Chapter II (9)

These men have really wanted knowledge, have sought it early and late, and have found knowledge; and because they were in the work-a-day world, in constant contact with their fellow-men, they were able to relate the knowledge which they gained out of books to the world in which they lived and this is true education. This is, also, what many college-bred people lack. A student is half made as soon as he seeks knowledge for its own sake. If you are striving to learn, not to make grades or to pass examinations or to secure a degree, but simply for the sake of knowing things, then indeed you are on the way to become really educated.

Stimulate within yourself a desire for knowledge, observe the things about you, add to your store of information daily; read a good book each day, even if you have time to read only a page or two, and you will be surprised at the result in your life.

Take, for example, our spelling. Why should we continually misspell the words which we use every day and which we see every day on a printed page. If we are wide-awake and have our eyes open, we can soon learn to spell correctly all these common words, at least. Make a list this week of fifty things with which you come in contact in your daily work, then look these words up in your dictionary and see how many of them you have misspelled. There is no reason why we should not be learning constantly and the more we observe, the more acute becomes our power of observation.

Let us determine more than ever to feel that we are part of the great world movement, that we belong in the ranks of those who have caught the vision of what the world might be, and that we belong to that glorious army of those who are fighting for the dream; so we may take courage; so we may find joy in the struggle, bitter as it may be, and so we may do our part in the fight.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PUNCTUATION

+490.+ Marks of punctuation are very important in our written language. They take the place of the gesture and pause and inflection and intonation of the voice, by which we make our meaning clear in vocal speech. So the marks of punctuation do not become mere mechanical devices. They are marks full of meaning and necessary to express our thought.

Punctuation is a word derived from the Latin word _punctum_ which means _a point_. We have other words from the same derivation, as puncture, etc.

+Punctuation is the art of pointing off our written language so as to make its meaning clear.+

Some very amusing errors have occurred because of the misplacing or the omission of punctuation marks. It is said, that a toast was one time given at a public dinner; "Woman! without her, man would be a savage." The next day it appeared in print; "Woman, without her man, would be a savage." You can readily see that the punctuation in this instance made a very great difference in the meaning of the sentence.

+491.+ In conversation, the tone of the voice which we use, has a great effect upon our meaning, for example I might say, _The International failed_, in such a tone of voice, that it would express despair and chagrin, and indicate that the International was a thing of the past; or I might say, _The International failed_, with such an inflection, that you would understand that even the suggestion was to be treated with contempt, that the International was still powerful and its triumph inevitable. And in writing, the only way we have of expressing these shades of meaning is by means of punctuation marks.

So these marks of punctuation are not thrown upon a page haphazardly, or put there simply for decoration; they have a meaning and a very great meaning. Those who use short, crisp sentences have less need for punctuation marks than those who use longer and more involved sentences. When we have learned to express ourselves directly and simply, we will naturally use fewer marks of punctuation.

+492.+ You will find that, in writing in connection with business, there is much less need of punctuation than in literary and philosophical writings. Business writing is usually direct and simple in style. Its purpose is to state facts. The literary and philosophical writing, however, expresses more involved ideas and emotions, and in these, the punctuation is exceedingly important.

+493.+ One of the great purposes served by punctuation is to indicate a pause or break in the thought. A very good rule to go by in punctuating is to repeat the sentence aloud, and whenever you pause for breath or because of a break in the thought, it is a pretty safe indication that in that place, you should have a punctuation mark.

+494.+ The following are the chief marks of punctuation:

1. The Comma ,
2. The Semi-colon ;
3. The Colon :
4. The Period .
5. The Interrogation Point ?
6. The Exclamation Point !
7. The Dash --
8. The Parenthesis ()
9. The Bracket []
10. The Quotation Marks ""
11. The Apostrophe '
12. The Hyphen -

THE COMMA

+495.+ The comma is the mark used to indicate a slight break in the thought.

There are a number of rules given for the use of commas. These rules, like the rules for the use of capitals, you cannot commit to memory; but, after repeated practice in your own writing and paying attention to your reading, you will gradually develop an instinctive sense of the use of the comma. Select some book which you are reading and go through it, noticing especially the use of the commas. See if you can determine the reason which prompted the author to place his commas where he did. Notice, also, what effect the placing or the omission of the comma would have upon the meaning of the sentence.

+496.+ +The Comma indicates the slightest degree of separation between the parts of a sentence.+

+RULE 1.+

+497.+ +Words, phrases and clauses, forming a series and used in the same construction, should be separated from each other by commas when the conjunctions are omitted.+

WORDS WHICH FORM A SERIES

+498.+ The words which form a series, separated by a comma may be either nouns, adjectives, adverbs or verbs. The comma is only used where the conjunction is omitted. Note carefully the following sentences:

Love, laughter and happiness are the right of every child.
He visited every city, town and village.
The working class has been meek, humble, docile and gullible.
All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of
the ages shall become an everlasting reality.
He struggled patiently, faithfully and fearlessly for the cause.
If labor thinks, dares, rebels, fights, it will be victorious.

PHRASES WHICH FORM SERIES

+499.+ Phrases which are used in the same construction and form a series are separated by commas where the conjunction is omitted. For example:

Day after day, year after year, century after century, the class
struggle has proceeded.
The struggle in the mines, in the fields, in the factories and in the
shops, will go on until labor receives the product of its toil.

CLAUSES USED IN A SERIES

+500.+ Sometimes clauses are used without the co-ordinate conjunction and a comma is used to indicate the omission. For example:

Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.
Speak as you mean, do as you profess, perform what you promise.

+RULE 2.+

+501.+ +Explanatory and introductory expressions, words in direct address, parenthetical words and phrases, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.+

Note carefully the following examples:

Jaures, the great French Socialist, was the first martyr to peace.
War having been declared, the troops were mobilized.
No, I cannot believe you.
Mr. Chairman, I desire to speak to the convention.
We can, of course, give you the information you desire.

+RULE 3.+

+502.+ +Words, phrases or clauses written in the sentence out of their natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.+

These words, phrases and clauses are often written at the beginning of the sentences or at the end of the sentences, or in some place out of their natural order, for the sake of emphasis, instead of with the words they modify.

Notice in the following sentences how these words, phrases and clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Rewrite these sentences, placing these words, phrases and clauses in their natural order and omit the commas.

Longingly and anxiously, he waited.
With this exception, the figures are correct.
The music, sweet and dreamy, floated upon the air.
The waves came rolling in, white with foam.
To deceive the men, he resorted to shameful tricks.
Before anyone else could speak, he was on his feet.

+RULE 4.+

+503.+ +Co-ordinate clauses, when closely related in meaning are separated by commas. The comma should precede the co-ordinate conjunction.+ For example:

I have not intended to detain you, but the matter required
explanation.

+RULE 5.+

+504.+ +The omission of the verb in a sentence or a clause should be indicated by a comma.+ Sometimes in writing for effect or to give emphasis we omit the verb in the sentence; at other times we omit the verb when the same verb occurs in a series of brief sentences, and its continued use would mean a tiresome repetition. For example:

Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; writing, an
exact man.

Here the verb is omitted in the last two clauses and the omission is indicated by the use of the comma.

+RULE 6.+

+505.+ +Short, direct quotations should be preceded by a comma.+ For example:

Their slogan is, "An injury to one is the concern of all."
Ferrer's last words were, "Long live the modern school."

+RULE 7.+

+506.+ +Separate the figures in large numbers into groups of three figures each by the use of commas.+ For example:

The population of the United States has now reached 100,000,000.
According to the census of 1900, there are 29,073,233 people engaged
in gainful occupations in the United States.

Exercise 1

Supply commas in the following sentences in the proper places:

1. Food clothes and shelter are the fundamental needs of life.
2. We believe in education free from theocracy aristocracy or
plutocracy.
3. Man is the master of nature of law of life.
4. We shall struggle rebel arise and claim all being for our own.
5. Sickness and suffering sorrow and despair crime and war are the
fruits of poverty.
6. You should seek after knowledge steadily faithfully and
perseveringly.
7. The most inspiring powerful and impressive oratory is the voice of
the disinherited.
8. Through your united almighty strength order shall become equity law
shall become liberty duty shall become love and religion shall
become truth.
9. First let us consider the main question.
10. Mr. President I rise to a point of order.
11. We the workers of the world must unite.
12. The class struggle being a fact why should we hesitate to join our
class?
13. You have not it seems understood the issue.
14. Of all our needs education is the greatest.
15. Regularly and monotonously the machine whirs to and fro.
16. Before any one can take special training he must have a good
knowledge of English.
17. We plead for education universal and free.
18. The first ingredient in conversation is truth the next good sense
the third good humor and the fourth wit.
19. The slogan of the People's College is The education of the workers
by the workers.
20. According to the last census the enrollment of the schools of the
United States is 18521002.
21. There are 4611000 in the first grade and 155000 in the last year
of high school.

THE SEMI-COLON

+507.+ The semi-colon indicates a break more complete than that of the comma. The period indicates a complete break in the thought. So the comma indicates a slight break, the semi-colon a greater break in the thought, and the period, the completion of the thought.

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE SEMI-COLON

+508.+ The semi-colon is often used instead of the comma where a longer pause is desired or we wish to indicate a greater break in the thought. For example:

"The wind is chill;
But let it whistle as it will,
We'll keep our Christmas merry still."

+509.+ As a rule we separate by semi-colons those parts of the sentences that are already punctuated by commas. For example:

After considerable delay, he came back to look for his friends; but,
though he looked diligently, he could not find them.

+510.+ The semi-colon is used to separate closely connected simple sentences when the conjunction is omitted. The continual repetition of the conjunction would become very tiresome and detract from the forcefulness of our sentences. So instead of continually repeating the conjunction we separate these simple sentences by semi-colons. For example:

Through the industrial revolution, the face of the earth is making
over even as to its physical forms; political boundaries are wiped out
and moved about as if they were indeed only lines on a paper map;
population is hurriedly gathered into cities from the ends of the
earth; habits of living are altered with startling abruptness; the
search for the truths of nature is infinitely stimulated; and the
application of these truths to life is made not only practicable, but
commercially necessary.

+511.+ The semi-colon should be used after each item in a series of specific statements. For example:

We quote you the following prices: Grade No. 1, $1.00; Grade No. 2,
$2.90; poorer grades not in demand.

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE COLON

+512.+ The colon is not used as much as it formerly was. The comma and the semi-colon and the period are now used in most of the places where older writers used the colon.

One authority in English says that, "in strict logic the colon is to the sentence in which it is used what the mark of equality is in mathematics."

+513.+ The colon is used before a formal list of items. For example:

Economics has three important divisions: production, distribution,
consumption.

+514.+ The colon is used after a salutation at the beginning of a letter. For example: _Dear Sir:_ _Gentlemen:_ _Comrades:_

In such cases the dash is also frequently used with the colon. For example: _My dear Sir:--_ _Gentlemen:--_ _Comrades:--_

+515.+ The colon is more often used instead of the semi-colon after such expressions as, _thus:_ _as follows:_ _the following:_ _for example:_ etc.

The colon is also used to separate a series of sentences which are explanatory of the main clause. For example:

The People's College has two great aims: the first is to bring
education within the reach of every worker; the second is to teach
from the viewpoint of the working class.
We were advised to proceed thus: first, to be systematic in our work;
second, to concentrate; third, to go slowly and surely; and last of
all, to think for ourselves.

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE PERIOD

+516.+ +The period is a mark of punctuation that denotes the completion of a sentence.+

+517.+ The period is used at the close of all assertive and imperative sentences. For example:

There is talk of peace but preparation for war.
Claim your own at any hazard.

+518.+ The period is used after all initials and all abbreviations, as for example: E. V. Debs; T. P. O'Connor; Mr., Dr., Co., Mass., N. Y., C. O. D., F. O. B., U. S. A., etc.

+519.+ The period is used to separate whole numbers and decimal numbers. For example: 3.1416 9.342.

A period is used for the decimal point between dollars and cents; as: $4.50, $2.25, $16.54, $35926.72.

It is also used to separate the various denominations of sterling money, as: £14. 15s. 6d.

+520.+ The period is used after letters used as numerals or after figures used to number paragraphs, notes, remarks, questions or any list of particulars. For example:

The letters which are used to denote sub-heads in the enumeration of rules as _a. b. c._, etc., also the numerals and letters marking sections or sub-sections in chapters, as _Chapter 8._ _Paragraph 1._ _Rule 1._ _Page 4._ _Volume 2._ _Paragraph 3._ _P. 16._

+521.+ The period is also used after headings and titles, after dates and signatures to letters and other documents; also at the close of the address at the beginning of a letter, and of the name at the close of the letter; also after the last item in the direction of an envelope or package.

Exercise 2

In the following quotations place the commas, semi-colons, colons and periods in their proper places, and be able to give a reason for what you do:

The man who stabs his brother to death is a criminal and is hanged the
general who under a flag slays a regiment is a hero and is decorated
with a cross

The most thrilling oratory the most powerful and impressive eloquence
is the voice of the disinherited the oppressed the suffering and the
submerged it is the voice of poverty and misery of wretchedness and
despair it is the voice of humanity crying to the infinite it is the
voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches heaven it is the
voice that wakens the conscience of the race and proclaims the truths
that fill the world with life liberty and love

The number of lives lost in the great wars of the world have been as
follows Napoleonic wars 1900000 our Civil War 656000 Franco-German War
290000 Boer War 90898 Russo-Japanese 555900 and in the present
world-war untold millions

Walt Whitman who represents individualism at its best writes "I sing
the song of myself" To this the Socialist replies "Inasmuch as my
redemption is bound up in that of my class I sing the song of my
class"

We believe with John Ruskin "whether there be one God or three no God
or ten thousand children should be fed and their bodies should be kept
clean"

My dear Mr Smith Your letter of the 15th has been received

Through the dreams of all the ages rings the voice of labor beginning
as a murmur growing in volume and grandeur as it rolls round the world
And this is the burden of its message By the sweat of no other's brow
shalt thou eat bread

The sun of the new world is rising it is rising out of the solidarity
of the working class Its rays of light are bursting through the dark
horizon which ignorance and deceit have so long riveted upon us It is
lighting up the faces of a new order of men and women supermen and
women men and women not discouraged by defeat god-like men and women
who have found the secret springs of life and are already drinking
deep and glorious draughts men and women who are standing erect and
whose joined hands encircle the world men and women who see the
world's wretchedness and the world's poverty and are ready to throw
away their lives with a song on their lips that such things shall not
be

Exercise 3

Note the punctuation in the following poem and determine for yourself, in accordance with the rules we have studied, why the commas, semi-colons, colons and periods are used as they are:

JOHN BROWN

States are not great
Except as man may make them;
Men are not great except they do and dare.
But States, like men,
Have destinies that take them--
That bear them on, not knowing why or where.

The _why_ repels
The philosophic searcher--
The _why_ and _where_ all questionings defy,
Until we find,
Far back in youthful nurture,
Prophetic facts that constitute the _why_.

All merit comes
From braving the unequal;
All glory comes from daring to begin.
Fame loves the State
That, reckless of the sequel,
Fights long and well, whether it lose or win.

* * * * *

And there is one
Whose faith, whose fight, whose failing,
Fame shall placard upon the walls of time.
He dared begin--
Despite the unavailing,
He dared begin, when failure was a crime.

When over Africa
Some future cycle
Shall sweep the lake-gemmed uplands with its surge;
When, as with trumpet
Of Archangel Michael,
Culture shall bid a colored race emerge;

* * * * *

From boulevards
O'erlooking both Nyanzas,
The statured bronze shall glitter in the sun,
With rugged lettering:
"JOHN BROWN OF KANSAS:
HE DARED BEGIN;
HE LOST,
BUT, LOSING, WON."

--_Eugene Ware_.

SPELLING

LESSON 29

Last week we studied words which had the same, or nearly the same, meaning. There is always a slight distinction in the meaning of words, but some of them are so nearly the same that it makes very little difference which word we use. Some writers, however, are very careful and spend a great deal of time in the selection of just the right word to express their meaning.

Robert Louis Stevenson once said a good writer would wait half a day in order to secure the best word to convey a certain idea.

A very amusing story is told of Thomas Carlyle, who was very careful to use words expressing just the shade of meaning which he desired to express. He had a habit of writing in a note book these words as they occurred to him, so he would have them for ready reference and use. One day he had searched all day for a certain word which eluded him. Suddenly in the middle of the night he wakened with the word flashing in his mind. He wanted to write it down immediately lest he should forget it in the morning, but it was cold and he dreaded getting up in the cold to secure his note book so he nudged Jeanie, his wife, and said: "Jeanie, Jeanie, get up! I have thought of a good word, and I want you to write it down." Now it was equally cold for Jeanie, so Jeanie nudged Thomas and said: "Thomas, Thomas, get up yourself. I have thought of a bad one!"

Nevertheless, it is a good idea when these good words occur to you to write them down. Possibly to save trouble, you had better write them for yourself!

But in addition to words which have the same meaning, or almost the same meaning, there are also words which express just the opposite meaning, and it is well for us to be master of these words also.

+These words which express opposite meaning are called antonyms.+ Words and their antonyms are given in this week's spelling lesson in the words for the first three days' study. For the last three days, words only are given. Look these words up in your dictionary and determine upon the most suitable antonyms.

+Monday+

Legal
Illegal

Artificial
Natural

Assert
Deny

+Tuesday+

Civilized
Barbarous

Courage
Cowardice

Active
Passive

+Wednesday+

Initial
Final

Temporary
Permanent

History
Legend

+Thursday+

Addition
Cleverness
Assured
Genuine
Acquit
Increase

+Friday+

Affection
Composure
Enlarge
Anxious
Prompt
Discord

+Saturday+

Succeed
Describe
Winning
Wasteful
Superficial
Grieve

Write the proper word in the following blanks:

PATIENTS or PATIENCE

The Doctor has many.......
We have no......with stupidity.

NEGLIGENCE or NEGLECT

The accident was due to the......of the employer.
He has been guilty of......of his family for he was injured by the
criminal......of the Railroad Company.

OBSERVANCE or OBSERVATION

The troops were concealed from.......
Trade Unions never fail in the......of Labor Day.
A man's own......will guide him in the......of all good customs.

RELATIVES or RELATIONS

Taft and Roosevelt did not always have pleasant......with each other.
He has gone to visit his.......
We do not always have pleasant......with our.......

SECTS or SEX

There are many religious.......
Woman is refused the ballot because of her.......

STATUE or STATUTE

The law was placed upon the......books.
The world will sometime erect a......to the man of the people.

Do not fear to be thought a "high-brow" if you use these words in your every day speech. The very people who may laugh are in their hearts admiring you, and are, in all probability, envious. The man who has accused another of being a "high-brow" has by that very act, admitted his own inferiority.

Demand the best for yourself in words, as in everything else.

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 30

Dear Comrade:

With this lesson we are finishing this course in Plain English. We have covered a great deal of ground and have studied the essentials of grammar. We have tried, as far as possible, to avoid the stupid conning of rules or learning by rote. We have attempted at least to make the reason and necessity for every rule apparent before the rule was stated.

We have also tried to weave into the lessons something of the romance of language, for language is a romance; in its growth is written the epic of the race. Our words portray the struggle of man from savage to sage. So, feeble as our efforts in this regard may have been, we trust that you have enjoyed and profited by this course and have caught a new vision of life. Most of us are forced so inexorably into the bitter struggle for existence that we have little time or opportunity to catch much of the beauty of life. That is the curse of a society that dooms its citizens to weary, toil-burdened lives, robbed of the joy and beauty of living.

Yet, if we know how to read we can always have access to books and through them we can escape the sordidness and ugliness of the life in which we are compelled to live and spend at least a little time each day in the company of great souls who speak to us from the printed page. The quotations in these lessons have been taken from these great writers.

Will you not pursue the acquaintanceship and become real friends with these men and women? Above all things they will bring you into the atmosphere of liberty and of freedom. For throughout all the pain of the struggle of the past and of the present, there has been the fight of man for freedom. We have gained the mastery over nature. Wild animals, which were a constant menace to savage man, have been destroyed. We have been freed from fear and superstition by the discovery of the laws of nature. With the invention of the machine, man has increased his ability to provide the essentials of life,--food, clothing and shelter--a thousandfold. The past has seen revolution after revolution in the struggle for mastery.

We now stand on the threshold of another great revolution when man shall master the machines which he has invented and shall cease serving them and make them serve him. His increased facilities for food-getting and shelter-getting shall be made to serve all mankind. We have a part to play in that great revolution.

Whatever you may have gained from the study of this course; what increased facility of understanding or of expression may have come to you; may it be not only for the service of yourself but also for the service of the revolution that shall bring the worker into his own.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

THE ETERNAL WHY

+522.+ There is no more important mark of punctuation than the Interrogation Point. Asking questions is the foundation and beginning of all wisdom. Progress is based upon the eternal _Why_. If men had always been satisfied with the knowledge of their age and had not continually asked questions which they set themselves to answer, we would still be living in caves or dwelling in trees.

The natural child, that is, the child whose will has not been broken, is an animated Interrogation Point. He is full of questions. He wants to know _why_ this and _why_ that. This is a most natural trait and one that should not be destroyed. It may sadly interfere sometimes with the things that we wish to do, to stop and answer the child's questions as to why cats have tails or who made the world and what did he stand on while he was doing it; but it is decidedly important that some one should answer these questions which the child asks, in a manner to satisfy its present craving for knowledge. The fact that this trait has been quenched in so many children by the impatient grown-ups explains their stupidity in later years. Encourage every child to ask questions. Encourage it also to be persistent until it finds somewhere the answer to its questions.

Cultivate also this trait yourself. Do not accept a thing simply because some one says it is so. Insist upon knowing for yourself. This is the secret of progress, that we should think for ourselves, investigate for ourselves and not fear to face the facts of life or to express our own ideas. The wise man does not accept a thing because it is old nor does he reject it because it is new. He inquires, demands, reasons and satisfies himself as to the merit of the question. So the Interrogation Point in the written language of man has a tremendous meaning. It stands for the open and inquiring mind; for the courage that dares question all things and seek the truth.

THE INTERROGATION POINT

+523.+ An Interrogation Point should be placed after every direct question.

A direct question is one that can be answered. An indirect question is one that cannot be answered. If I say, _Why do you not study?_, I am asking a direct question to which you can give an answer; but if I say, _I wonder why you do not study_, I have asked an indirect question which does not require a direct answer.

Why do you not go? (_Direct_)
He asked why you did not go. (_Indirect_)

+524.+ When an interrogative clause is repeated in the body of another sentence, use the interrogation point after the clause, and begin the clause with a capital letter. For example:

The question, _Shall we be involved in war?_, should be settled by
the people.

THE EXCLAMATION POINT

+525.+ The exclamation point should be placed after words, phrases or sentences that express strong emotion. For example:

Oh! When shall peace reign again?
Alas! I am undone!
To the firing line! the battle rages!

+526.+ Ordinarily the exclamation point is placed immediately after the interjection or word used as an interjection, but frequently when the strong emotion continues throughout the expression, the exclamation point is placed at the close of the sentence instead of after the interjection, even though the interjection comes first in the sentence. For example:

On, Comrades, on!
Charge, Chester, charge!

THE DASH

+527.+ The dash is a much abused punctuation mark. A great many writers who are not familiar with the rules of punctuation use a dash whenever they feel the need of some sort of a punctuation mark. Their rule seems to be, "whenever you pause make a dash." Punctuation marks indicate pauses but a dash should not be used upon every occasion. The dash should not be used as a substitute for the comma, semi-colon, colon, etc. In reality, the dash should be used only when these marks cannot be correctly used.

+528.+ The chief use of the dash is to indicate a sudden break in the thought or a sudden change in the construction of the sentence. For example:

In the next place--but I cannot discuss the matter further under the
circumstances.

+529.+ The dash is frequently used to set a parenthetical expression off from the rest of the sentence when it has not as close connection with the sentence as would be indicated by commas. As for example:

The contention may be true--although I do not believe it--that this
sort of training is necessary.

+530.+ The dash is also used in place of commas to denote a longer or more expressive pause. For example:

The man sank--then rose--then sank again.

+531.+ The dash is often used after an enumeration of several items as a summing up. For example:

Production, distribution, consumption--all are a part of economics.

+532.+ A dash is often used when a word or phrase is repeated for emphasis. For example:

Is there universal education--education for every child beneath the
flag? It is not for the masses of the children--not for the children
of the masses.

+533.+ If the parenthetical statements within dashes require punctuation marks, this mark should be placed before the second dash. For example:

War for defense--and was there ever a war that was not for
defense?--was permitted by the International.
This sight--what a wonderful sight it was!--greeted our eyes with the
dawn.

+534.+ The dash is also used to indicate the omission of a word, especially such words as _as_, _namely_, _viz._, etc. For example:

Society is divided into two classes--the exploited and the exploiting
classes.

+535.+ After a quotation, use the dash before the name of the author. For example:

Life only avails, not the having lived.--_Emerson_.

+536.+ The dash is used to mark the omission of letters or figures. For example:

It happened in the city of M--.
It was in the year 18--.

PARENTHESIS

+537.+ In our study of the comma and the dash we have found that parenthetical statements are set off from the rest of the sentence sometimes by a comma and sometimes by a dash. When the connection with the rest of the sentence is close, and yet the words are thrown in in a parenthetical way, commas are used to separate the parenthetical statement from the rest of the sentence.

+538.+ When the connection is not quite so close, the dash is used instead of the comma to indicate the fact that this statement is thrown in by way of explanation or additional statement. But when we use explanatory words or parenthetical statements that have little or no connection with the rest of the sentence, these phrases or clauses are separated from the rest of the sentences by the parenthesis.

+539.+ +GENERAL RULE:--Marks of parenthesis are used to set off expressions that have no vital connection with the rest of the sentence.+ For example:

Ignorance (and why should we hesitate to acknowledge it?) keeps us
enslaved.
Education (and this is a point that needs continual emphasis) is the
foundation of all progress.

THE PUNCTUATION OF THE PARENTHESIS

+540.+ If the parenthetical statement asks a question or voices an exclamation, it should be followed by the interrogation point or the exclamation point, within the parenthesis. For example:

We are all of us (who can deny it?) partial to our own failings.
The lecturer (and what a marvelous orator he is!) held the audience
spellbound for hours.

OTHER USES OF THE PARENTHESIS

+541.+ An Interrogation Point is oftentimes placed within a parenthesis in the body of a sentence to express doubt or uncertainty as to the accuracy of our statement. For example:

In 1858 (?) this great movement was started.
John (?) Smith was the next witness.

+542.+ The parenthesis is used to include numerals or letters in the enumeration of particulars. For example:

Economics deals with (1) production, (2) distribution,
(3) consumption.
There are three sub-heads; (a) grammar, (b) rhetoric, (c) composition.

+543.+ Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose an amount or number written in figures when it is also written in words, as:

We will need forty (40) machines in addition to those we now have.
Enclosed find Forty Dollars ($40.00) to apply on account.

THE BRACKET

+544.+ The bracket [] indicates that the word or words included in the bracket are not in the original discourse.

+545.+ The bracket is generally used by editors in supplying missing words, dates and the like, and for corrections, additions and explanations. For example:

This rule usually applies though there are some exceptions. [See Note
3, Rule 1, Page 67].

+546.+ All interpretations, notes, corrections and explanations, which introduce words or phrases not used by the author himself, should be enclosed in brackets.

+547.+ Brackets are also used for a parenthesis within a parenthesis. If we wish to introduce a parenthetical statement within a parenthetical statement this should be enclosed in a bracket. For example:

He admits that this fact (the same fact which the previous witness
[Mr. James E. Smith] had denied) was only partially true.

QUOTATION MARKS

+548.+ Quotation marks are used to show that the words enclosed by them are the exact words of the writer or speaker.

+549.+ A direct quotation is always enclosed in quotation marks. For example:

He remarked, "I believe it to be true."

But an indirect quotation is not enclosed in quotation marks. For example:

He remarked that he believed it was true.

+550.+ When the name of an author is given at the close of a quotation it is not necessary to use the quotation marks. For example:

All courage comes from braving the unequal.--_Eugene F. Ware_.

When the name of the author precedes the quotation, the marks are used, as in the following:

It was Eugene F. Ware who said, "Men are not great except they do and
dare."

+551.+ When we are referring to titles of books, magazines or newspapers, or words and phrases used in illustration, we enclose them in quotation marks, unless they are written in italics. For example:

"Whitman's Leaves of Grass" or _Whitman's Leaves of Grass_. "The New
York Call" or _The New York Call_. The word "book" is a noun, or, The
word _book_ is a noun.

THE QUOTATION WITHIN A QUOTATION

+552.+ When a quotation is contained within another, the included quotation should be enclosed by single quotation marks and the entire quotation enclosed by the usual marks. For example:

He began by saying, "The last words of Ferrer, 'Long live the modern
school' might serve as the text for this lecture."
The speaker replied, "It was Karl Marx who said, 'Government always
belongs to those who control the wealth of the country.'"

You will note in this sentence that the quotation within the quotation occurs at the end of the sentence so there are three apostrophes used after it, the single apostrophe to indicate the included quotation and the double apostrophe which follows the entire quotation.

PUNCTUATION WITH QUOTATION MARKS

+553.+ Marks of punctuation are (except the interrogation point and the exclamation point which are explained later) placed inside the quotation marks. For example:

A wise man said, "Know thyself."

Notice that the period is placed after the word _thyself_ and is followed by the quotation marks.

"We can easily rout the enemy," declared the speaker.

Notice that the comma is placed after _enemy_, and before the quotation marks.

+554.+ The Interrogation Point and the Exclamation Point are placed within the quotation marks if they refer _only_ to the words quoted, but if they belong to the entire sentence they should be placed outside the quotation marks. For example:

He said, "Will you come now?"
Did he say, "Will you come now"?
He said, "What a beautiful night!"
How wonderfully inspiring is Walt Whitman's poem, "The Song of the
Open Road"!

+555.+ Sometimes parenthetical or explanatory words are inserted within a quotation. These words should be set off by commas, and both parts of the quotation enclosed in quotation marks. For example:

"I am aware," he said, "that you do not agree with me."
"But why," the speaker was asked, "should you make such a statement?"
"I do not believe," he replied, "that you have understood me."

THE APOSTROPHE

+556.+ The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of letters or syllables, as: _He doesn't_, instead of _does not_; _We're_, instead of _we are_; _I'm_, instead of _I am_; _ it's_, instead of _it is_; _ne'er_, instead of _never_; _they'll_, instead of _they will_, etc.

+557.+ The apostrophe is also used to denote possession. In the single form of the nouns it precedes the _s_. In the plural form of nouns ending in _s_ it follows the _s_. For example:

Boy's, man's, girl's, king's, friend's, etc.
Boys', men's, girls', kings', friends', etc.

Note that the apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns _ours_, _yours_, _its_, _theirs_, _hers_.

+558.+ The apostrophe is used to indicate the plural of letters, figures or signs. For example:

Dot your _i's_ and cross your _t's_.
He seems unable to learn the table of 8's and 9's.
Do not make your _n's_ and _u's_ so much alike.

+559.+ The apostrophe is used to mark the omission of the century in dates, as: '87 instead of 1887, '15 instead of 1915.

THE HYPHEN

+560.+ The hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or at the end of a line to indicate that a word is divided. We have so many compound words in our language which we have used so often that we have almost forgotten that they were compound words so it is not always easy to decide whether the hyphen belongs in a word or not. As, for example; we find such words as _schoolhouse_, _bookkeeper_, _railway_ and many others which are, in reality, compound words and in the beginning were written with the hyphen. We have used them so frequently and their use as compound words has become so commonplace, that we no longer use the hyphen in writing them. Yet frequently you will find them written with the hyphen by some careful writer.

+561.+ As a general rule the parts of all words which are made by uniting two or more words into one should be joined by hyphens, as:

Men-of-war, knee-deep, half-hearted, full-grown, mother-in-law, etc.

+562.+ The numerals expressing a compound number should be united by a hyphen, as; _forty-two_, _twenty-seven_, _thirty-nine_, etc.

+563.+ When the word _self_ is used with an adverb, a noun or an adjective, it is always connected by the hyphen, as; _self-confidence_, _self-confident_, _self-confidently_, _self-command_, _self-assertive_, _self-asserting_, etc.

+564.+ When the word _fold_ is added to a number of more than one syllable, the hyphen is always used, as; _thirty-fold_, _forty-fold_, _fifty-fold_, etc. If the numeral has but one syllable, do not use the hyphen, as; _twofold_, _threefold_, _fourfold_, etc.

+565.+ When fractions are written in words instead of figures always use the hyphen, as; _one-half_, _one-fourth_, _three-sevenths_, _nine-twelfths_, etc.

+566.+ The words _half_ and _quarter_, when used with any word, should be connected by a hyphen, as; _half-dollar_, _quarter-pound_, _half-skilled_, _half-barbaric_, _half-civilized_, _half-dead_, _half-spent_, etc.

+567.+ Sometimes we coin a phrase for temporary use in which the words are connected by the hyphen. For example:

It was a never-to-be-forgotten day.
He wore a sort of I-told-you-so air.
They were fresh-from-the-pen copies.

ADDITIONAL MARKS OF PUNCTUATION

There are a few other marks of punctuation which we do not often use in writing but which we find on the printed page. It is well for us to know the meaning of these marks.

+568.+ The caret (^) is used to mark the omission of a letter or word or a number of words. The omitted part is generally written above, and the caret shows where it should be inserted. For example:

s
I cannot give you this permis ion.
^
received
I have just a letter from him.
^

Please write your matriculation number on all examination
and all letters
papers sent in to the College.
^

The above examples illustrate the use of the caret with the omission of a letter, a word or phrase.

+569.+ If a letter or manuscript is not too long, it should always be rewritten and the omissions properly inserted. Occasionally, however, we are in a hurry and our time is too limited to rewrite an entire letter because of the omission of a single letter or word so we can insert it by the use of the caret. If, however, there are many mistakes, the letter or paper should be rewritten, for the too frequent use of the caret indicates carelessness in writing and does not produce a favorable impression upon the recipient of your letter or manuscript.

MARKS OF ELLIPSIS

+570.+ Sometimes a long dash (--------) or succession of asterisks (* * * * * *) or of points (. . . . . .) is used to indicate the omission of a portion of a sentence or a discourse. In printed matter usually the asterisks are used to indicate an omission. In typewritten matter usually a succession of points is used to indicate an omission. In writing, these are difficult to make and the omission of the portion of material is usually indicated by a succession of short dashes (-- -- -- --).

MARKS OF REFERENCE

+571.+ On the printed page you will often find the asterisk (*), or the dagger, ([Symbol: dagger]), the section (§), or parallel lines (||), used to call your attention to some note or remark written at the close of the paragraph or on the margin, at the bottom of the page or the end of the chapter. It is advisable to hunt these up as soon as you come to the mark which indicates their presence, for they usually contain some matter which explains or adds to the meaning of the sentence which you have just finished reading.

Exercise 1

In the following exercise, note the various marks of punctuation and determine why each one is used:

THE MARSEILLAISE

Ye sons of toil, awake to glory!
Hark, hark, what myriads bid you rise;
Your children, wives and grandsires hoary--
Behold their tears and hear their cries!
Shall hateful tyrants, mischief breeding,
With hireling hosts, a ruffian band,--
Affright and desolate the land,
While peace and liberty lie bleeding?

CHORUS

To arms! to arms! ye brave!
Th' avenging sword unsheathe!
March on, march on, all hearts resolved
On Victory or Death.

With luxury and pride surrounded,
The vile, insatiate despots dare,
Their thirst for gold and power unbounded,
To mete and vend the light and air;
Like beasts of burden would they load us,
Like gods would bid their slaves adore,
But Man is Man, and who is more?
Then shall they longer lash and goad us? (CHORUS)

O Liberty! can man resign thee,
Once having felt thy generous flame?
Can dungeons' bolts and bars confine thee,
Or whip thy noble spirit tame?
Too long the world has wept bewailing,
That Falsehood's dagger tyrants wield;
But Freedom is our sword and shield,
And all their arts are unavailing! (CHORUS)

--_Rouget de Lisle_.

THUS SPAKE ZARATHUSTRA

I teach ye the Over-man. The man is something who shall be overcome.
What have ye done to overcome him?

All being before this made something beyond itself: and you will be
the ebb of this great flood, and rather go back to the beast than
overcome the man?

What is the ape to the man? A mockery or a painful shame. And even so
shall man be to the Over-man: a mockery or a painful shame.

Man is a cord, tied between Beast and Over-man--a cord above an abyss.

A perilous arriving, a perilous traveling, a perilous looking
backward, a perilous trembling and standing still.

What is great in man is that he is a bridge, and no goal; what can be
loved in man is that he is a going-over and a going-under.

I love them that know how to live, be it even as those going under,
for such are those going across.

I love them that are great in scorn, because these are they that are
great in reverence, and arrows of longing toward the other
shore!--_Nietzsche_.

SPELLING

LESSON 30

There are a great many words in English which are frequently mispronounced; the accent is placed upon the wrong syllable; for example, _thea'ter_ instead of _the'ater_; the wrong sound is given to the vowel, for example, _hearth_ is pronounced _hurth_. Sometimes, too, an extra letter is added in the pronunciation; for example, _once_ is often pronounced as though it were spelled _wunst_.

The following is a list of common words that are frequently mispronounced, and there are many others which you may add to this list as they occur to you. Look up the correct pronunciation in the dictionary and pronounce them many times aloud.

In the second column in this list is given the incorrect pronunciation, which we often hear.

Acoustics a-cow-stics
Aeroplane air-e-o-plane
Apron a-pron
Athlete ath-a-lete
Autopsy au-top'-sy
Awkward awk-ard
Column col-yum
Coupon coo-pon
Deficit de-fic'it
Diphtheria dip-ther-y
Economic ee'co-nom-ic
Errand ur-rant
Faucet fos-set
Figure fig-ger
Film fill-um
Finance fi'nance
Guardian guar-deen'
Height heighth
Hostile hos-tile'
Hundred hund'erd
Idea i-dee'
Inaugurate in-aug-er-ate
Inquiry in'qui-ry
Inventory in-ven'-to-ry
Length lenth
Magazine mag'-a'zinn
Mischievous mis-chie'-vi-ous
Municipal mu-ni-cip'-al
Opponent op'-ponent
Overalls over-hauls
Rheumatism rheumatiz
Stomach stum-ick
Twice twict
Vaudeville vaw'de-ville

There are a number of words in English which sound very much alike and which we are apt to confuse. For example, I heard a man recently say in a speech that the party to which he belonged had taken slow poison and now needed an anecdote. It is presumed that he meant that it needed an antidote. Some one else remarked that a certain individual had not been expelled but simply expended. He undoubtedly meant that the individual had been suspended.

This confusion in the use of words detracts from the influence which our statements would otherwise have. There are a number of words which are so nearly alike that it is very easy to be confused in the use of them. In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of the most common of these easily confounded words. Add to the list as many others as you can.

+Monday+

Lightening, _to make light_
Lightning, _an electric flash_
Prophesy, _to foretell_
Prophecy, _a prediction_
Accept, _to take_
Except, _to leave out_

+Tuesday+

Advice, _counsel_
Advise, _to give counsel_
Attendants, _servants_
Attendance, _those present_
Stationary, _fixed_
Stationery, _pens_, _paper_, _etc._

+Wednesday+

Formerly, _in the past_
Formally, _in a formal way_
Addition, _process of adding_
Edition, _publication_
Celery, _a vegetable_
Salary, _wages_

+Thursday+

Series, _a succession_
Serious, _solemn_
Precedent, _an example_
President, _chief or head_
Partition, _a division_
Petition, _a request_

+Friday+

Ingenious, _skillful_
Ingenuous, _honest_
Jester, _one who jests_
Gesture, _action_
Lose, _to suffer loss_
Loose, _to untie_

+Saturday+

Presence, _nearness_
Presents, _gifts_
Veracity, _truthfulness_
Voracity, _greediness_
Disease, _illness_
Decease, _death_

THE END AND THE BEGINNING

As we look back over the study of these thirty lessons we find that we have covered quite a little ground. We have covered the entire field of English grammar including punctuation. But our study of English must not conclude with the study of this course. This is simply the foundation which we have laid for future work. You know when students graduate from high school or college the graduation is called the Commencement. That is a peculiarly fitting term, for the gaining of knowledge ought truly to be the commencement of life for us.

Some one has said that the pursuit of knowledge might be compared to a man's marriage to a charming, wealthy woman. He pursued and married her because of her wealth but after marriage found her so charming that he grew to love her for herself. So we ofttimes pursue wisdom for practical reasons because we expect it to serve us in the matter of making a living; because we expect it to make us more efficient workers; to increase our efficiency to such an extent that we may command a higher salary, enter a better profession and be more certain of a job.

All this is well; but we often find that after we have pursued wisdom for these reasons, practical as they are, we have fallen in love with her for her own sake. We begin to take pleasure in her society; we begin to want to know things for the sake of knowing them, for the pleasure that it brings us, quite divorced from any idea of monetary gain.

So while we have urged upon you the study of English because of the great practical benefit that it will be to you, we trust that you have also grown to love the study for its own sake.

Make this but the beginning of your work in the study of English.

INDEX
(by Section No.)

Abbreviations, 486-489

Absolute Construction, 399

Adjectives
Defined, 36
Classification of, 242-245
Qualifying, 246
Limiting, 246
Descriptive, 248
Numeral, 249-250
Demonstrative, 251
How to discover, 247
Interrogative, 255
Indefinite, 256-257
Used as pronouns, 258-259
Used as nouns, 261
Comparison of, 264-271
Participles used as, 272-274
Participle phrases used as, 275

Adverbs
Defined, 41, 282
Use of, 279-281
How to tell, 283
Classes of, 284
Interrogative, 285
Of mode, 286, 397
Phrase Adverbs, 287
To Distinguish from Adj, 288-289
Derivation of, 290
Nouns used as, 291
Comparison of, 292-294
Position of, 295
With Infinitive, 296
Common errors in use of, 297-298

Articles
A and An, use of, 252-253
The, use of, 254

Capital Letters
Need of, 464
Uses of, 22, 60, 465
Rules for, 466-484

Clauses
Defined, 406
Noun, 361-366, 371, 445
Adjective, 367-372, 446
With Conjunctions, 376
Introduced by as, 378
Adverb, 447
Dependent, kinds of, 444-447

Conjunctions
Defined, 52, 331
Uses of, 328
Classes of, 329-330
Co-ordinate, 332-334
Uses of, 336-345
Correlatives, 346
Subordinate, defined, 349
Use of, 347
Classes of, 350-359
Phrase Conjunctions, 360

Connective Words
Classes of, 379
Uses of, 380-385

Contractions, 485

Dictionary, Use of, 4

Exclamatory Words, 390-391

Explanatory Words, 398

Good English, defined, 2

Grammar, English, defined, 10

Independent Expressions, 393

Infinitives
Use of, 151-167
To, omitted, 153-155
Forms of, 156
Passive, 156-157

Interjections
Defined, 57, 388
Classes of, 389