independent because with them we can form sentences without the help of other words. And these are the only three parts of speech which are so independent--with which we can form complete sentences. Then we have studied also the words that modify,--that is, the words that are used with nouns and pronouns and verbs to describe and explain more fully the ideas which they express. So we have studied adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns; and adverbs, which modify verbs or adjectives or other adverbs.

+300.+ The adjectives and adverbs which we have studied thus far are single words; but we find that we may use little groups of words in about the same way, to express the same idea which we have expressed in the single adjective or adverb. For example, we may say:

Strong men, _or_, men of strength.
City men, _or_, men from the city.
Jobless men, _or_, men without jobs.
Moneyed men, _or_, men with money.

These groups of words like, _of strength_, _from the city_, _without jobs_, and _with money_, express the same ideas that are expressed in the single adjectives, _strong_, _city_, _jobless_ and _moneyed_.

You recall that we defined any group of words used as a single word as a _phrase_; so these groups of words are phrases which are used as adjectives. The phrase, _of strength_, modifies the noun _men_, just as the adjective _strong_ modifies the noun _men_. So we may call these phrases which modify nouns, or which may be used to modify pronouns also, _adjective phrases_, for they are groups of words used as adjectives.

Exercise 1

Change the adjectives which are printed in italics in the following sentences into phrases:

1. _Strong_ men know no fear.
2. She bought a _Turkish_ rug.
3. He followed the _river_ bed.
4. _Fashionable_ women are parasites.
5. He left on his _homeward_ journey.
6. _Sensible_ men readily understand their economic slavery.
7. _Intelligent_ people will not always submit to robbery.
8. _Senseless_ arguments cannot convince us of the truth.

USED AS ADVERBS

+301.+ These phrases may be used in the place of single adverbs also. You remember an adverb is a word that modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb. Let us see if we can not use a phrase or a group of words in the place of a single adverb. For example:

The man works rapidly, or, The man works with rapidity.
The man works now, or, The man works at this time.
The man works here, or, The man works at this place.

In these sentences _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_ are single adverbs modifying the verb _work_. The phrases, _with rapidity_, _at this time_, and _at this place_, express practically the same ideas, conveyed by the single adverbs, _rapidly_, _now_ and _here_. These phrases modify the verb in exactly the same manner as the single adverbs. Therefore we call these groups of words used as single adverbs, _adverb phrases_.

We also use adverbs to modify adjectives. Let us see if we can use adverb phrases in the same way:

Rockefeller is _excessively_ rich; or, Rockefeller is rich _to
excess_.
He is _bodily_ perfect, but _mentally_ weak; or, He is perfect _in
body_ but weak _in mind_.

In the sentences above, the adverb _excessively_ modifies the adjective _rich_; the same meaning is expressed in the adverb phrase, _to excess_. In the sentence, _He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak_, the adverb _bodily_ modifies the adjective _perfect_ and the adverb _mentally_ modifies the adjective _weak_. In the last sentence, the same meaning is expressed by the adverb phrases, _in body_ and _in mind_. These phrases modify the adjectives _perfect_ and _weak_, just as do the single adverbs _bodily_ and _mentally_.

+302.+ We can use a phrase in the place of almost any adverb or adjective. It very often happens, however, that there is no adjective or adverb which we can use to exactly express our meaning and we are forced to use a phrase. For example:

He bought the large house _by the river_.
The man _on the train_ is going _to the city_.
He came _from the country_.

It is impossible to find single words that express the meaning of these phrases, _by the river_, _on the train_, _to the city_, and _from the country_. You could not say the _river house_; that is not what you mean. You mean the large house _by the river_, yet the phrase _by the river_ modifies and describes the house quite as much as the adjective _large_. It is an adjective phrase used to modify the noun _house_, yet it would be impossible to express its meaning in a single word.

Exercise 2

Which phrases in the following sentences are used as adjectives and which phrases are used as adverbs?

Change these phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think of any that express the same meaning.

1. Men lived _in caves_ long ago.
2. Man's discovery _of fire_ was the beginning _of industry_.
3. _After this discovery_, men lived _in groups_.
4. The work _of the world_ is done _by machinery_.
5. The workers _of Europe_ were betrayed.
6. They are fighting _for their country_.
7. The struggle _for markets_ is the cause _of war_.
8. The history _of the world_ records the struggle _of the workers_.
9. The idea _of democracy_ is equal opportunity _for all_.
10. The invention _of the printing press_ placed knowledge _within the
reach_ _of the masses_.
11. If you will study _with diligence_ you can learn _with ease_.
12. This knowledge will be _of great value_ _to you_.
13. Diplomacy means that the plans _of nations_ are made _in secret_.
14. The men _in the factory_ are all paid _by the month_.
15. They are afraid to take a trip _through Europe_ _at this time_.

Exercise 3

Use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb in the following sentences:

1. The men in the trenches are fighting _bravely_.
2. An _uneducated_ man is _easily_ exploited.
3. Our _educational_ system is inadequate.
4. The _skilled_ workers must be organized.
5. _Careless_ men endanger the lives of others.
6. The plans have been _carefully_ laid.
7. _Ambitious_ men often trample on the rights of others.
8. Shall our education be controlled by _wealthy_ men?
9. We want to live _courageously_.
10. We want to face the future _fearlessly_.
11. We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor.
12. By constant practice we can learn to speak _effectively_.
13. This book will be a _valuable_ addition to your library.
14. The number of _unemployed_ men _constantly_ increases.
15. The men mastered each step _thoroughly_ as they proceeded.
16. In order to express one's self _eloquently_ it is necessary to
think _clearly_.
17. We must consecrate ourselves _completely_ to the cause of
humanity.
18. A _kind_ act is its own reward.
19. _Experienced_ workers can _more easily_ secure positions.
20. He spoke _thoughtlessly_ but the people listened _eagerly_.
21. The soldier was rewarded for his _heroic_ deed.
22. He is an _honorable_ man and I am not surprised at this _brave_
act.
23. A _prudent_ man should be chosen to fill that _important_ office.

PREPOSITIONS

+303.+ Have you noticed that all of these phrases, which we have been studying and using as adjectives and adverbs, begin with a little word like _of_, _with_, _from_, _in_, _at_ or _by_, which connects the phrase with the word it modifies? We could scarcely express our meaning without these little words. They are connecting words and fill an important function. These words usually come first in the phrase. For this reason, they are called _prepositions_, which means _to place before_.

Let us see what a useful place these little words fill in our language. Suppose we were watching the play of some boys outside our windows and were reporting their hiding place. We might say:

The boys are hiding _in_ the bushes.
The boys are hiding _among_ the bushes.
The boys are hiding _under_ the bushes.
The boys are hiding _behind_ the bushes.
The boys are hiding _beyond_ the bushes.

These sentences are all alike except the prepositions _in_, _among_, _under_, _behind_ and _beyond_. If you read the sentences and leave out these prepositions entirely, you will see that nobody could possibly tell what connection the _bushes_ had with the rest of the sentence. The prepositions are necessary to express the relation of the word _bushes_ to the rest of the sentence.

But this is not all. You can readily see that the use of a different preposition changes the meaning of the sentence. It means quite a different thing to say, _The boys are hiding in the bushes_, and to say, _The boys are hiding beyond the bushes_. So the preposition has a great deal to do with the true expression of our ideas.

The noun _bushes_ is used as the object of the preposition, and the preposition shows the relation of its object to the word which it modifies. You remember that nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or as object, but if you are using a pronoun after a preposition, always use the object form of the pronoun. For example:

I bought the book from _him_.
I took the message to _them_.
I found the place for _her_.

In these sentences the pronouns, _him_, _them_, and _her_ are used as objects of the prepositions _from_, _to_ and _for_. So we have used the object forms of these pronouns.

+304+. The noun or pronoun that follows the preposition, and is used with it to make a phrase, is the object of the preposition. The preposition is used to show the relation that exists between its object and the word the object modifies. In the sentence above, _The boys are hiding in the bushes_, the preposition _in_ shows the relationship between the verb phrase, _are hiding_ and the object of the preposition, _bushes_.

The noun or pronoun which is the object of a preposition may also have its modifiers. In the sentences used about the noun _bush_, which is the object of the prepositions used, is modified by the adjective _the_. Other modifiers might also be added, as for example:

The boys are hiding in the tall, thick bushes.

The entire phrase, _in the tall, thick bushes_, is made up of the preposition _in_, its object _bushes_ and the modifiers of bushes, _the_, _tall_ and _thick_.

+305+. The preposition, with its object and the modifiers of the object, forms a phrase which we call a _prepositional phrase_. These prepositional phrases may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs, so we have our definitions:

+A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some other word.+

+A phrase is a group of words used as a single word.+

+A prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition and its object and modifiers.+

+An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adjective.+

+An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adverb.+

+306.+ Here is a list of the most common and most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence:

above
about
across
after
against
along
around
among
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
beyond
by
down
for
from
in
into
of
off
on
over
to
toward
through
up
upon
under
with
within
without

ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS

+307.+ Many of the words that are used as prepositions are used also as adverbs. It may be a little confusing to tell whether the word is an adverb or a preposition, but if you will remember this simple rule you will have no trouble:

+A preposition is always followed by either a noun or a pronoun as its object, while an adverb never has an object.+

So when you find a word, that can be used either as a preposition or an adverb, used alone in a sentence without an object, it is an adverb; but if it is followed by an object, then it is a preposition. This brings again to our minds the fundamental rule which we have laid down, that every word is classified according to the work which it does in a sentence. The work of a preposition is to show the relation between its object and the word which that object modifies. So whenever a word is used in this way it is a preposition. For example: _He went about his business_.

Here, _about_ is a preposition and _business_ is its object. But in the sentence, _He is able to be about_, _about_ is used as an adverb. It has no object.

_He sailed before the mast._ Here, _before_ is a preposition introducing the phrase _before the mast_, which modifies the verb _sailed_. But in the sentence, _I told you that before_, _before_ is an adverb modifying the verb _told_.

By applying this rule you can always readily determine whether the word in question is an adverb or a preposition.

Exercise 4

Tell whether the words printed in italics in the following sentences, are prepositions or adverbs and the reason why:

1. He came _across_ the street.
2. He is _without_ work.
3. Come _in_.
4. He lives _near_.
5. He brought it _for_ me.
6. I cannot get _across_.
7. We will go _outside_.
8. This is _between_ you and me.
9. He can go _without_.
10. Stay _in_ the house.
11. Do not come _near_ me.
12. They all went _aboard_ at six o'clock.
13. He enlisted _in_ the navy and sailed _before_ the mast.
14. I do not know what lies _beyond_.
15. I will soon be _through_.
16. The aeroplane flew _above_ the city for hours.

PHRASE PREPOSITIONS

+308.+ Sometimes we have a preposition made up of several words which we have used so commonly together that they are used as a single word and we call the entire phrase a preposition. As, for example: _According to_--_on account of_--_by means of_, etc.

1. He answered _according to_ the rule.
2. I could not go _on account of_ illness.
3. He won the election _by means of_ fraud.
4. The strike was won _by help of_ all the comrades.
5. You can learn to spell only _by dint of_ memory.
6. We speak incorrectly _by force of_ habit.
7. He went to New York _by way of_ Chicago.
8. Ferrer died _for the sake of_ his ideals.
9. _In consideration of_ this payment, we will send you the set of
books.
10. Germany issued her ultimatum _in defiance of_ the world.
11. _In view of_ all the facts, we are convinced of his innocence.
12. He will gladly suffer _in place of_ his comrade.
13. _In conformity with_ the information contained in your letter,
I will join you on the 10th.

Exercise 5

Mark the prepositions in the following quotation. In the first three paragraphs the prepositional phrases are printed in italics. Determine whether they are used as adjective phrases or as adverb phrases. Underscore the prepositional phrases in the remainder of the quotation and determine which word is used as the object of the preposition.

THE SUNLIGHT LAY ACROSS MY BED

_In the dark_ one night I lay _upon my bed_. And _in the dark_ I dreamed a dream. I dreamed God took my soul _to Hell_.

And we came where hell opened _into a plain_, and a great house stood there. Marble pillars upheld the roof, and white marble steps led up _to it_. The wind _of heaven_ blew _through it_. Only _at the back_ hung a thick curtain. Fair men and women there feasted _at long tables_. They danced, and I saw the robes _of women_ flutter _in the air_ and heard the laugh _of strong men_. They feasted _with wine_; they drew it _from large jars_ which stood somewhat _in the background_, and I saw the wine sparkle as they drew it.

And I said _to God_, "I should like to go up and drink." And God said, "Wait." And I saw men coming _into the banquet house_; they came in _from the back_ and lifted the corner _of the curtain_ _at the sides_ and crept in quickly; and they let the curtain fall _behind them_; they bore great jars they could hardly carry. And the men and women crowded _round them_, and the newcomers opened their jars and gave them _of the wine_ to drink; and I saw that the women drank even more greedily than the men. And when others had well drunken they set the jars _among the old ones_ _beside the wall_, and took their places _at the table_. And I saw that some _of the jars_ were very old and mildewed and dusty, but others had still drops _of new must_ _on them_ and shone _from the furnace_.

And I said to God, "What is that?" For amid the sounds of the singing, and over the dancing of feet, and over the laughing across the winecups, I heard a cry.

And God said, "Stand away off."

And He took me where I saw both sides of the curtain. Behind the house was a wine-press where the wine was made. I saw the grapes crushed, and I heard them cry. I said, "Do not they on the other side hear it?"

God said, "The curtain is thick; they are feasting."

And I said, "But the men who came in last. They saw?"

God said, "They let the curtain fall behind them--and they forgot!"

I said, "How came they by their jars of wine?"

God said, "In the treading of the press these are they who came to the top; they have climbed out over the edge and filled their jars from below; and have gone into the house."

And I said, "And if they had fallen as they climbed--?"

God said, "They had been wine."

I stood away off watching in the sunshine, and I shivered.

And after a while I looked, and I saw the curtain that hung behind the house moving.

I said to God, "Is it a wind?"

God said, "A wind."

And it seemed to me that against the curtain I saw pressed the forms of men and women. And after a while, the feasters saw it move, and they whispered one to another. Then some rose and gathered the most worn-out cups, and into them they put what was left at the bottom of other vessels. Mothers whispered to their children, "Do not drink all, save a little drop when you have drunk." And when they had collected all the dregs they slipped the cups out under the bottom of the curtain without lifting it. After a while the curtain left off moving.

I said to God, "How is it so quiet?"

He said, "They have gone away to drink it."

I said, "They drink it--their own!"

God said, "It comes from this side of the curtain, and they are very thirsty."

And still the feast went on.

Men and women sat at the tables quaffing great bowls. Some rose, and threw their arms about each other and danced and sang. They pledged each other in the wine, and kissed each other's blood-red lips.

Men drank till they could drink no longer, and laid their heads upon the table, sleeping heavily. Women who could dance no more leaned back on the benches with their heads against their lovers' shoulders. Little children, sick with wine, lay down upon the edge of their mothers' robes.

I said, "I cannot see more, I am afraid of Hell. When I see men dancing I hear the time beaten in with sobs; and their wine is living! Oh, I cannot bear Hell!"

God said, "Where will you go?"

I said, "To the earth from which I came; it was better there."

And God laughed at me; and I wondered why He laughed.

--_Olive Schreiner_.

SPELLING

LESSON 18

There are a number of words that are ordinarily followed by a preposition with its phrase. We make a great many mistakes in the use of the proper preposition with these words. Our spelling lesson this week covers a number of these words with examples illustrating the appropriate preposition to be used with each word. Learn to spell these words, look up their meaning in the dictionary and use each word with its proper preposition in sentences of your own construction.

+MONDAY+

+Abhorrence+, of; We have an abhorrence _of_ war.
+Abhorrent+, to; War is abhorrent _to_ us.
+Acquaint+, with; I will acquaint you _with_ the facts in the case.
You will then be acquainted _with_ the facts.
+Acquit+, of; The man was acquitted _of_ the charge.
+Adequate+, to; Our resources are not adequate _to_ the demand.

+TUESDAY+

+Angry+, with, at; We are angry _with_ persons and angry _at_ things.
+Astonished+, at or by; (Never with) I am astonished _at_ you, or
_by_ you, not _with_ you.
+Confer+; We confer _with_ people, _upon_ or _about_ matters.
+Contrary+; A thing is contrary _to_ our ideas, (not _from_ or
_than_).
+Controversy+; with, between, or about, (not over). I had a
controversy _with_ you. There is a controversy _between_ the two
_about_ the result.

+WEDNESDAY+

+Convicted+, of (not for). He was convicted _of_ the crime.
+Copy+; We copy _after_ people, _from_ things, and _out_ of books.
+Deprive+, of, (not from). We are deprived _of_ an education.
+Desire+, of and for; We may speak of the desire _of_ a man, meaning
man's desire; but we should always say "He has a desire _for_
position, _for_ wealth," etc.
+Die+, of, for and from; A person dies _of_, not _from_, a disease. He
dies _from_ the effects of an injury. One person may die _with_
another, but never _with_ a disease, for the disease does not die.

+THURSDAY+

+Differ+, from, among, about, concerning, with; Persons or things
differ _from_ each other; that is, they are dissimilar in
appearance. Two persons may differ _with_ each other; that is,
contend or disagree. Several persons differ _among_ themselves
_about_ or _concerning_ some matter.
+Dissent+, from (not to). There was a general dissent _from_ that
idea.
+Guilty+, of (not for). He is guilty _of_ the crime.
+Incentive+, to (not for). It is a great incentive _to_ action.
+Receive+, from, (not of). Received _from_ John Smith, thirty dollars,
etc.

+FRIDAY+

+Infer+, from, (not by). I infer this _from_ your remarks, not _by_
your remarks.
+Introduce+; A man is introduced _to_ a woman, a speaker _to_ an
audience; _into_ society or _into_ new surroundings. We introduce
a bill _in_ Congress or a resolution _in_ a committee.
+Involved+, in (not with). We are involved _in_ difficulties.
+Listen+; We listen +for+ the expected news; we listen +to+ our
friends, not _at_.
+Married+; One person is married +to+ another, not +with+ another.

+SATURDAY+

+Matter+, with, (not of). What is the matter _with_ this?
+Opposition+, to (not against). There is opposition _to_ the motion.
+Part+, to part _from_, means to leave. I will part _from_ my friends.
To part _with_ means to give up. A fool soon parts _with_ his
money.
+Remedy+, for; We have a remedy _for_ the disease.
+Preventive+, against; We have a preventive _against_ disease.

* * * * *

It is easy to sit in the sunshine
And talk to the man in the shade;
It is easy to float in a well-trimmed boat,
And point out the places to wade.

But once we pass into the shadows
We murmur and fret and frown;
At our length from the bank, we shout for a plank,
Or throw up our hands and go down.

It is easy to sit in a carriage
And counsel the man on foot;
But get down and walk and you'll change your talk,
_As_ you feel the peg in your boot.

It is easy to tell the toiler
_How_ best he can carry his pack;
But not one can rate a burden's weight
_Until_ it has been on his back.

The up-curled mouth of pleasure
Can preach of sorrow's worth;
But give it a sip, and a wryer lip,
Was never made on earth.

--_Ella Wheeler Wilcox_.

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 19

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are completing our study of the preposition. The preposition is one of the last parts of speech which we take up for study and it is also one of the last parts of speech to be added to our vocabulary. The child does not use the preposition when it first begins to talk. It uses the names of things; words of action; words that describe objects and actions. It does not begin to use prepositions until it begins to relate ideas.

The relation of ideas means that we are thinking; combining ideas into thoughts. Then we begin to need prepositions, which are words of relation, connecting words, expressing the relationship between ideas. The measure of the fullness and richness of our lives is the measure of our understanding of the world about us, of the relationship existing between the different phases of that world and of our relationship to it all.

So words do not mean much to us until we can relate them to our own lives and our own experiences. When you look up a word in the dictionary, do not study the word alone; study also the thing for which it stands. A person with a good memory might acquire a vocabulary by sheer feat of memory; but what good would it do unless each word could be related to practical experience? It is only in this way that words become _alive_ to us. We must have an idea, a concept and knowledge of the thing for which the word stands.