Chapter I (2)

In the following quotation all of the verbs are printed in _italics_. Determine whether they are complete or incomplete verbs. If incomplete, determine whether they are transitive or copulative verbs. Draw a line under the object of every transitive verb and two lines under the complement of every copulative verb. Remember that sometimes we have several words combined into a verb phrase and used as a single verb. Watch for the verb phrases in the following, as for example: _must be_, in the sentence, _Labor must be free_.

The history of man _is_ simply the history of slavery. Slavery
_includes_ all other crimes. It _degrades_ labor and _corrupts_
leisure. With the idea that labor _is_ the basis of progress _goes_
the truth that labor _must be_ free. The laborer _must be_ a free man.

There _is_ something wrong in a government where honesty _wears_ a rag
and rascality _dons_ a robe; where the loving _eat_ a crust while the
infamous _sit_ at banquets.

_Talk_ about equal opportunity! Capitalism _ties_ a balloon to the
shoulders of the rich child; it _ties_ a ball and chain to the feet of
the poor child; and _tells_ them that they _have_ an equal
opportunity!

Once the master _hunted_ for the slaves, now the slave _hunts_ for a
master.

Exercise 7

Mark the verbs in the following poem. Often in poetry words are omitted which in strict grammatical construction should be expressed. As for example in the fourth line of this poem _which are_, is omitted before the word _bought_. In prose this would read, _The pews which are bought by the profits_, etc. So the word _bought_ is a part of the verb phrase, _are bought_. In the last line of the third stanza there is another omission before the word _planning_. The meaning is, _while they are planning slaughter_. _Planning_ is a part of the verb phrase _are planning_. And in the last line _is_ is omitted before the word _beloved_. _Is beloved_ is the verb phrase. Determine whether the verbs in this poem are complete, transitive or copulative, and mark the objects and the complements of the transitive and the copulative verbs.

WHO IS A CHRISTIAN?

_Ella Wheeler Wilcox_

"Who is a Christian in this Christian land
Of many churches and of lofty spires?
Not he who sits in soft, upholstered pews
Bought by the profits of unholy greed,
And looks devotion while he thinks of gain.

Not he who sends petitions from the lips
That lie to-morrow in the street and mart.
Not he who fattens on another's toil,
And flings his unearned riches to the poor
Or aids the heathen with a lessened wage,
And builds cathedrals with an increased rent.

Christ, with Thy great, sweet, simple creed of love,
How must Thou weary of earth's "Christian" clans,
Who preach salvation through Thy saving blood
While planning slaughter of their fellow men.

Who is a Christian? It is one whose life
Is built on love, on kindness and on faith;
Who holds his brother as his other self;
Who toils for justice, equity and peace,
And hides no aim or purpose in his heart
That will not chord with universal good.
Though he be a pagan, heretic or Jew
That man is Christian and beloved of Christ."

SPELLING

LESSON 5

We often have two vowels used in the same syllable as a single sound, as _ou_ in _round_, _oi_ in _oil_, etc.

+A diphthong is a union of two vowels to represent a single sound different from that of either alone.+

Sometimes we have two vowels used together in a combination which is really not a diphthong for they do not unite in a different sound. Only one of the vowels is used and the other is silent as _ai_ in _rain_, _oa_ in _soap_, etc.

The most common diphthongs are:

ou as in _sound_.
ow as in _owl_.
oi as in _oil_.
oy as in _boy_.

In the spelling lesson for this week mark the words in which the combination of vowels forms a diphthong. In some of the words the combination of vowels does not form a diphthong for only one of the vowels is sounded. Draw a line through the silent letter.

+Monday+

Straight
Aisle
Search
Breadth
Defeat

+Tuesday+

Exploit
Ceiling
Height
People
Feudal

+Wednesday+

Brought
Shoulder
Group
Compound
Trouble

+Thursday+

Royal
Coarse
Course
Broad
Flower

+Friday+

Laughter
Haunted
Plaid
Invoice
Chair

+Saturday+

Guide
Build
Grieve
Sieve
Renown

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 6

Dear Comrade:

We have this week another lesson in verbs. Do not be discouraged if you do not understand it all at once. Little by little, it will grow clearer and you will master this important word.

The verb may seem involved to you, but a little application will soon make it clear. It is the most important word in the language to master. It almost seems as though the verb were a living, thinking thing. It changes outward form to accommodate itself to its subject in the number form and person form change. If it is entertaining a subject in the singular it adopts one dress; if it is entertaining a plural subject, more than one, the verb wears a different dress.

So also if the subject is the first person, the person speaking, or the second person, the person spoken to, or the third person, the person spoken of, the verb accommodates itself to the subject. The verb is the most agreeable thing for it changes its form to agree with its subject! So watch your verb and see that it agrees.

Refer constantly to your list of irregular verbs given in this lesson for we so often make mistakes in the use of these verb forms.

Then, too, the verb kindly changes its form to accommodate itself to the time of the action--action in the present, in the past, in the future--action completed before the present time--before some time past--or before some future time--and action progressing and not yet completed in the present, in the past or in the future. Then it can also change to show whether its subject is acting or being acted upon. Isn't the verb a wonderfully accommodating member of the co-operative commonwealth of words?

And can you not see hidden under all this, a marvelous development in the intellectual needs of men from the day of the savage's signs and grunts to the day when we can express such shades of meaning? This tool of expression, language, has had a wonderful evolution side by side with the evolution of the other tools by which man expresses his creative genius; from the forked stick with which man scratched the soil to the great machine-driven plow of today; from the simple threshing flail to the monster threshing machine of modern times.

There is nothing so wonderful as man's ability to express himself. Add a little to your knowledge every day and the sum total will soon surprise you.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

INFLECTION--CHANGES IN FORM

+104.+ You remember that nouns have certain changes in form to indicate changes in use. Verbs also have several changes in form to correspond with changes in their use or meaning. Notice the following sentences:

I think.
I thought.
I work.
I worked.

What is the difference in the meaning of _I think_ and _I thought_? of _I work_ and _I worked_? When we say, _I think_, or _I work_, we mean that the action is now, to-day, in the present; but when we say, _I thought_, or _I worked_, we mean that _now_ is not the time of the action, but that the action was performed sometime in the past. So we have a change in the verb form to denote _time_. The simple form of the verb, like _think_ or _work_, is used to denote _present time_. When we wish to express _past time_ we do it by changing the form of the verb. Now note the following:

} call
I, We, You, They, } send
} fall
The men } bring
} hide

} calls
He, She, It, } sends
} falls
The man } brings
} hides

Now let us write this in another way.

+Present Time+

_Singular_ _Plural_

1st person--I call. We call.
2nd person--You call. You call.

He }
3rd person She } calls. They, or } call.
It } The men }
The man }

+105.+ You notice in this table we use the expressions _first person_, _second person_, and _third person_. _I_ and _we_ indicate the person or persons speaking and are called the first person. _You_ indicates the person or persons spoken to and is called the second person. _He_, _she_, _it_, _they_, and the person or persons or things spoken of, are called the third person.

We use the word _you_ when speaking to one or more than one now-a-days. It used to be that when speaking to a single person, people said _thou_, and in speaking to two or more they said _you_. But we today have dropped the old form _thou_, and use _you_ for both singular and plural.

+106.+ Now note, in the above table, that there is only one form change in the verb, and this is in the _third person singular_. We say _I call_, _You call_, _We call_, _They_, or _The men call_, but we say _He_, or _the man calls_, in speaking of one person or thing. So we change the form of the verb with any subject which denotes the third person and the singular number. This form is made by adding _s_ to the simple form of the verb, therefore we may call it the _s-form_ because it always ends in _s_.

Remember that this _s-form_ is used to express present time with a third person, singular subject. _BE CAREFUL NOT TO USE THIS FORM WITH ANY PLURAL SUBJECT._ There is no other change in the verb form in expressing the present time in any verb, except in the verb _be_.

+107.+ This little verb _be_ is one of the most troublesome verbs in our language, and since it is used in forming verb phrases, it will be well to commit the following table to memory. Watch closely your use of this bothersome little word. Note that it has a change in form for the _first person singular_, as well as for the third person singular. All other verbs have just the one change, the _s-form_ for the third person singular. The verb _be_ has a form also to use with the first person singular, the pronoun _I_.

+Present Time+ +Past Time+

_Singular_ _Singular_

1. I am. 1. I was.
2. You are. 2. You were.
3. He is. 3. He was.

_Plural_ _Plural_

1. We are. 1. We were.
2. You are. 2. You were.
3. They are. 3. They were.

+108.+ +The present time form is the form which expresses present time. It is expressed by the simple form of the verb with the exception of the third person singular, which is expressed by the _s-form_.+

PAST TIME

+109.+ To express _past time_ we change the form of the verb. Notice the following:

I } called We } called
She } sent You } sent
He } fell They } fell
It } brought The men } brought
The man } hid } hid

Notice that these various forms of the verb which express past time are all made by changes from the simple form, which expresses present time. You will also notice that these five verbs used in the above table all form their past time form in different ways. For example, _call_ adds _ed_; _send_ changes the final letter from _d_ to _t_; _fall_ changes the vowel in the middle of the word from _a_ to _e_; _bring_ changes both the vowel and the final letter from _bring_ to _brought_; _hide_ drops the final letter _e_.

+110.+ +Verbs whose past time forms are made by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the simple form are called regular verbs.+

+Verbs whose past time forms are made in some other way than by adding _d_ or _ed_ are called irregular verbs.+

+111.+ There are about two hundred of these irregular verbs which form their past time in the following ways:

1. By change in the vowel letter, as _fall_, _fell_; _write_, _wrote_; _see_, _saw_; _sing_, _sang_; _come_, _came_.

2. By dropping the final vowel; as _hide_, _hid_; _slide_, _slid_; _bite_, _bit_.

3. By dropping a vowel from the middle of the word; as _bleed_, _bled_; _feed_, _fed_; _lead_, _led_.

4. By changing the final letter or letters; as _send_, _sent_; _lose_, _lost_; _spend_, _spent_.

5. By changing the vowel and final letters; as _bring_, _brought_; _seek_, _sought_; _catch_, _caught_.

6. By changing the vowel sound and adding _t_ or _d_; as _sleep_, _slept_; _feel_, _felt_; _flee_, _fled_.

There are some irregular forms which we must learn and be exceedingly careful in their use. Study the list in this lesson.

Exercise 1

Write the _present_ and _past_ time forms of the following verbs as the verb _think_ is written in the table given below.

think
ride
have
give
write
ask
make
try
speak
run
see
do

+Present Time+ +Past Time+

_Singular_ _Singular_

1. I think 1. I thought
2. You think 2. You thought
3. He thinks 3. He thought

_Plural_ _Plural_

1. We think 1. We thought
2. You think 2. You thought
3. They think 3. They thought

+112.+ Be very careful not to use the _s-form_ except for the third person singular. Be especially careful in the use of different forms of the verb _be_. It is in the use of this verb that we so frequently make mistakes. Watch your own language and the conversation of your friends and note these mistakes and correct them in your own mind. These common blunders in the use of English mark us as careless or uneducated by everyone who hears us speak. We have fallen into bad habits oftentimes and make these mistakes when we know better, and only constant watchfulness for a time can overcome the habit. After a time we learn to speak correctly without effort, and then these mistakes made by others offend the ear like a false note in music.

Exercise 2

Cross out the wrong form in the following:

They _was_--_were_ not here.
The clouds _has_--_have_ gathered.
People _is_--_are_ indifferent.
The train _was_--_were_ on time.
The men _was_--_were_ armed.
Our school building _is_--_are_ inadequate.
The workers _earn_--_earns_ their wages.
The voters _elect_--_elects_ the President.
They _do_--_does_ as they please.
We _was_--_were_ there on time.

DOING DOUBLE WORK

+113.+ We have found now three forms of the verb, the _simple form_, the _s-form_, and the _past time form_, and, in addition, the _I-form_, or the first person form of the verb _be_. There are no other real verb forms, but there are two other changes made in the form of the verb when it ceases to be used as the predicate, the asserting word of the sentence, and becomes, in part, another part of speech.

Notice in the following sentences:

Making shoes is his work.
He enjoys making shoes.

In each of these sentences the word _making_, from the verb _make_, is used as a noun. In the first, _Making shoes is his work_, _making_ is used as the subject of the sentence. In the second, _He enjoys making shoes_, _making_ is used as the object of the verb _enjoys_. But _making_ is not like the ordinary noun, for it has an object _making_--_what?_--_making shoes_. _Shoes_ is the object of the action expressed in _making_. A noun never takes an object; so while the word _making_ is used as a noun, it is also partly a verb. It is a form of the verb used as a noun, but keeping in part its verb nature, partaking of the nature of two parts of speech at the same time.

Hence these forms of the verb are called _participles_. Participle means _partaker_.

The participle may also be used as an adjective. Notice the following:

The _crying_ child came toward us.
The _rescuing_ party arrived.

In these sentences _crying_ and _rescuing_ are formed from the verbs _cry_ and _rescue_, and are used as adjectives to describe the noun _child_ and the noun _party_. So a participle is a mixed part of speech. It is partially a verb, but is not a true verb. A true verb is always used as the predicate, the asserting word in the sentence and _always_ has a subject. The participle _never_ has a subject; it may have an object, but not a subject.

+114.+ There are two forms of the participle. The active form or the present form as it is sometimes called, ends in _ing_, as, _waiting_, _walking_, _saying_. It expresses action, existence, or possession as going on at the time mentioned in the sentence.

+115.+ The other form of the participle is the passive form or the past form of the participle. This ends in _ed_ in the regular verbs, and has various forms in the irregular verbs. It is formed in regular verbs by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the simple form, hence has the same form as the past time form, as for example, present time form, _call_--past time form, _called_--past participle, _called_. You will find the past participle forms of irregular verbs in the list of irregular verbs given in this lesson, as for example--present time form, _go_--past time form, _went_--past participle, _gone_.

+116.+ You will find as we study the verb phrases in later lessons that these participles are used in forming verb phrases. As for example:

He is coming.
They are trying.
He has gone.

+A participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature of a verb and also of an adjective or a noun.+

LET US SUM UP

+117.+ +Verbs have five form changes.+

Simple S-Form Past Time Present Part. Past Part.

call calls called calling called

go goes went going gone

Exercise 3

Write in columns like the above the five forms of the following verbs:

do
try
give
hope
live
rob
have
think
sing
get
wave
lose
come
make

Exercise 4

Study carefully the following quotation. You will find in it all five of the form changes of the verb--_the present time form_, _the s-form_, _the past time form_, _the present participle_ and _the past participle_. In the verb phrases _had been filled_, _has survived_, _has gone_, _has proved_ and _be dismayed_, you will find the past participle used in forming the verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases in later lessons.

In the verb phrases, _was stumbling_, _was groping_, _is conquering_, _are carrying_, the present participle is used in forming the verb phrases. _Could reconcile_ is also a verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases also in later lessons.

The present participles, _struggling_, _persevering_ and _regaining_ are used as adjectives. Study them carefully and find the words which they describe. The present participles _imagining_, _learning_ and _suffering_ are used as nouns. Note their use.

The past participles _rebuffed_, _self-reproached_, _discouraged_ and _promised_ are used as adjectives. Find the words which they modify. There are several _present time forms_, several _past time forms_, and several _s-forms_. Find them and study carefully their usage.

OUT OF THE DARK

_By Helen Keller_

_America's famous blind girl, who has come to see more than most
people with normal eyes._

Step by step my investigation of blindness _led_ me into the
industrial world. And what a world it _is_. I _faced_ unflinchingly a
world of facts--a world of misery and degradation, of blindness,
crookedness, and sin, a world _struggling_ against the elements,
against the unknown, against itself. How _could_ I _reconcile_ this
world of fact with the bright world of my _imagining_? My darkness
_had been filled_ with the light of intelligence, and, _behold_, the
outer day-lit world _was stumbling_, _was groping_ in social
blindness. At first, I _was_ most unhappy, but deeper study _restored_
my confidence. By _learning_ the _suffering_ and burdens of men, I
_became_ aware as never before of the life-power which _has survived_
the forces of darkness--the power which, though never completely
victorious, _is_ continuously _conquering_. The very fact that we
_are_ still carrying on the contest against the hosts of annihilation
_proves_ that on the whole the battle _has gone_ for humanity. The
world's great heart _has proved_ equal to the prodigious undertaking
which God _set_ it. _Rebuffed_, but always _persevering_;
_self-reproached_, but ever _regaining_ faith; undaunted, tenacious,
the heart of man _labors_ towards immeasurably distant goals.
_Discouraged_ not by difficulties without, or the anguish of ages
within, the heart _listens_ to a secret voice that _whispers_: "_Be_
not _dismayed_; in the future _lies_ the _Promised_ Land."

List of Irregular Verbs

Here is a list of the principal irregular verbs--the present and past time forms and the past participle are called the principal parts of a verb.

(Those marked with an _r_ have also the regular form.)

+Present T.+ +Past T.+ +Past Part.+

abide abode abode
arise arose arisen
awake awoke, _r_ awaked
be or am was been
bear bore borne
beat beat beaten
begin began begun
bend bent, _r_ bent, _r_
bereave bereft, _r_ bereft, _r_
beseech besought besought
bet bet bet
bid bid or bade bid (den)
bind bound bound
bite bit bit (ten)
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
build built, _r_ built, _r_
burn burnt, _r_ burnt, _r_
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
chide chid chid (den)
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
clothe clad, _r_ clad, _r_
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
cut cut cut
deal dealt, _r_ dealt, _r_
dig dug, _r_ dug, _r_
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt, _r_ dreamt, _r_
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
dwell dwelt, _r_ dwelt, _r_
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
get got got (ten)
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hang hung, _r_ hung, _r_
have had had
hear heard heard
hew hewed hewn, _r_
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
kneel knelt, _r_ knelt, _r_
knit knit, _r_ knit, _r_
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
light lit, _r_ lit, _r_
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
mistake mistook mistaken
mow mowed mown, _r_
pay paid paid
plead pled, _r_ pled, _r_
put put put
quit quit, _r_ quit, _r_
read read read
rend rent rent
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
saw sawed sawn, _r_
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
shake shook shaken
shape shaped shapen, _r_
shave shaved shaven, _r_
shear sheared shorn, _r_
shed shed shed
shine shone, _r_ shone, _r_
shoe shod shod
shoot shot shot
show showed shown, _r_
shrink shrank shrunk (en)
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
slay slew slain
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid (en)
sling slung slung
slink slunk slunk
slit slit slit
smite smote smitten
sow sowed sown, _r_
speak spoke spoken
speed sped sped
spend spent spent
spill spilt, _r_ spilt, _r_
spin spun spun
spit spit spit
split split split
spoil spoilt, _r_ spoilt, _r_
spread spread spread
spring sprang sprung
stand stood stood
stave stove, _r_ stove, _r_
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stunk stunk
strike struck struck
strike struck stricken
stride strode stridden
string strung strung
strive strove striven
strew strewed strewn, _r_
swear sworn sworn
sweat sweat, _r_ sweat, _r_
sweep swept swept
swell swelled swollen, _r_
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trod (den)
wake woke, _r_ woke, _r_
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wed wed, _r_ wed, _r_
weep wept wept
wet wet, _r_ wet, _r_
whet whet, _r_ whet, _r_
win won won
wind wound wound
work wrought, _r_ wrought, _r_
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written

SPELLING

LESSON 6

Every vowel or every vowel combination pronounced as one vowel sound indicates a syllable (excepting final _e_ in such words as _fate_, _late_, _rode_, etc.) Take the word _combination_, for example. In this word we have four syllables, thus: _Com-bi-na-tion_.

+A syllable is that part of a word which can be uttered distinctly by a single effort of the voice.+ Remember that each syllable must contain a vowel or a vowel combination like _oi_ or _ou_, which is pronounced as one vowel. Sometimes the vowel alone makes the syllable as in _a-lone_, _e-qual_, etc. The final _e_ in words like _late_, and _fate_ is not sounded. It is silent, we say.

All words ending in silent _e_ have the long vowel sound, with a very few exceptions. Words without the final _e_ have the short vowel sound as for example: _fate_, _fat_; _mate_, _mat_; _hide_, _hid_; _rode_, _rod_.

In dividing words into syllables the consonant is written with the preceding vowel when that vowel is short. If the vowel is long the consonant is written with the next syllable, as for example, de-fine and def-i-ni-tion. In de-fine the _e_ is long therefore _f_, the consonant following, is written with the next syllable, _fine_. In def-i-ni-tion the _e_ has the short sound, therefore the _f_ is written with the _e_ in the syllable, _def_.

When there are two consonants following the vowel, divide between the consonants, as for example, _in-ven-tion_, _foun-da-tion_, etc. Never divide a digraph, that is, two consonants which are sounded together as one sound, as for example, _moth-er_, _catch-er_, _te-leg-ra-pher_, etc.

In writing words containing double consonants like _dd_, _ll_, _ss_, divide the word into syllables between the double consonants, as for example, _per-mit-ted_, _ad-mis-sion_, _sad-dest_, etc.

+Monday+

Important
Accommodate
Person
Correspond
Action

+Tuesday+

Difference
Notice
Indicate
Remember
Irregular

+Wednesday+

Mistake
Conversation
Correctly
President
Ordinary

+Thursday+

Participle
Passive
Various
Phrase
Quotation

+Friday+

Imagine
Confidence
Humanity
Faith
Future

+Saturday+

Whisper
Thought
Ability
Knowledge
Genius

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 7

Dear Comrade:

I wonder if you have ever thought as to how our language grew.

We get the words in our language from many sources. The English language today is a development of the early Anglo-Saxon. England was called originally Angle-land which was gradually shortened into England. So we have in our language what are called pure English or Anglo-Saxon words. These words form the bulk of our every day vocabulary, being simple, strong, forceful words. Then we have in our English many foreign words which we have adopted from other languages. There are many Latin and Greek words; these we use in our more elegant speech or writing.

There is an interesting bit written by Sir Walter Scott in his novel of early England, "Ivanhoe," which illustrates the manner in which words have come into our language and also the difference in speech which marks the working class and the exploiting class. As those who do the work of the world rid themselves of the parasites who have appropriated the produce of their labor, through the ages, they will demand that which belongs to them--the best--the best in language as in everything else.

"'... I advise thee to call off Fangs and leave the herd to their
destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of traveling soldiers, or
of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be little else than to be
converted into Normans before morning, to thy no small ease and
comfort.'

"'The swine turned into Normans to my comfort!' quoth Gurth. 'Expound
that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull and my mind too vexed to
read riddles.'

"'Why, how call you these grunting brutes running about on their four
legs?' demanded Wamba.

"'Swine, fool, swine,' said the herd; 'every fool knows that.'

"'And swine is good Saxon,' said the jester; 'but how call you the sow
when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung by the heels
like a traitor?'

"'Pork,' answered the swineherd.

"'I am glad every fool knows that too,' said Wamba; 'and pork, I
think, is good Norman-French, and so when the brute lives and is in
charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a
Norman and is called pork when she is carried to the castle-hall to
feast among the nobles. What dost thou think of that, friend Gurth,
ha?' ..."

So you see even in words the distinction is made between those who produce and those who possess.

But the day is at hand when those who work shall also enjoy. We have fought for religious and political freedom. Today we are waging the battle for industrial freedom. It is _your_ struggle. Study--prepare yourself to do battle for your rights.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

FUTURE TIME

+118.+ We have learned how to express present time and past time, by changes in the form of the verb. But we very often desire to make a statement in which we do not express either present or past time, thus we may say:

We shall enjoy our rights some day.
He will join us in the struggle.

We do not mean to say that we do enjoy our rights now, in the present, or that we did in the past, but that we _shall_ enjoy our rights some time in the future. In the second sentence, _will join_ expresses the same idea of future time. To indicate future time, we do not make a change in the verb form, but we use _shall_ and _will_ with the simple form of the verb.

+119.+ +We denote future time by use of a verb phrase made by placing _shall_ or _will_ before the simple form of the verb.+

+120.+ The rule of some grammarians is to use _shall_ always in the first person, the person speaking, to denote future time, and _will_ with the second person, the person spoken to, and with the third person, the person spoken of, to denote future time. But common usage does not always follow the rules of the grammarians, and, in the course of time, affects and changes these rules. So our common usage of today uses _will_ in the first person to express future time, as well as _shall_.

This rule of grammarians marks a nicety of speech and conveys a distinction of meaning which it really seems worth while to retain. The idea of the grammarians is that when we use _will_ with the first person and _shall_ with the second or third person, we express a _promise_ or _determination_. Thus if I say, _I shall go_, I simply mean that my going will be in the future. But if I say, _I will go_, I either mean that I am promising to go or that I am expressing my determination to go. So also if we use _shall_ in the second and third persons. If we say, _You will go_ or _He will go_, we are simply stating that the going will be in the future, but if we say, _You shall go_, or _He shall go_, we mean that we promise or are determined that you or he shall go.

To be technically correct this distinction should be observed. _Shall_ in the first person, and _will_ in the second and third express simple futurity. _Will_ in the first person and _shall_ in the second and third express promise or determination. But in every day conversation this distinction is not observed, and many of our best writers do not follow this rule.

Exercise 1

Mark the future time forms in the following sentences:

1. I shall speak of liberty.
2. I will never give up.
3. I shall write to him.
4. He shall not starve.
5. We shall expect you.
6. They shall suffer for this.
7. I shall go to New York.
8. He will call for me.
9. The hungry shall be fed.
10. You will soon see the reason.
11. You shall never want for a friend.
12. They shall some day see the truth.
13. We will not fight against our class.
14. We will stand together.

PERFECT TIME

+121.+ Past, present and future, being the three divisions of time, one would naturally expect that when we had found how to express these three forms, we would be through, but if you stop to think, you will find that there are other verb phrases of which we have need.

When we wish to speak of action as completed at the present time, we do not say:

I study my lessons every day, _but_, I have studied my lessons every
day.
_Not_, You work for him every day, _but_, You have worked for him
every day.
_Not_, He sees her frequently, _but_, He has seen her frequently.

Can you not readily see the difference in the meaning expressed in _I work every day_, and _I have worked every day_? In the first sentence you express a general truth, _I work every day_, a truth which has been true in the past, is true in the present, and the implication is that it will continue to be true in the future. But when you say, _I have worked every day_, you are saying nothing as to the future, but you are describing an action which is completed at the present time. This is called the _present complete_ or _present perfect_ time.

+122.+ Perfect means complete, and present perfect describes an action perfected or completed at the present time. So it is possible for us to express a necessary shade of meaning by the present perfect time form.

+123.+ +The present perfect time form describes an action completed at the present time, and is formed by using the present time form of _have_ and the _past_ participle of the verb.+

+Present Perfect Time+

_Singular_ _Plural_

1st. I have seen. We have seen.
2d. You have seen. You have seen.
3d. He has seen. They have seen.

+124.+ Review in the last lesson how to form the past participle. Remember that it is one of the principal parts of the verb. In regular verbs the past participle is the same form as the past time form. In irregular verbs the past participle is quite often different from the past time form, as for example: _go_, _went_, _gone_; _do_, _did_, _done_, etc.

Watch closely your irregular verbs and see that you always use the past _participle_ with _have_ or _had_; never use the past _time_ form with _have_ or _had_.

PAST PERFECT

+125.+ When you desire to express an action complete at some definite past time, you do not say:

We finished when they came, _but_, We had finished when they came.
_Not_, They went when we arrived, _but_, They had gone when we
arrived.
_Not_, I worked six months when he began, _but_, I had worked six
months when he began.

Can you see a difference in the meaning expressed in these sentences: _I worked six months when he began_; and _I had worked six months when he began_? This last sentence describes an action completed or perfected before some definite past time.

+126.+ +Past perfect time denotes an action perfected or completed at some definite past time. It is formed by using _had_ and the past participle of the verb.+

Remember always, with irregular verbs, to use the _past participle_. Never use the _past time form_ with _had_.

+Past Perfect Time+

_Singular_ _Plural_

1st. I had seen. We had seen.
2d. You had seen. You had seen.
3d. He had seen. They had seen.

Exercise 2

Correct the following sentences in which the past time form is used instead of the past participle. Look up the word in the list of irregular verbs and use the past participle instead of the past time form.

1. I have saw it often.
2. He had shook his fist.
3. She has sang for us.
4. The boat has sank here.
5. He has spoke the truth.
6. They had stole the books.
7. He has swore to the truth.
8. He had took the wrong road.
9. She has tore her dress.
10. He had threw the ball away.
11. The girl had wore the dress.
12. He had wrote the letters.
13. He had drank too much.
14. He had rode the horse.
15. The sun has rose.
16. He has bore his part.
17. They have began already.
18. The wind has blew all night.
19. It had broke when it fell.
20. He has chose the right.
21. You have did your duty.
22. He has ate his breakfast.
23. A heavy rain has fell.
24. They had gave it to me.
25. He has became rich.
26. It has grew rapidly.
27. He has knew it always.
28. He has mistook her for another.

FUTURE PERFECT TIME

+127.+ We find also that we need a verb phrase to express time _before_ some other future time, to describe an action that will be finished, perfected, or completed, before some other future action. Thus,

I shall have gone before you arrive.
You will have earned your money before you get it.
I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes.

Can you not see a difference in saying, _I shall work thirty days when pay-day comes_, and _I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes_? The first sentence expresses simple future time, or what you will do when pay-day comes; the second describes an action which will be completed or perfected _before_ pay-day comes. So there is quite a difference in the meaning of the future and the future perfect time.

+128.+ +The future perfect time form expresses or describes an action that will be perfected or completed before some other future time. It is formed by using _shall have_ or _will have_ with the past participle.+

Be careful to use the past participle. Never use the past time form with _shall have_ or _will have_.

+Future Perfect Time+

_Singular_ _Plural_

1st. I shall have seen. We shall have seen.
2d. You will have seen. You will have seen.
3d. He will have seen. They will have seen.

LET US SUM UP

+129.+ We have three time forms, _present_, _past_, _future_.

+Present+ +Past+ +Future+

I see I saw I shall see.

Each of these three time forms has a _perfect_ form; that is, a time form which expresses an action as completed or perfected at the present time, or before some definite past or future time.

+Present+ +Past+ +Future+
+Perfect Time+ +Perfect Time+ +Perfect Time+

I have seen I had seen I shall have seen

+130.+ It is wonderful how a knowledge of words and their uses enables us to express so many shades of meaning. It is like our development in observing colors. You know the savage always admires vivid reds and greens and blues. He does not yet see the beautiful shades and gradations of color. We enjoy the delicate pinks and blues and all the varying shades between the primal seven colors of the spectrum. And as we develop our artistic ability we see and enjoy all the beauties of color.

In music too, we observe the same development. The barbarian enjoys loud, crashing, discordant sounds which he calls music, but which to the educated ear are only harsh noises. The trained musician catches the delicate overtones and undertones and finds deepest ecstasy in sounds which the uneducated ear does not even catch. So as we study words and their uses, we find ourselves able to express shades of meaning, to paint our word pictures, not in gaudy, glaring chromo-tints, but in the wondrous blending of color that reveals the true artist.

Now get these modes of expressing time firmly fixed in your mind.

+131.+ +Let us get all we have learned about verbs into a summary and have it clearly in mind.+

VERBS--SUMMARY

+Two Classes+

_Complete_--Taking _no_ complement.

_Incomplete_--{ Verbs of action requiring object.
{ Copulative verbs requiring complement.

+Inflection--Changes of Form+

_Simple Form_ _S-Form_ _Past Time_ _Present Part._ _Past Part._
see sees saw seeing seen

TIME FORMS

Present

_Singular_ _Plural_

1. I see. We see.
2. You see. You see.
3. He sees. They see.

Past

_Singular_ _Plural_

1. I saw. We saw.
2. You saw. You saw.
3. He saw. They saw.

Future

_Singular_ _Plural_

1. I shall see. We shall see.
2. You will see. You will see.
3. He will see. They will see.

Present Perfect

_Singular_ _Plural_

1. I have seen. We have seen.
2. You have seen. You have seen.
3. He has seen. They have seen.

Past Perfect

_Singular_ _Plural_

1. I had seen. We had seen.
2. You had seen. You had seen.
3. He had seen. They had seen.

Future Perfect

_Singular_ _Plural_

1. I shall have seen. We shall have seen.
2. You will have seen. You will have seen.
3. He will have seen. They will have seen.

Exercise 3

Read carefully the following quotation. All of the verbs and verb phrases are written in _italics_. Study these carefully and decide whether they indicate present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or future perfect time. The verb phrases--_is seizing_, _is put_, _is praised_, _is defended_, _can see_, _must have_, _are owned_, and _are conducted_, do not belong to any of these six forms. They are verb phrases used in ways which we shall study later. All of the other verbs or verb phrases belong to one of the six time forms which we have studied. Classify them.

The Working Class Must Strike the Blow

You _remember_ Victor Hugo's story of the devil-fish; how the monster
_put_ forth one tentacle after another and _coiled_ it around his
victim; how the hero _recalled_ that there _was_ but one vulnerable
spot in his brute enemy; how at the strategic moment he _struck_ a
blow at that spot, and the terrible demon of the deep _shuddered_,
_released_ his grasp and _fell_ dead.

Capitalism _is_ a monster which _is seizing_ the body politic. One
tentacle _is put_ forth to grasp the major part of the earnings of the
working class; another _has seized_ the working-woman; another
_reaches_ forth to the child; another _has fastened_ upon government
and _has made_ that the instrument of the powerful classes; still
another _has turned_ the pen of the journalist into a weapon by which
the injustice of Capitalism _is praised_ and _is defended_; and still
another _has seized_ the pulpit, _has silenced_ those who _profess_ to
speak for God and man, or _has turned_ their phrases into open apology
and defense for the crimes of Capitalism!

But there _is_ one vulnerable spot in Capitalism. If the working class
of the world _can see_ that spot and _will strike_, they _shall be_
free.

The fundamental wrong, the basic injustice of the Capitalist System,
_is_ that the resources of land and machinery, to which all the people
_must have_ access, in order to live and labor, _are owned_ by the few
and _are conducted_ by the few for their private profit.

This _is_ the social tragedy, the monstrous wrong of our time.--_J.
Stitt Wilson_.

Exercise 4

Select two verbs out of the following poem and write their six time forms, in the same manner as the time forms of the verb _see_ are given in section 131.

A MAGIC WORD

There's a little word below, with letters three,
Which, if you only grasp its potency,
Will send you higher
Toward the goal where you aspire,
Which, without its precious aid, you'll never see--
_NOW!_

Success attends the man who views it right.
Its back and forward meanings differ quite;
For this is how it reads
To the man of ready deeds,
Who spells it backwards from achievement's height--
_WON!_

TENSE

The grammatical term for the time form of the verb is _TENSE_, which is derived from a Latin word meaning _time_. The present time-form of the verb is called the _present tense_; the past time-form, the _past tense_; the future time-form, the _future tense_; the present perfect time-form, the _present perfect tense_, etc.

Exercise 5

Write each of the following four sentences in the six time-forms, or tenses,--present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect and future perfect, as follows:

_Present_--Labor _creates_ all wealth.
_Past_--Labor _created_ all wealth.
_Future_--Labor _will create_ all wealth.
_Present Perfect_--Labor _has created_ all wealth.
_Past Perfect_--Labor _had created_ all wealth.
_Future Perfect_--Labor _will have created_ all wealth.

1. Hope stirs us to action.
2. Human progress is our business.
3. The majority demand justice.
4. The workers fight all the battles.

SPELLING

LESSON 7

The division of words into syllables is quite important as an aid to pronunciation. It is also a very important matter to understand in our written speech for it is often necessary to divide a word at the end of a line. If the word is not properly divided, it is much more difficult to read and understand. The hyphen is used to divide words into syllables when carrying a portion to the next line.

When you must divide a word at the end of a line divide it only between syllables. Never divide a word of one syllable, no matter how long it may be. If you cannot get all of it on the line, write it all on the next line. Do not divide a short word of two syllables if you can avoid it and never divide such a word when it leaves only one letter on the line or only one letter to be carried over to the next line, as for example: _luck-y_, _a-loud_, etc.

When two or more vowels are used together to make one sound they should never be separated by the hyphen, as for example, joy-ous, anx-ious, trail, dis-course, de-feat, boor-ish.

When two or more vowels placed together are not used to form one sound then these vowels may be divided, as for example, _tri-al_, _co-or-di-nate_, _he-ro-ic_.

Look up the words in this week's lesson in the dictionary carefully and divide into syllables. Notice specially the division of words into syllables where the word contains a diphthong and where it contains two vowels written together which are not diphthongs. Notice also the words which have a single vowel as the first or last syllable.

+Monday+

Museum
Creatures
Peaceable
Accruing
Already

+Tuesday+

Persuade
Trivial
Plague
Alert
Inquiry

+Wednesday+

Piteous
Patriot
Poetry
Evil
Business

+Thursday+

Obey
Breathe
Society
Ether
Sociable

+Friday+

Idealism
Pledge
Ache
Acre
Pronunciation

+Saturday+

Idle
Idol
Mutual
Wealthy
Neighbors

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 8

Dear Comrade:

You have often read the words _organic_ and _inorganic_ but did you ever stop to think of the meaning of these words? We say a body is organic--a rock is inorganic; one grows from within, the other is built from without. A tree is organic; it grows. A house is inorganic; it is built. The house was never a baby house, growing from a tiny house to a large one. But the tree was once a baby tree, a sapling, and grew branch by branch to its present height. So we have two classes of things--those which grow and those which are made.

Language belongs to the class of things which grows. It is organic. We have even used the same terms in speaking about language that we use in talking of a tree. We use the words ROOT, STEM and BRANCH to describe its growth.

Language, too, has its different terms of life like a tree, its youth, its maturity, its old age, its death.

So we have dead languages like Latin and Greek--languages which are no longer living,--no longer serving mankind. But these dead languages have left living children, languages that have descended from them.

The Italian language for example is the child, the descendant of the classical Latin. We have many words in our English language from these dead languages. About five-sevenths of the words in our English are from these classical languages. The remaining two-sevenths are from the Anglo-Saxon. We use the Anglo-Saxon words more frequently, however, in our every day speech.

And it is interesting to note that our best poetry--that which stirs our blood and touches our hearts--is written in the strong forceful Anglo-Saxon words.

These words we are studying have been through some interesting experiences as they have passed from race to race down to us and the history of life is mirrored in their changes. How much more interesting they seem when we know something of their sources, just as we are more interested in a man when we know something of his boyhood and youth and the experiences through which he has passed.

You may think that the study of verbs is rather difficult and involved, but it is more simple in English than in any other language. There are fewer changes in the verb form in order to express time and person. Do not rely on the memorizing of the rules. Rules never made one a fluent speaker. Write sentences in which the correct form is used. Read aloud from the best authors until the sound of the words is familiar and they come readily to the tongue. We have used for the exercises in these lessons excerpts from the best authors.

Study these exercises carefully and note the use of the different verbs especially, this week. Verbs, like all else, are yours to command. Command them.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PROGRESSIVE VERB PHRASES

+132.+ We have learned how to form the three principal time forms, _present_, _past_ and _future_ and the perfect or completed form of each of the three, _present perfect_, _past perfect_ and _future perfect_. And still we have such a wonderful language that we can express other shades of meaning in _time_.

+133.+ There is still another phase of action which we must have a verb phrase to express. Suppose you want to describe something you are now doing and are continuing to do, something not yet completed. To say, _I do it now_, is not satisfactory. Instead we say, _I am doing it now_.

You have by the verb phrase, _am doing_, described a progressive action, an action _going on_ in the present. You may also want to describe what you were doing yesterday, an action that continued or _progressed_ in the past. You would not say, _I built the house yesterday_ but, _I was building the house yesterday_. Again you may want to describe an action which will be _progressing_ or going on in the future. You do not say, _I shall build the house next week_ but, _I shall be building the house next week_.

So we have progressive verb phrases.

+134.+ +The present progressive describes an action as continuing or progressing in the present.+

+It is formed by using the present time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+

You remember that the present participle is formed by adding _ing_ to the simple form of the verb.

Present Progressive

_Singular_ _Plural_

1st. I am seeing. We are seeing.
2d. You are seeing. You are seeing.
3d. He is seeing. They are seeing.

+135.+ +The past progressive time form describes an action which was continuing or progressing in the past. It is formed by using the past time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+

Past Progressive

_Singular_ _Plural_

1st. I was seeing. We were seeing.
2d. You were seeing. You were seeing.
3d. He was seeing. They were seeing.

+136.+ +The future progressive describes an action which will be progressing or going on in the future. It is formed by using the future time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+

Future Progressive

_Singular_ _Plural_

1st. I shall be seeing. We shall be seeing.
2d. You will be seeing. You will be seeing.
3d. He will be seeing. They will be seeing.

+137.+ The perfect time forms also have a progressive form. There is a difference of meaning in the _present perfect_ and its progressive form. You say for instance, _I have tried all my life to be free_. You mean you have tried until the present time and the inference is that now you have ceased to try. But, if you say, _I have been trying all my life to be free_, we understand that you have tried and are _still_ trying.

+138.+ +So we have the present perfect progressive which describes an action which progressed in the past and continued up to the present time. It is formed by using the present perfect form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+

Present Perfect Progressive

_Singular_ _Plural_

1st. I have been seeing. We have been seeing.
2d. You have been seeing. You have been seeing.
3d. He has been seeing. They have been seeing.

+139.+ +The past perfect progressive describes an action which was continuing or progressing at some past time. It is formed by using the past perfect time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+

Past Perfect Progressive

_Singular_ _Plural_

1st. I had been seeing. We had been seeing.
2d. You had been seeing. You had been seeing.
3d. He had been seeing. They had been seeing.