Chapter II (5)

The use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and involved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note the authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use short and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our thoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many ideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas concisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially these subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses in one sentence.

Notice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences. Notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to read. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression.

Especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly and simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is conducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are apt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author through long, winding, involved passages.

In the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your conclusion.

Conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and short, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

+347.+ We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or clause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main clauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses. Subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only dependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following sentences:

He came _quickly_.
He came _on time_.
He came _when he was called_.

In the first sentence the word _quickly_ is an adverb modifying the verb _came_ and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. In the second sentence, the phrase _on time_ is an adverb phrase modifying the verb _came_, and answers the question _when_. It tells _when_ he came. In the third sentence, the clause _when he was called_, also answers the question _when_, and tells _when_ he came. Therefore, it is a clause used as an adverb. It is different from the phrase _on time_, for the phrase _on time_ does not contain a subject and a predicate.

+348.+ The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the clause _always_ contains both a subject and a predicate. So in the clause, _when he was called_, _he_ is the subject and _was called_ is the predicate, and _when_ is the subordinate conjunction, which connects this adverb clause to the verb _came_, which it modifies. The clause _he came_, and the clause _when he was called_, are not of equal rank and importance, because the clause, _when he was called_, simply modifies the verb contained in the clause _he came_, by describing the _time_ of the action expressed in the verb _came_. So the clause, _when he was called_, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called subordinate conjunctions.

+349.+ +A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.+

CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

+350.+ Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses. These clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs. They will tell _how_, _when_, _where_ or _why_ the action expressed in the verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb clauses. They introduce:

+351.+ +Adverb clause of time.+ These clauses will answer the question _when_ and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _before_, _since_, _as_, _while_, _until_, _when_, _after_ and _as soon as_. Notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions:

We waited _until_ you came.
We waited _after_ you came.
We waited _as_ you came.
We waited _before_ you came.
We waited _since_ you came.
We left _while_ you were gone.
We left _when_ you were gone.
We left _as soon as_ you were gone.

+352.+ +Adverb clause of place.+ These answer the question _where_, and are introduced by the conjunctions, _where_, _whence_, _whither_.

I will go _where_ you go.
The wind blows _whither_ it listeth.
He went _whence_ he came.

+353.+ +Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason.+ These will answer the question _why_. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _because_, _for_, _since_, _as_, _whereas_, _inasmuch as_, etc.

Note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed by the use of different conjunctions:

I will come _because_ you expect me.
I will come _since_ you expect me.
I will come _as_ you expect me.
I will come _for_ you expect me.
I will come _inasmuch as_ you expect me.

+354.+ +Adverb clauses of manner.+ These clauses will answer the question _how_, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _as_, _as if_, _as though_, etc.

Study _as though_ you were in earnest.
Come _as if_ you had been called.
Do _as_ I say, not _as_ I do.

In these clauses of _manner_, introduced by _as if_, and _as though_, _were_ is used in the present form with either singular or plural subjects. For example:

He writes as if he _were_ informed of the facts.
They talk as though they _were_ confident of success.
You act as though I _were_ your slave.

+355.+ +Adverb clauses of comparison.+ These clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions _than_ and _as_. The verbs are often omitted in these dependent clauses introduced by _than_ and _as_. For example: _He is taller than I_. The complete sentence would be: _He is taller than I am_. _He is not so tall as I._ Here the sentence would be: _He is not so tall as I am_.

When the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the proper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the verb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say: _I am not so tall as him_. The correct form is: _I am not so tall as he_. The complete sentence would be: _I am not so tall as he is_, and the pronoun should be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verb _is_, which is understood and omitted.

The use of the _subject_ or of the _object_ form may make a difference in the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say: _I admire them as much as he_. You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them. But if you say, _I admire them as much as him_, you mean that you admire them as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning!

Be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express quite a different meaning. For example, if you say, _I care more for you than he_, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if you say, _I care more for you than him_, you mean, I care more for you than I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you some time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a course in Plain English!

+356.+ +Adverb clauses of condition.+ These clauses are introduced by such conjunctions as, _if_, _provided_, _supposing_, _unless_, _except_, _otherwise_, _though_, _notwithstanding_, _albeit_, and _whether_. For example:

I will come _if_ you need me.
I will come _provided_ you need me.
I will go _notwithstanding_ you need me.
I will not go _unless_ I am called.
He will not go _except_ he is called.
He will not go _though_ he is called.
He came, _otherwise_ I would go.
He will go _whether_ you go or stay.

When subordinate clauses beginning with _if_, _though_ or _unless_ are joined to clauses containing _might_, _could_, _would_ or _should_, the verb _were_ is sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences as:

If this _were_ true, I should know it.
Unless I _were_ positive, I would not say so.
Though our leader _were_ lost, yet we would not despair.
If he _were_ here, he would explain it himself.
If I _were_ with you, I might make you understand.

Sometimes in sentences like these, _if_ is omitted in the clause, and the verb placed first. For example:

_Were_ he here, he would deny these slanders.
_Were_ he truly class-conscious, he would oppose this war.
_Were_ this fact known, the people would never submit.

These clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be decided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish. Occasionally you will find the verb _be_ used instead of _is_, in clauses of this kind introduced by _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, _lest_, etc. For example:

If it _be_ true, I will hear it.
Though he _be_ guilty, we will not desert him.

In subordinate clauses connected by _if_, _unless_, etc., with a principal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the verb is used in the subordinate clause. For example:

If they are willing, we will join them.
Unless he comes, I shall not leave.
If it rains, we will not go.

+357.+ +Adverb clauses expressing purpose.+ These are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, _that_, _in order that_ and _lest_. For example:

Take good care _that_ you understand this lesson.
I will go today _in order that_ I may meet him.
Watch these carefully _lest_ they be stolen.
Read the labor press _that_ you may know the truth.

Notice that _that_, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, means _in order that_. For example, the sentence above might read:

Read the labor press _in order that_ you may know the truth.

+358.+ +Adverb clauses expressing result.+ These are introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_, as for example:

They were so late _that_ I could not go.

SUMMARY

+359.+ We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate conjunctions expressing:

1. +Time.+ Answer the question _when_.
2. +Place.+ Answer the question _where_.
3. +Cause or reason.+ Answer the question _why_.
4. +Manner.+ Answer the question _how_.
5. +Comparison.+ Used to compare.
6. +Condition.+ Answer the question _on what condition_.
7. +Purpose.+ Answer the question _for what purpose_.
8. +Result.+ Answer the question _to what result_.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class they belong; ask the question _when_, _where_, _why_, _how_, _on what condition_, _for what purpose_, _to what result_. Underscore the subordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed in italics.

1. Speech was developed that _we_ might be able to communicate with
one another.
2. The International failed in the crisis because _it_ had no
definite war program.
3. We will fail if _we_ have no definite program.
4. If _labor_ were united, we could destroy wage slavery.
5. When the _people_ understand, they will no longer submit.
6. Labor cannot win until _it_ learns solidarity.
7. After the terrible _war_ is over, the workers in all countries may
come closer together.
8. We are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the _war_ has
been declared.
9. If _we_ knew the facts we could not be misled.
10. Inform yourself before _you_ seek to teach others.
11. We must unite in order that _we_ may possess power.
12. It is more than the _heart_ can bear.
13. May you have courage to dare ere _you_ have ceased to dream.
14. If _we_ remain ignorant, we shall remain enslaved.
15. We sometimes fear to trust our own thought because _it_ is our
own.
16. Though _we_ should lose the strike we will not despair.
17. The battle waged so fiercely that _thousands_ were slain.

PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS

+360.+ There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They are:

_As if_, _as though_, _but also_, _but likewise_, _so that_, _except that_, _inasmuch as_, _notwithstanding that_, _in order that_, _as well as_, _as far as_, _so far as_, _as little as_, _provided that_, _seeing that_, etc.

Exercise 2

Write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses.

NOUN CLAUSES

+361.+ We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal clauses and subordinate clauses.

+A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.+

+A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the principal clause.+

We have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance; neither is dependent upon the other.

Subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a subordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses.

The subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause.

+362.+ +A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.+

A noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as a possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate complement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be introduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by conjunctions. For example:

I know _who_ he is.
He asked, "_what_ do you want?"
I know _where_ it is.

In the first sentence, _who he is_, is a noun clause used as the object of the verb _know_. It tells _what_ I know, and is the object of the verb _know_,--just as if I had said; _I know the facts_. In this sentence the noun, _facts_, is the object of the verb _know_.

In the second sentence, _He asked, "what do you want?_" the noun clause _what do you want_ is the object of the verb _asked_, and is introduced by the interrogative pronoun _what_.

We will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced by relative pronouns. In this lesson we are studying the conjunctions.

In the last sentence, _I know where it is_, the noun clause _where it is_, is the object of the verb _know_, and is introduced by the conjunction _where_.

+363.+ Noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions, _where_, _when_, _whence_, _whither_, _whether_, _how_, _why_, and also by the subordinate conjunction _that_. For example:

I know _where_ I can find it.
I inquired _when_ he would arrive.
We do not know _whence_ it cometh nor whither it goeth.
Ask _whether_ the train has gone.
I don't know _how_ I can find you.
I cannot understand _why_ he does so.
I believe _that_ he is honest.

In all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the verb. Noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions. As, for example:

You do not listen to _what is said_.
He talked to me about _what had happened_.
He told me to come to _where he was_.

+364.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence. As for example:

_That he is innocent_ is admitted by all.
_That he was guilty_ has been proven.
_Why he should do this_ is very strange.
_How we are to live_ is the great problem.

In all of these sentences, the noun clause is used as the subject of the verb. You will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject of the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_. But quite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way. For example:

It is admitted by all _that he is innocent_.
It has been proven _that he was guilty_.

You will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the same thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the subject of the verb.

But now we have this little pronoun _it_ used as the subject, instead of the clause, which is the real subject of the sentence. _It_ is simply used as the introductory word in the sentence. The noun clause is in reality the subject of the sentence.

+365.+ Noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a copulative verb. For example:

The general opinion is _that he is innocent_.
The problem is _how we may accomplish this quickly_.
The question was _why any one should believe such statements_.

In all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of the incomplete verbs _is_ and _was_, to complete the meaning, just as we use a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such sentences as, _Socialism is a science._ _War is murder._

+366.+ A noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain its meaning. Apposition means to place alongside of. Note in the following sentences:

The fact, _that such a law had been passed_, alters the situation.
His motion, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, was
adopted.

In the first sentence, the clause, _that such a law had been passed_, is placed beside the noun _fact_ and explains _what_ that fact is. The clause, _that the matter should be laid on the table_, is in apposition to and explains the noun _motion_.

These noun clauses are used in apposition.

Exercise 3

Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate conjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces:

1. Can you tell......Germany has a million fighting men?
2. Would you be pleased......the United States should intervene in
Mexico?
3. The Mexican revolution will continue......the people possess the
land.
4. No one may vote in the convention......he has credentials.
5. ......Debs was in Woodstock jail, he became in Socialist.
6. ......the treaty was signed, hostilities ceased.
7. We shall win......we have the courage.
8. ......we have lost this battle we shall not cease to struggle.
9. All are enslaved......one is enslaved.
10. Humanity will be free......labor is free.
11. Let us do our duty......we understand it.
12. Man will never reach his best......he walks side by side with
woman.
13. We must struggle......we would be free.
14. ......we shout for peace, we support war.
15. All our sympathies should be with the man......toils,......we
know......labor is the foundation of all.
16. ......all have the right to think and to express their thoughts
every brain will give to all the best......it has.
17. ......man develops he places greater value upon his own rights.
18. ......man values his own rights he begins to value the rights of
others.
19. ......all men give to all others the rights......they claim for
themselves this world will be civilized.

Exercise 4

Note all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following verses from "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." Underscore the subordinate clauses. Are they adverb or noun clauses? Do the co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses?

I know not _whether_ Laws be right,
Or _whether_ Laws be wrong;
All that we know who lie in gaol
Is _that_ the wall is strong;
_And that_ each day is like a year,
A year whose days are long.

_But_ this I know, _that_ every Law
That men have made for Man,
_Since_ first Man took his brother's life,
_And_ the sad world began,
But straws the wheat _and_ saves the chaff
With a most evil fan.

This too I know--_and_ wise it were
_If_ each could know the same--
_That_ every prison that men build
Is built with bricks of shame,
_And_ bound with bars _lest_ Christ should see
_How_ men their brothers maim.

With bars they blur the gracious moon,
_And_ blind the goodly sun:
_And_ they do well to hide their Hell,
_For_ in it things are done
That son of God _nor_ son of Man
Ever should look upon!

In Reading gaol by Reading town
There is a pit of shame,
_And_ in it lies a wretched man
Eaten by teeth of flame,
In a burning winding sheet he lies,
_And_ his grave has got no name.

_And_ there, _till_ Christ call forth the dead,
In silence let him lie:
No need to waste the foolish tear,
_Or_ heave the windy sigh:
The man had killed the thing he loved,
_And so_ he had to die.

_And_ all men kill the thing they love,
By all let this be heard,
Some do it with a bitter look,
Some with a flattering word,
The coward does it with a kiss,
The brave man with a sword.

--_Oscar Wilde_.

SPELLING

LESSON 21

In Lesson No. 17 we studied concerning abstract nouns derived from qualifying adjectives. We found that we formed these nouns expressing quality from adjectives that describe quality by the addition of suffixes.

Adjectives may likewise be formed from nouns and also from verbs by the addition of suffixes. There are a number of suffixes which may be used to form adjectives in this way; as, _al_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _less_, _able_, _ible_, _ary_ and _ory_. Notice the following words: nation, _national_; peril, _perilous_; reason, _reasonable_; sense, _sensible_; custom, _customary_; advise, _advisory_; hero, _heroic_; care, _careful_, _careless_.

To some words, more than one suffix may be added and an adjective of different meaning formed; for example, use, _useless_, _useful_; care, _careless_, _careful_.

Make as many adjectives as you can from the nouns and verbs given in the spelling lesson for this week by the addition of one or more of the following suffixes:

_Al_, _less_, _ous_, _ic_, _ful_, _able_, _ible_, _ary_, _ory_, and _ly_.

+Monday+

Accident
Danger
Origin
Commend
Element

+Tuesday+

Critic
Libel
Attain
Revolution
Contradict

+Wednesday+

Cynic
Injury
Respect
Station
Migrate

+Thursday+

Event
Parent
Order
Virtue
Marvel

+Friday+

Second
Fashion
Consider
Murder
Incident

+Saturday+

Constitution
Industry
Vibrate
Tribute
Compliment

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 22

Dear Comrade:

We have practically finished the study of the different parts of speech. We are now in possession of a knowledge of the tools which we need to use in expressing ourselves. We are ready to make practical application of this knowledge in writing and speaking. We will find that with our increasing ability to express ourselves there comes also the power to think clearly. The analysis of language has meant a growing power to _think_ on the part of the people.

We sometimes imagine that simplicity of language was a part of primitive life, but this is not true. Simplicity of language is the product of high civilization. Primitive life was marked, not by simplicity of language, but by the scarcity of language. They made one word stand for an entire sentence, and if they wished to express a little different meaning, an entirely different word had to be used, as for example, in the primitive language: _I said to her_, would be one word, and _I said to him_, would be another, entirely different, word.

But as the power of thought began to develop, we began to analyze our meaning and we found that this thought was identical except the _him_ and the _her_. So as we analyzed our thought our expression of it became more simple. In most languages, the different meaning of the verb, for example, is expressed by an arbitrary change in the verb form. This is called the inflection of the verb. In English we would use several words to express the same thing. For example, the Latin word _Fuissem_ requires four English words to express the same meaning; _I should have been_, we say in English. So instead of having to learn a great number of different changes in the verb form, we, by the use of auxiliary verbs, _have_, _shall_, _do_, _be_, etc., are able to express all these shades of thought much more simply and clearly.

Most other languages also have changes for gender. Every noun has a gender of its own and sometimes this form gives the wrong gender to living beings and attributes sex to sexless objects and the only way to know the gender of the noun is simply by memory. Then the adjectives, possessive pronouns and the articles _a_ and _the_ have gender also and have to be changed to suit the gender of the noun; this involves a great effort of memory. So while the English may seem somewhat involved to you, it is, after all, much simpler than other languages. It has been freed from many superfluous endings and unnecessary complications.

Take a little time each day to read something out of the best literature. The quotations given in each of these lessons are from our very best writers. A study of these will be a wonderful help and inspiration to you and bring you in touch with some of the great thinkers of the revolution. They are our comrades and are putting into words the thoughts and hopes and dreams of our lives.

Yours for the Revolution,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

+367.+ In our study of subordinate clauses, we have studied subordinate clauses used as adverbs and as nouns. We have found that adverb clauses can be used in the same way as adverbs, to describe the time, place, manner, cause, condition or purpose of the action expressed in the verb. We have found, also, that a noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun can be used, as the subject of the sentence, the object of a verb or preposition or as the predicate complement. But these are not the only uses to which the subordinate clause may be put. Note the following sentences:

_Wealthy_ men desire to control the education of the people.
Men _of wealth_ desire to control the education of the people.
Men _who are wealthy_ desire to control the education of the people.

Do you see any difference in the words which are used to modify the noun _men_? In the first sentence, _wealthy_ is an adjective, modifying the noun _men_. In the second sentence, _of wealth_ is a prepositional phrase, used as an adjective modifying the noun _men_. In the last sentence, _who are wealthy_ is a clause used in exactly the same way that the adjective _wealthy_ and the adjective phrase _of wealth_ are used, to modify the noun _men_.

We have expressed practically the same meaning in these three ways: by a word; by a phrase; by a clause.

+368.+ +A word used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective.+

+A phrase used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective phrase.+

+A clause used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective clause.+

Note the difference between a phrase and a clause.

+369.+ A prepositional phrase, used as an adjective, consists of the preposition and the noun which is its object, together with its modifiers. A phrase never has either a subject or a predicate. _Who are wealthy_, is a clause because it does contain a subject and a predicate. The pronoun _who_ is the subject in the clause, and the predicate is the copulative verb _are_ with the predicate complement, the adjective _wealthy_.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences change the adjective into a phrase and also into a clause, if possible. For example:

A _fearless_ man always defends his rights.
A man _without fear_ always defends his rights.
A man _who is fearless_ always defends his rights.

1. The _unemployed_ men are becoming desperate.
2. The _uneducated_ masses are demanding equal opportunity.
3. The discovery of gold was an _important_ discovery.
4. _Unorganized_ labor is helpless.
5. The revolution needs _intelligent_ rebels.
6. A few _wealthy_ men are striving to control education.
7. This will be a _progressive_ movement.
8. _Labor-saving_ inventions throw men out of employment.
9. _Scientific_ men prophesy a great advance for the mass.

THE INTRODUCING WORD

+370.+ You will notice that these adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and _that_. These relative pronouns fulfil something of the office of a conjunction, because they are serving as connecting elements; they join these subordinate clauses to the words which they modify. But you will note, also, that these relative pronouns not only serve as connecting elements, but they also play a part in the subordinate clause, as either the subject or object. For example:

The man who has no education is handicapped in the struggle.
Are these the books that you ordered?

In the first sentence, _who has an education_ is an adjective clause modifying the noun _man_, introduced by the relative pronoun _who_, which is also the subject of the verb _has_.

In the second sentence, _that you ordered_ is an adjective clause, modifying the noun _books_, introduced by the relative pronoun _that_, which is also the object of the verb _ordered_.

+371.+ There is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses. If the clause is used as a noun, either as the subject or the object or in any other way in which a noun can be used, it is a noun clause. If it is used as an adverb and will answer any of the questions _why_, _when_, _where_, or _how_, etc., it is an adverb clause. If it is used as an adjective,--if it modifies a noun or pronoun,--it is an adjective clause.

You will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not have its corresponding clause is as a possessive. We do not have possessive clauses. The clause used as an adjective always modifies a noun or pronoun.

+372.+ +An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence always modifies a noun or pronoun.+

An adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns, _who_, _which_ or _that_. The use of this clause is a great help to us in the expression of our ideas, for it enables us to combine several sentences containing related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all presented to the mind at once.

Exercise 2

In the following sentences, note which are the noun clauses and which are the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses. The verb in the subordinate clause is in italics.

1. Life is what we _make_ it.
2. We acquire the strength that we _overcome_.
3. While he _slept_ the enemy came.
4. All that he _does_ is to distribute what others _produce_.
5. When faith _is lost_, when honor _dies_, the man is dead.
6. Thrice is he armed who _hath_ his quarrel just; he is naked though
he _be locked_ up in steel whose conscience with injustice is
_corrupted_.
7. When strength and justice _are_ true yoke fellows, where can we
find a mightier pair than they?
8. You will gain a good reputation if you _endeavor_ to be what you
_desire_ to appear.
9. Live as though life _were_ earnest and life will be so.
10. He that _loveth_ makes his own the grandeur that he _loves_.
11. Who _does_ the best his circumstance _allows_ does well; angels
could do no more.
12. He is not worthy of the honeycomb that _shuns_ the hive because
the bees _have_ stings.
13. We always may be what we _might have been_.
14. Rich gifts wax poor when givers _prove_ unkind.
15. Let me make the songs of the people and I care not who _makes_ the
laws.
16. Attention is the stuff that memory _is made_ of.
17. A great writer has said that grace _is_ beauty in action; I say
that justice _is_ truth in action.
18. If we do not _plant_ knowledge when young it will give us no shade
when we _are_ old.
19. You can no more exercise your reason if you _live_ in constant
dread of laughter than you _can enjoy_ your life if you _live_ in
constant dread and terror of death.

WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUN TO USE

+373.+ We are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in introducing an adjective clause. We hesitate as to whether we should use _that_ or _who_ or _which_. Remember that _who_ always refers to _persons_, _which_ refers to _animals_ or _things_, and _that_ may refer to either _persons_, _animals_ or _things_.

So when referring to a _person_, we may use either _who_ or _that_, and when referring to _animals_ or _things_, we may use either _which_ or _that_. As, for example, we may say, either, _The man who was here yesterday came back today_, or _The man that was here yesterday came back today_. Either is correct, for _who_ and _that_ both refer to persons.

+374.+ We may make a little distinction in the use of _who_ and _that_ when referring to _persons_, however. A clause introduced by _that_ is usually a restrictive clause. It limits or restricts the meaning of the noun which it modifies. When you say, _The man that was here yesterday_, you mean _that_ man and no other, limiting your meaning to that particular man. On the other hand, when you say, _The man who was here yesterday_, there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use of the clause, but it is merely a descriptive clause, adding a new fact to our knowledge concerning that particular man.

The same is true when we are speaking of _things_ using either _that_ or _which_. The clause introduced by _which_ is presumably a descriptive clause. We do, however, often use _who_ or _which_ when the sense of the clause is restrictive, but we should never use _that_ to introduce an adjective clause, unless the sense is restrictive. When in your sentences you can use, instead of the relative pronoun _who_ or _which_, the conjunction _and_, you can know that the use of the pronoun _who_ or _which_ is correct. As, for example:

I have read the book, _which_ I found very interesting.

You could say instead:

I have read the book _and_ I found it very interesting.

This would express the same meaning. But if you say: _I have read the book that I found very interesting_, you mean that you limit your idea to this particular book.

+375.+ We do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written speech, but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning which you can express by the proper use of the language. The man who runs an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though it were a human being, can easily recognize the slightest change in the action of his machine. His ear catches the least difference in the sound of the running of the machine, a difference which we, who do not know and love the machine, would never notice.

So it is in language. Once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous power of expression, we notice all these slight differences and shades of meaning which may be expressed by the use of words. In just the same manner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music, which we, who possess an uneducated ear, cannot know; and the artist also has a wondrous range of color, while we, who are not sensitive to color, know only a few of the primal colors.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS

+376.+ The adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have been introduced by relative pronouns. Adjective clauses may also be introduced by conjunctions, such as, _where_, _when_, _whence_, or _why_. As, for example:

Antwerp is the place where a terrible battle was fought.
No man knows the hour when opportunity will be his.
Each group has a different reason why this world-war was precipitated.

Note in these sentences the clauses, _where a terrible battle was fought_, _when opportunity will be his_, _why this world-war was precipitated_, are all adjective clauses modifying the nouns _place_, _hour_ and _reason_, and are introduced by the conjunctions _where_, _when_, and _why_. These are adjective clauses because they modify, by either limiting or describing, the nouns with which they are used. You will note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these sentences and these clauses would become noun clauses, for they would be used in the place of a noun. As, for example:

Antwerp is where a terrible battle was fought.
No man knows when opportunity will be his.

+377.+ We determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a noun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective, adverb or noun, by the work which it does in a sentence. Noun clauses are used in the place of a noun; adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns.

THE LITTLE WORD "AS"

+378.+ Adjective clauses may also be introduced by _as_. _As_ is a very convenient word and may be used in several different ways; sometimes as an adverb, sometimes as a conjunction; and it may also be used as a relative pronoun after _such_, _same_ and _many_. For example:

Such books _as_ you should read are listed here.
No such person _as_ he ever came here.
We are facing the same crisis _as_ our comrades faced.
This is the same _as_ you gave before.
He has made as many mistakes _as_ you have.

In these sentences _as_ is really used as a relative pronoun, connecting these adjective clauses to the words which they modify. _As_ may also be used as an adverb. _I am as tall as you are._

Here the first _as_ modifies _tall_ and is used as an adverb; the second _as_ is a conjunction connecting the subordinate clause _you are_, with the principal clause. Note that in making comparisons, _as_ is always used when the comparison is equal, _so_ when it is unequal, thus:

I am _as_ tall as you are.
She is not _so_ tall as you are.

We have found that _as_ is also used as a conjunction to introduce an adverb clause. For example:

She is as beautiful _as_ she is good.

The clause, _as she is good_, is an adverb clause, modifying the adjective _beautiful_. In the sentence, _Do as I say_, _as I say_ is an adverb clause of manner, modifying the verb _do_.

CONNECTIVE WORDS

+379.+ Let us not be confused in this matter of connectives. There are just four classes of connective words:

1. +Copulative verbs.+
2. +Relative pronouns.+
3. +Prepositions.+
4. +Conjunctions.+

+380.+ The copulative verb is not a pure connective, for it serves another purpose in the sentence. For example, in the sentence, _The book is interesting_, the copulative verb _is_ connects the adjective _interesting_ with the noun _book_, which it modifies; but it also is the asserting word in the sentence. So it fulfils a double function. It is an asserting word and also a connective word.

+381.+ The relative pronoun also is not a pure connective, for it serves two purposes in the sentence. It not only connects the clause which it introduces, with the word which it modifies, but it also serves as either the subject or object in the clause. For example: _The man who was here has gone_. The clause, _who was here_, is introduced by the relative pronoun _who_, which connects that clause with the noun _man_, which the clause modifies. _Who_ also serves as the subject of the verb _was_.

In the sentence, _The men whom we seek have gone_, the clause, _whom we seek_, is introduced by the relative pronoun _whom_, which connects the clause with the word _men_, which it modifies. _Whom_ also serves as the object of the verb in the clause, the verb _seek_.

+382.+ A preposition is not a pure connective, since it serves a double function. It shows the relation of its object to the rest of the sentence and also governs the form of its object. As, for example, in the sentence: _The man before me is not the culprit_, the preposition _before_ connects its object _me_ with the noun _man_, which the prepositional phrase modifies, showing the relation between them; and it governs the form of its object, for the pronoun following a preposition must be used in the _object_ form.

+383.+ Even co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered pure connectives unless it be the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Co-ordinate conjunctions such as _but_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, etc., not only connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, but in addition to connecting the words and expressions they also indicate that they are opposite in thought.

+384.+ Co-ordinate conjunctions like _therefore_, _hence_, _then_, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also introduce a _reason_ or _cause_. Co-ordinate conjunctions like _or_, _either_, _nor_, _neither_, _whether_, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also express the choice of an alternative. Thus these co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered as pure connectives.

+385.+ Subordinate conjunctions are most frequently used to introduce adverb clauses and have an adverbial meaning. They express, as do adverbs, _place_, _time_, _manner_, _cause_, _reason_, _purpose_, _condition_ or _result_. Some authorities indicate this double function by calling such words as these conjunctive adverbs, because, even when they are used as conjunctions, they retain some of their adverbial force.

But according to our rule that every word in the sentence is classified according to the function which it performs in that sentence, all words that perform the function of a conjunction are called conjunctions, although we understand that these conjunctions which introduce dependent clauses do still retain some of their adverbial meaning.

Exercise 3

In the following sentences the connectives are in italics. Determine whether they are copulative verbs, relative pronouns, prepositions, co-ordinate conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions.

1. They _are_ slaves _who_ dare not be _in_ the right _with_ two
_or_ three.
2. _In_ the twentieth century war _will be_ dead, dogmas _will be_
dead, _but_ man will live.
3. The abuse _of_ free speech dies _in_ a day, _but_ its denial slays
the life _of_ the people _and_ entombs the race.
4. Liberty _for_ the few _is_ not liberty.
5. Liberty _for_ me _and_ slavery _for_ you means slavery _for_ both.
6. The greatest thing _in_ the world _is for_ a man to know _that_ he
_is_ his own.
7. Nothing can work me damage _except_ myself.
8. He _that_ loveth maketh his own the grandeur _which_ he loves.
9. My life _is_ not an apology, _but_ a life.
10. I cannot consent to pay _for_ a privilege _where_ I have intrinsic
right.
11. It _is_ difficult to free fools _from_ the chains _which_ they
revere.
12. Desire nothing _for_ yourself _which_ you do not desire _for
others_.
13. All our liberties _are_ due _to_ men _who_, _when_ their
conscience compelled them, have broken the laws _of_ the land.
14. "It takes great strength to live _where_ you belong,
_When_ other people think _that_ you _are_ wrong."
15. _If_ the truth shall make you free, ye _shall be_ free indeed.
16. He _is_ true _to_ God _who is_ true _to_ man.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences underscore all the connectives--copulative verbs, prepositions, relative pronouns, co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions.

"There was a bird's egg once, picked up by chance upon the ground, and those who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl. And in time the chick bred out, and those who had found it chained it by the leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost. And by and by they gathered round it, and speculated as to what the bird might be.

One said, "It is surely a waterfowl, a duck, or it may be a goose; if we took it to the water it would swim and gabble." But another said, "It has no webs to its feet; it is a barn-yard fowl; if you should let it loose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap." But a third speculated, "Look now at its curved beak; no doubt it is a parrot, and can crack nuts."

But a fourth said, "No, but look at its wings; perhaps it is a bird of great flight." But several cried, "Nonsense! No one has ever seen it fly! Why should it fly? Can you suppose that a thing can do a thing which no one has ever seen it do?" And the bird, with its leg chained close to the log, preened its wings.

So they say about it, speculating and discussing it: and one said this, and another that.

And all the while, as they talked, the bird sat motionless, "Suppose we let the creature loose to see what it will do?"--and the bird shivered. But the others cried, "It is too valuable; it might get lost. If it were to try to fly it might fall down and break its neck." And the bird, with its foot chained to the log, sat looking upward into the clear sky; the sky, in which it had never been--for the bird--the bird, knew what it would do--because it was an eaglet!"

--_Olive Schreiner_.

Exercise 5

These stirring lines are taken from Arturo Giovannitti's "Arrows in the Gale" and are a part of the poem "The Sermon on the Common." Note the use of the conjunctions. Mark all of the clauses.

Ye are the power of the earth, the foundations of society, the
thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and
useful, the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and
the happiness of the world, and if ye fold your mighty arms, all the
life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes
of man.

Ye are the light of the world. There was darkness in all the ages when
the torch of your will did not blaze forth, and the past and the
future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes.

Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal, and no power
of time and dissolution can prevail against you.

Ages have come and gone, kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen
and fallen, old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into
dust, heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and
fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion.

But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and
abide forever.

Therefore I say unto you, banish fear from your hearts, dispel the
mists of ignorance from your minds, arm your yearning with your
strength, your vision with your will, and open your eyes and behold.

Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.

Think, dare, do, rebel, fight--ARISE!

It is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame
forever.

It is not true that injustice, iniquity, hunger, misery, abjection,
depravity, hatred, theft, murder and fratricide are eternal.

There is no destiny that the will of man cannot break.

There are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy.

There is nothing that the power of your arms, lighted by the power of
your mind, cannot transform and reconstruct and remake.

Arise, then, ye men of the plow and the hammer, the helm and the
lever, and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new
proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide
forevermore.

Through you, through your united, almighty strength, order shall
become equity, law shall become liberty, duty shall become love and
religion shall become truth.

Through you, the man-beast shall die and the man be born.

Through you, the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease
and the story of man shall begin.

Through you, by the power of your brain and hand,

All the predictions of the prophets,

All the wisdom of the sages,

All the dreams of the poets,

All the hopes of the heroes,

All the visions of the martyrs,

All the prayers of the saints,

All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of
the ages, and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a
triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and
love, the great threefold truth forever.

And lo and behold, my brothers, this shall be called the revolution.

SPELLING

LESSON 22

In our study of the spelling of English words we have found that there are not many rules that apply. In fact, the only way to learn to spell correctly is by sheer dint of memory.

In last week's lesson we found that a number of adjectives can be formed from nouns or verbs by the addition of _able_ or _ible_, but we find it difficult to determine whether to add _able_ or _ible_. The sound is practically the same and we are confused as to whether we should use _a_ or _i_. There is no rule which applies in this case and there is nothing to do but to master the spelling of these words by memory. These are words which we use a great deal and which are very helpful members of our working vocabulary.

Our list of words in this week's lesson contain some of the most common words which we use ending in _ible_ or _able_. The words for Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday all end in _able_; the words for Thursday, Friday, and Saturday will end in _ible_. Notice them carefully and get fixed firmly in mind the correct spelling. Notice also that most of these adjectives can be changed into adverbs by changing _ble_ to _bly_. So when you have added these adjectives to your vocabulary, you have also added the adverbs as well.

+Monday+

Probable
Capable
Usable
Considerable
Respectable

+Tuesday+

Durable
Salable
Advisable
Available
Equitable

+Wednesday+

Tolerable
Profitable
Remarkable
Valuable
Comfortable

+Thursday+

Possible
Horrible
Plausible
Intelligible
Terrible

+Friday+

Credible
Visible
Infallible
Responsible
Sensible

+Saturday+

Forcible
Permissible
Feasible
Corruptible
Eligible

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 23

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are taking up the study of interjections. Interjections are the language of emotion. This was probably the earliest form of speech. You notice that children use these exclamations often, and the sounds which are imitations of the noises about them. This language belongs also to the savage, whose peculiar and expressive grunts contain whole areas of condensed thought. As we progress from feeling to thinking, the use of the interjection diminishes.

You will not find interjections used in a book on mathematics or physical science or history. To attempt to read one of these books may make you use interjections and express your emotion in violent language, but you will not find interjections in these books. These books of science are books that express thought and not feeling. But if you turn to fiction and to oratory you will find the interjection used freely, for these are the books which treat of the human emotions and feelings. Especially in poetry will you find the interjection used, for poetry is the language of feeling and the interjection is an important part of the poet's stock in trade.

In conversation, these exclamatory words are very useful. They fill the gaps in our conversation and they help to put the listener and the speaker in touch with one another. They are usually accompanied by a gesture, which adds force to the word. The tone of the voice in which they are expressed also means a great deal. You can say, Oh! in half a dozen different ways; you may express surprise, wonder, joy, sorrow, pain, or disgust. A great many different and widely separated feelings can be expressed simply by the tone in which you use the exclamatory words. Some one has said that these words grease the wheels of talk. They serve to help the timid, to give time to the unready and to keep up a pleasant semblance of familiarity.

When we use them in the stress of emotion to express deep feeling, their use is perfectly justified. But one author has called these words "the miserable refuge of the speechless." We use them many times because we have no words with which to express ourselves. This use is unjustified. Be careful that you do not use them in this way. It has been said that the degree of a man's civilization can be pretty fairly judged by the expletives which he uses. Do not sprinkle your conversation with interjections and even stronger words because you are at a loss for other words.