Chapter II (4)

So let us use our dictionary in this way. Do not be satisfied when you have looked up a word simply to know how to spell and pronounce the word and understand somewhat of its meaning. Do not be satisfied until it has become a live word to you. Have a clear image and understanding of just what each word stands for. Use the words in sentences of your own. Use them in your conversation. Make them a part of your every-day life.

Do not pass over any of the words in the lesson without understanding their meaning. Study the poem _Abou Ben Adhem_ in this week's lesson. After you have read it over a number of times, close the book and rewrite the poem in prose in your own language. Then compare your version with the poem. Note where you have used different expressions and decide which is the better, the words used in the poem or your own words. Rewrite it several times until you have a well-written version of this poem.

Exercises such as this will increase your vocabulary and quickly develop the power of expression. No power can come in any department of life without effort having been expended in its acquisition. Our great writers have been careful students. Robert Louis Stevenson says that he has often spent a half a day searching for the particular word which he needed to express precisely the idea in mind. Stevenson is a master of the English and this power came to him by this sort of studious and earnest work.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

AN IMPORTANT WORD

+309.+ Things are not always to be judged by their size. Sometimes the most important things are very small and unimportant in appearance. A great machine is before you. You see its giant wheels, its huge levers. These may seem to be the most important parts of the machine, but here and there throughout this great machine are little screws and bolts. These bind the giant parts together. Without these connecting links, the great wheels and levers and revolving belts could not work together. Let a little bolt slip out of its place in the mechanism, and the great wheels stop, the throbbing machinery comes to a standstill. No work is possible until this little bolt has been replaced.

So in our sentence building, the _preposition_ is the bolt that joins words together. The importance of the preposition in a language increases just in proportion as the nation learns to think more exactly and express itself more accurately.

We found in our last lesson that by changing a preposition we can change the entire meaning of the sentence. A man's life may depend upon the use of a certain preposition. You may swear his life away by bearing testimony to the fact whether you saw him _within_ the house, or _without_ the house; or _before_ dark, or _after_ dark.

+310.+ The preposition is an important word in the sentence. We can use it to serve our purpose in various ways. We have found, for instance, that we can use it:

_First_, to change an adjective into an adjective phrase. As, for example:

The _fearless_ man demands his rights.
The man _without fear_ demands his rights.

_Second_, to change an adverb into an adverb phrase. As, for example:

We want to possess _peacefully_ the fruits of our labor.
We want to possess _in peace_ the fruits of our labor.

_Third_, to express a meaning which we can express in no other way; as, for example, _They are fighting for their country_. There is no single word which we can use to express the meaning which we express in the phrase, _for their country_.

+311.+ So the preposition has given us a new means of expression, _the prepositional phrase_. We can, by its help, use a phrase in place of an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun, and in place of an adverb to modify a verb or an adjective. And we can also use the prepositional phrase to express relationship which we cannot express by a single adjective or adverb.

If I want to tell you that I see a bird in yonder tree, such an expression would be impossible without that little preposition _in_. By the use of various prepositions, I can express to you the relationship between the bird and the tree. I can tell you whether it is _under_ the tree, or _in_ the tree, or _over_ the tree, or flying _around_ the tree, or _near_ the tree. By the use of the various prepositions, I can express accurately the relationship that exists between the _bird_ and the _tree_.

Exercise 1

Look up the list of prepositions in Section 306, on page 184. Use the following pairs of words in sentences and use as many different prepositions as you can to express the different relationships which may be expressed between these words. For example, take the two words, _man_ and _house_. You may say:

The man went _around_ the house.
The man went _about_ the house.
The man went _over_ the house.
The man went _under_ the house.
The man went _without_ the house.
The man went _into_ the house.
The man went _by_ the house.
The man went _beyond_ the house.
The man went _to_ the house.

enemy city
soldiers cannon
man machine
woman factory
children school
government people

A GOVERNING WORD

+312.+ The preposition shows the relation between two words. In this way it enables us to use a noun or a pronoun as a modifying word. For example, in the sentence given above, _I see the bird in the tree_, the preposition _in_ shows the relationship between _bird_ and _tree_, and makes of _tree_ a modifying word. It expresses a different meaning than if we used the word _tree_ as an adjective. For we do not mean that we see a tree bird, but a bird in a tree. So with the help of the preposition _in_, we have used _tree_ as a modifying word.

But the preposition _in_ also governs the form of the word that follows it. Since nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or object, this does not mean any change in the form of the nouns. But pronouns have different forms for the subject and object, so when we use a pronoun with a preposition, we must use the object form. There are seven object forms of the personal pronouns, and after a preposition, always use one of these object forms.

He gave it to _me_.
Give it to _him_.
Give it to _her_.
Add this to _it_.
Bring it to _us_.
I will give it to _you_.
He gave it to _them_.

+313.+ Be careful to always use the object form of the pronoun following a preposition. Observe this also in the use of the relative and interrogative pronoun "who." The object form is "whom." For example:

To whom will you go?
This is the man to whom I wrote.
For whom are you looking?
Where is the woman for whom you would make such a sacrifice?

Where to Put the Preposition

+314.+ The preposition generally precedes its object. This is the reason it was given its name, _preposition_, meaning _to place before_. Sometimes, however, the preposition is separated from its object. This is often true when it is used with an interrogative or relative pronoun. With these pronouns, the preposition is often thrown to the end of the sentence. For example:

This is the book about which I was speaking; _or_, This is the book
which I was speaking about.
To whom shall I give this letter; _or_, Who shall I give this
letter to?

The sentence, _To whom shall I give this letter_, is grammatically correct; but in ordinary usage we use the form, _Who shall I give this letter to?_

While the rule calls for the object form of the relative pronoun after a preposition--so that the use of _to whom_ is grammatically correct--in common usage we use the subject form of the pronoun when it is used so far away from the preposition which governs it. So we find this use common. For example, instead of saying, _For whom is this letter?_ we say, _Who is this letter for?_

+315.+ In poetry also, we often find the object coming before the preposition. For example:

"The interlacing boughs between
Shadows dark and sunlight sheen,
Alternate, come and go."

_Boughs_ is here the object of the preposition _between_, but in this poetic expression the object is placed before the preposition. Note also in the following:

"The unseen mermaid's pearly song,
Comes bubbling up the weeds _among_."

"Forever panting and forever young,
All breathing human passion far _beyond_."

+316.+ After an interrogative adjective, the preposition is also often thrown to the end of the sentence. As, for example:

What men are the people talking _about_?
Which person did you write _to_?

With these few exceptions, however, the preposition usually precedes its object, as:

We were astonished _at_ the news.
He arose _from_ his sleep.

POSSESSIVE PHRASES

+317.+ Review Lesson 4, in which we studied the possessive use of nouns. You will recall that we make the possessive form of the nouns by the use of the apostrophe and _s_. But instead of using the possessive forms of the name of inanimate things; that is, things without life, we generally denote possession by the use of a phrase. Thus we would say, _The arm of the chair_, instead of, _The chair's arm_; or, _The roof of the house_, instead of, _The house's roof_.

+318.+ We also use a possessive phrase when the use of a possessive form would give an awkward construction. As, for example: _Jesus' sayings_. So many hissing sounds are not pleasant to the ear and so, we say instead, _The sayings of Jesus_.

+319.+ We use a phrase also where both nouns are in the plural form. In many words, there is no difference in the sound between a single noun in the possessive form and a plural noun in the possessive form. We can readily tell the meaning when it is written, because the place of the apostrophe indicates the meaning, but when it is spoken the sound is exactly the same. As, for example:

The lady's hats.
The ladies' hats.

Written out in this way, you know that in the first instance I am speaking of the hats belonging to one lady, but in the second instance of the hats belonging to two or more ladies. But when it is spoken, you can not tell whether I mean one lady or a number of ladies. So we use a phrase and say, _The hats of the lady_; or, _The hats of the ladies_. Then the meaning is entirely clear.

+320.+ Sometimes we want to use two possessives together, and in this case it is better to change one of them into a phrase; for example, _This is my comrade's father's book_. This is an awkward construction. Say instead, _This is the book belonging to my comrade's father_.

+321.+ Do not overlook the fact, however, that the phrase beginning with _of_ does not always mean possession. Consider the following examples and see if there is not a difference in meaning:

The history of Wilson is interesting.
Wilson's history is interesting.

In the first instance, I mean the history of Wilson's life is interesting; in the second instance I mean the history belongs to or written by Wilson is interesting. So there is quite a difference in the meaning. The phrase _of Wilson_ used in the first example does not indicate possession.

Note the difference in meaning between the following sentences:

The picture of Millet is good.
Millet's picture is good.

The statue of Rodin stands in the park.
Rodin's statue stands in the park.

Would you say:

The invention of gunpowder, or gunpowder's invention?
The destruction of Louvain, or Louvain's destruction?
The siege of Antwerp, or Antwerp's siege?
The boat's keel, or the keel of the boat?

COMMON ERRORS

+322.+ Prepositions are usually very small and seemingly unimportant words, yet we make a great many mistakes in their use. It is these little mistakes that are most difficult to avoid.

Notice carefully in your own speech this week, and in the conversation which you overhear, the use of the prepositions. Notice especially the following cautions:

+1. Do not use prepositions needlessly.+ We often throw a preposition in at the close of a sentence which we have already used in the sentence, and which we should not use again. The little preposition _at_ is most frequently used in this way. See how many times this week you hear people use such phrases as:

At which store do you trade at?
At what corner did you stop at?

The last _at_ is entirely unnecessary. It has already been used once and that is enough. We also use _at_ and _to_ at the close of sentences beginning with an interrogative adverb, where they are not necessary. For example, we say:

Where did you go to?
Where did you stop at?
Where am I at?

The correct form of these sentences is:

Where did you go?
Where did you stop?
Where am I?

Do not use _at_ and _to_ in this way, they are entirely superfluous and give a most disagreeable sound to the sentence. Do not close a sentence with a preposition in this way.

+2. Do not omit the preposition where it properly belongs.+ For example, we often say:

The idea is no use to me.

We should say, _The idea is of no use to me_.

I was home yesterday.

We should say, _I was at home_ yesterday.

+3. Do not use the preposition _of_ with a verb that requires an object.+ The noun cannot be the object of both the verb and the preposition. As, for example:

He does not remember _of_ seeing you.
Do you approve _of_ his action?

_Remember_ and _approve_ are both incomplete verbs requiring an object, and the nouns _seeing_ and _action_ are the objects of the incomplete verbs _remember_ and _approve_. The preposition _of_ is entirely superfluous. The sentences should read:

He does not remember seeing you.
Do you approve his action?

Other verbs with which we commonly use the preposition _of_ in this way are the verbs _accept_ and _recollect_. As, for example:

Will you accept _of_ this kindness?
Will you try to recollect _of_ it?

These sentences should read:

Will you accept this kindness?
Will you try to recollect it?

The Correct Preposition

+323.+ We make a great many mistakes also in the choice of prepositions. For example, the preposition _between_ refers to two objects and should never be used when you are speaking of more than two, thus:

We settled the quarrel _between_ the two men.

This is correct, but it is incorrect to say:

We settled the quarrel _between_ the members of the Union.

We cannot settle a quarrel between a _dozen_ people. When there are more than two, use the word _among_. We can perhaps attempt to settle a quarrel _among_ a dozen people. _Between_ refers to two objects, _among_ refers to more than two. For example:

Divide the work _between_ the two men.
Divide the work _among_ twenty men.

+324.+ Do not confuse the use of _in_ and _into_. When entrance is denoted use _into_. As, for example:

He came into the room.
He got into the auto.

Often the use of _in_ will give an entirely different meaning to the sentence. For example:

He ran _in_ the water.
He ran _into_ the water.
The man acted as our guide _in_ the city.
The man acted as our guide _into_ the city.
The horse ran _in_ the pasture.
The horse ran _into_ the pasture.

+325.+ Do not use _below_ and _under_ to mean _less_ or _fewer_ in regard to an amount or number. _Below_ and _under_ have reference to place only. It is correct to say:

He went _under_ the bridge.
He came out _below_ the falls.

But it is incorrect to say:

The price is _below_ cost.
There were _under_ fifty present.

Say instead:

The price is _less_ than cost.
There were _fewer_ than fifty present.

+326.+ Do not misuse _over_ and _above_. These prepositions have reference only to _place_. They are incorrectly used to mean _more than_ or _greater than_.

It is correct to say:

The boat anchored above the landing.
He flew over the city.

It is incorrect to say:

He bought above a hundred acres.
He lives over a mile from here.

These sentences should be:

He bought more than a hundred acres.
He lives more than a mile from here.

THE PREPOSITION WITH VERBS

+327.+ In our first lesson on prepositions, we had a list of verbs and the correct preposition to use with these verbs. There are a few words which we use very commonly in which the meaning is slightly different according to the preposition which we use in connection with the verb. Foreigners especially who are learning the English language have great difficulty with the prepositions. Here are a few of these common words:

+Adapt.+ With _adapt_ we can use either the preposition _to_ or _for_. For example; we adapt ourselves _to_ circumstances, that is, we accommodate or conform ourselves; but a thing can be adapted _for_ a certain purpose.

+Agree.+ We can use the prepositions _with_ and _to_ with the verb _agree_, but with different meanings. For example, we say, We agree _with_ you about a certain matter; and, We agree _to_ the proposal which you make.

+Ask.+ We ask a favor _of_ a person. We ask a friend _for_ a favor. We ask _about_ some one or thing that we wish to hear about.

+Charge.+ There are several prepositions we can use with the verb _charge_. Your grocer charges you _for_ the things that you buy. If you run an account you are charged _with_ a certain amount. These things are charged _to_ you; but in war the enemy charges _upon_ you.

+Compare.+ One thing is compared _with_ another in quality, but it is compared _to_ another when we are using the comparison for an illustration.

+Complain.+ We make complaint _to_ the manager _of_ the things we do not like.

+Comply.+ We comply _with_ the request of another, but he does a thing _in_ compliance _with_ that request. Do not use the preposition _to_ with compliance.

+Correspond.+ With correspond, we use either the preposition _with_ or _to_. For example, I may correspond _with_ you, meaning that I communicate with you by letter, but one thing corresponds _to_ another, meaning that it is like the other.

+Disgust.+ We are disgusted _with_ our friends sometimes _at_ the things which they do. We are disgusted _with_ people and _at_ things.

+Reconcile.+ With reconcile, we use either the preposition _with_ or _to_. For example, I may become reconciled _with_ you; that is, I am restored to friendship or favor after an estrangement. But we reconcile one thing _to_ another; that is, we harmonize one thing with another.

+Taste.+ We have a taste _for_ music, art or literature, but we enjoy the taste _of_ good things to eat. When taste refers to one of the five senses, use the preposition _of_, but when you use it to mean intellectual relish or enjoyment, use the preposition _for_.

Exercise 2

Mark all of the prepositional phrases in the following poem:

THE ANGEL OF DISCONTENT

When the world was formed and the morning stars
Upon their paths were sent,
The loftiest-browed of the angels was made
The Angel of Discontent.

And he dwelt with man in the caves of the hills,
Where the crested serpents sting,
And the tiger tears and the she-wolf howls,
And he told of better things.

And he led them forth to the towered town,
And forth to the fields of corn,
And told of the ampler work ahead,
For which his race was born.

And he whispers to men of those hills he sees
In the blush of the misty west;
And they look to the heights of his lifted eye--
And they hate the name of rest.

In the light of that eye does the slave behold
A hope that is high and brave;
And the madness of war comes into his blood--
For he knows himself a slave.

The serfs of wrong by the light of that eye
March with victorious songs;
For the strength of the right comes into their hearts
When they behold their wrongs.

'Tis by the light of that lifted eye
That error's mists are rent;
A guide to the table-lands of Truth
Is the Angel of Discontent.

And still he looks with his lifted eye,
And his glance is far away,
On a light that shines on the glimmering hills
Of a diviner day.

--_Sam Walter Foss_.

Exercise 3

Mark all of the prepositions in the following poem. Write out the entire phrases and mark the word which is the object of the preposition. For example, in the phrase in the second line; _from a rich dream_, _dream_ is the object of the preposition _from_; and _a_ and _rich_ modify the noun _dream_.

Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase)
Awoke one night from a rich dream of peace,
And saw, within the moonlight of his room,
Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom,
An angel, writing in a book of gold.
Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold,
And to the Presence in the room he said,
"What writest thou?" The Vision raised its head,
And, with a look made of all sweet accord,
Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord."
"And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so,"
Replied the Angel. Abou spoke, more low,
But cheerily still; and said, "I pray thee, then,
Write me as one that loves his fellow-men."
The angel wrote and vanished. The next night
It came again, with a great wakening light,
And showed the names whom love of God had blessed,
And lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest.

--_Leigh Hunt_.

SPELLING

LESSON 19

There are a few prepositions which might really be called derivative prepositions.

1. A few prepositions are formed from verbs. These are really participle prepositions, for they are the present participles of the verbs but have come to be used like prepositions. These are such as _concerning_, _excepting_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _during_, _according_, etc. Nearly all of these participle prepositions can be expressed by a preposition phrase, as for example, we can either say; I wrote _regarding_ these facts, or I wrote you _in regard to_ these facts. I mentioned them all _excepting_ the last, or, I mentioned them all _with the exception of_ the last. I have gone _according_ to the directions, or, I have gone _in accord with_ the directions.

2. Derivative prepositions are also formed by prefixing _a_ to other parts of speech, as _along_, _around_, _abroad_, etc. Strictly speaking these might be called compound prepositions for the prefix _a_ is really from the preposition _on_.

3. We have also compound prepositions formed:

By uniting two prepositions, as _into_, _within_, _throughout_, etc.

By uniting a preposition and some other part of speech, usually a noun or an adjective, as _beside_, _below_ and _beyond_.

We also have a number of compound verbs which are made by prefixing a preposition to a verb. Some of these compound words have quite a different meaning from the meaning conveyed by the two words used separately; as for example, the compound verb _withstand_, derived from the preposition _with_ and the verb _stand_, has almost the opposite meaning from _stand with_.

Our spelling lesson this week includes a number of these compound verbs formed by the use of the verb and a preposition. Look up the meaning in the dictionary. Use them in sentences in the compound form; then the two words separately as a verb and a preposition and note the difference in the meaning.

+Monday+

Upset
Withdraw
Outrun
Overlook
Understand

+Tuesday+

Oversee
Undergo
Outnumber
Withhold
Overcome

+Wednesday+

Overflow
Undertake
Overreach
Overthrow
Outshine

+Thursday+

Overhear
Withstand
Overgrow
Overhaul
Overrun

+Friday+

Concerning
Regarding
Respecting
According
Excepting

+Saturday+

Against
Throughout
Around
Between
Beneath

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 20

Dear Comrade:

We are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of speech. We have spent some little time on the study of these parts of speech, but it has been time well spent. We cannot use good English and construct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate knowledge of the words we use in sentence building. As soon as we finish the study of the parts of speech, we will spend several weeks in sentence building. This will give us a review of these lessons in which we have studied separate words.

The English language is one of the most interesting of all to study. It is the most truly international of all languages, for the English language contains words from almost every language in the world. Did you ever stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as well as in other things? We can be as narrowly patriotic concerning words as concerning anything else.

Nations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their language as barbarians. Germany, perhaps, possesses as strong a nationalistic spirit as any country, and in Germany this spirit has found expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all foreign words out of the German language. They have published handbooks of native words for almost every department of modern life. They insist that the people use these words, instead of foreign importations. The German State takes great pride in the German language and considers it the most perfect of any spoken today. The rulers of Germany believe that it is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations speak the German language. In conquered Poland, only German is permitted to be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce. The patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection between purity of language and purity of race.

In English, however, we have the beginnings of an international speech. Our civilization is derived from various sources. Here in America we are truly the melting-pot of the nations, and this is mirrored forth in our language which is, in a way, a melting-pot also, in which have been thrown words from every tongue. Those for whom nationalism is an important thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed language, but to those of us to whom Internationalism is not an empty word, but a living ideal, an international language becomes also part of the ideal.

There is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained a command of the English language. Pay especial attention to the quotations given in each lesson. These are quotations from the very best literature. If there are any of them that arouse your interest and you would like to read more from the same author, write us and we shall be glad to furnish you full information concerning further reading.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CONJUNCTIONS

+328.+ You remember that in Lesson 3, where we studied the parts of speech, we found that we had another connective word besides the preposition,--the conjunction.

A preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other. The conjunction plays a different part as a connective, for it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses. Note the following sentences:

Shall we be men _or_ machines?
We must struggle for ourselves _and_ for our children.
We pray for peace _but_ furnish ammunition for war.

The use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition, for, by its use, where two subjects have the same predicate or two predicates have the same subject, we can combine it all into one sentence.

You will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us. If we did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would have to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition. If we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things, without conjunctions, we would have each time to repeat the entire statement. Try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of conjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective words play in our power of expression.

Without the use of the conjunction, you would necessarily use a great many short expressions and repeat the same words again and again, and your description would be a jerky, tiresome, unsatisfactory piece of writing.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the following sentences, writing in separate sentences the clauses that are united by the conjunctions:

1. The birds are singing _and_ spring is here.
2. We talk of peace, _but_ war still rages.
3. The unemployed cannot find work _and_ they are dying of hunger.
4. We believed in war for defense _and_ every nation is now fighting
for defense.
5. We believe in education _and_ we are struggling for universal
education.
6. The old order is fast passing _and_ the new order is rapidly
appearing.
7. Profit is the keynote of the present, _but_ service shall be the
keynote of the future.
8. All children should be in school, _but_ thousands must earn their
bread.

Note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and each clause must contain a subject and a predicate.

Exercise 2

Rewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a repetition of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a paragraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can:

One hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education.
As a result we have our public schools of today.
Our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression.
Our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression.
Our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of
such liberty as we enjoy.
Our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal.
Our public school system is the most democratic of our institutions.
There has been a subtle subversion of the ideal.
The public school system has been made to serve the master class.
We have spent millions to make the ideal a reality.
Have we realized the ideal?
Is there universal education?
Is there education for every child beneath the flag?
The grounds of our public schools have cost millions.
The buildings have cost millions.
The courses of study are many.
They are varied.
They are elaborate.
But the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast.
The children of the workers do not enjoy this feast.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS

+329.+ Conjunctions are divided into classes, as are other parts of speech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence.

We are united _and_ we shall win.
_When_ we are united, we shall win.

In the first sentence the conjunction _and_ connects the two clauses, _we are united_ and _we shall win_. They are both independent clauses, neither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance. But by the use of the conjunction _when_, instead of the conjunction _and_, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a difference in saying, _We are united and we shall win_, and _When we are united we shall win_.

By connecting these two statements with the conjunction _when_, we have made of the clause, _we are united_, a dependent clause, it modifies the verb phrase _shall win_. It tells _when_ we shall win, just as much as if we had used an _adverb_ to modify the verb phrase, and had said, _We shall win tomorrow_, instead of, _We shall win when we are united_.

So in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions, the conjunction _and_, which connects clauses of equal rank or order, and the conjunction _when_, which connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

+330.+ So the conjunctions like _and_ are called co-ordinate conjunctions. _Co-ordinate_ means literally of equal rank or order. Conjunctions like _when_ are called sub-ordinate conjunctions. _Sub-ordinate_ means of inferior rank or order.

So we have our definitions:

+331.+ +A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or clauses.+

+A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses having the same rank.+

+A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.+

CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

+332.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of equal rank.+ The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are; _and_, _but_, _or_, _nor_.

+333.+ But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs, which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not always conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial meaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the connection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus:

I am not in favor of the motion, _nevertheless_ I shall vote for it.
The deputies voted for the war appropriation, _notwithstanding_ they
had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda.
I did not believe in the change, _however_ I did not oppose it.

+334.+ The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial meaning also, are; _therefore_, _hence_, _still_, _besides_, _consequently_, _yet_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _else_, _than_, _also_, _accordingly_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _otherwise_, _however_, _so_ and _furthermore_.

These conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve to introduce and connect new statements.

+335.+ We often use these conjunctions, and also, _and_, _but_, _or_, and _nor_, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to connect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph, thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it.

+336.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.+

NOUNS

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more _nouns_ used as the subject of a verb. As:

_Death_ and _disaster_ follow in the wake of war.

In this sentence, _death_ is just as much the subject of the verb _follow_ as is the word _disaster_, but no more so. You can omit either of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They are both of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and neither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the subject of the sentence. This is called the _compound subject_, for it consists of two simple subjects.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the _object_ of a verb.

He studies history and science.

In this sentence the words _history_ and _science_ are both used as objects of the verb _studies_.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a _preposition_.

He called for the letters and the papers.

In this sentence _letters_ and _papers_ are both objects of the preposition _for_, connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_.

Exercise 3

Note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under compound subjects.

1. John and Henry are going home.
2. Music and painting are fine arts.
3. The grounds and buildings of our public schools have cost millions.
4. The time calls for brave men and women.
5. We struggle for truth and freedom.
6. Will you study English or arithmetic?
7. Education and organization are necessary for success.
8. We must learn the truth about production and distribution.
9. We demand justice and liberty.
10. The great struggle is between the working class and the ruling
class.

PRONOUNS

+337.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns.+

These are used in the same way as nouns,--either as subject or object. Nouns have the same form whether used as subject or object. Pronouns, however, have different forms when used as the object. Here is where we often make mistakes in the use of pronouns. When the pronouns are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are used in the same construction;--if they are used as subjects both must be used in the subject form;--if they are used as objects, both must be used in the object form. For example, it is incorrect to say, _He told the story to her and I_. Here _her_ is properly used in the object form, for it is the object of the preposition _to_; the pronoun _I_ connected with _her_ by the use of the conjunction _and_ is also the object of the preposition _to_, and the object form should be used. You would not say, _He told the story to I_. The sentence should read, _He told the story to her and me_.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _subject_ of a sentence, as for example:

_She_ and _I_ arrived today.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the _object_ of the verb, as for example:

Did you call _her_ or _me_?

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the _preposition_, as:

He gave that to _you_ and _me_.

Exercise 4

Study closely the following sentences and correct those in which the wrong form of the pronoun is used.

1. He and I are old friends.
2. Did you ask him or me?
3. They promised him and I that they would come.
4. Find the place for she and me.
5. Me and him will get it for you and she.
6. She and I will go with you.
7. You and I must decide matters for ourselves.
8. You will find him and her to be loyal comrades.

VERBS

+338.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs.+ Verbs connected in this way have the same subject; and with the use of the conjunction to connect the verbs, we save repeating the subject.

He _reads_ and _studies_ constantly.

In this sentence _reads_ and _studies_ are words of the same kind and of the same rank; either could be omitted and the other would make a predicate for the sentence. They are of equal importance in the sentence and are connected by the conjunction _and_. They have a single subject, the pronoun _he_.

This is called a compound predicate.

In the sentence, _He reads constantly_, we have a simple predicate, the single verb _reads_; but in the sentence, _He reads and studies constantly_, we have a compound predicate, compound of the two verbs _reads_ and _studies_. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate. As, for example:

John and James read and study constantly.

In this sentence _John_ and _James_ is the compound subject of both the verbs, _read_ and _study_. So we have a compound subject and a compound predicate.

Exercise 5

Notice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Draw lines under each compound predicate.

1. The days come _and_ go in a ceaseless round.
2. The brave man dreams _and_ dares to live the dream.
3. The coward dreams _but_ dares not live the dream.
4. We produce splendidly _but_ distribute miserably.
5. The bought press twists _and_ distorts the facts.
6. Only a traitor aids _or_ supports the enemy.
7. We agitate _and_ educate for the cause of liberty.

ADJECTIVES

+339.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives.+

In this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word without tiresome repetition. When several adjectives are used to modify the same word, the conjunction is used only between the last two adjectives. As, for example:

A _simple_, _clear_ and _concise_ course has been prepared.

Exercise 6

In the following sentences, underscore the adjectives which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.

1. The plains of France are covered with the dead and dying soldiers.
2. Education should be both universal and free.
3. They are faithful and loyal comrades.
4. This was only our just and legal right.
5. Old and hoary was the man who sat on the stool by the fireless and
godless altar.
6. The service of humanity is a sweet and noble task.
7. We must be brave and true.
8. He lived a noble and courageous life.
9. All was old and cold and mournful.
10. Most powerful and eloquent is the voice of the disinherited.

ADVERBS

+340.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs.+ This gives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the tiresome repetition of the verb. For example:

He spoke _fluently_ and _eloquently_.

Exercise 7

In the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions:

1. Man selfishly and greedily prevents his fellow men from the
enjoyment of nature's bounties.
2. She is wonderfully and gloriously brave.
3. He speaks eloquently and impressively, but very slowly.
4. Nature has provided lavishly and bountifully for her children.
5. Advice spoken truly and wisely is always in season.
6. We must resist injustice bravely and courageously.
7. He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class.
8. He writes easily and rapidly.
9. The words, calmly and coolly spoken, were instantly opposed.
10. He reached that conclusion naturally and inevitably.
11. He was gently but unwaveringly firm.
12. The revolution comes slowly but surely.

PHRASES

+341.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used, not only to connect words, but also to connect phrases.+

Verb Phrases

+342.+ Verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions. For example:

The People's College _is owned_ and _controlled_ by the working class.
We _have made_ and _are making_ a fierce struggle for a free press.

In this last sentence the two verb phrases, _have made_ and _are making_ are connected by the co-ordinate conjunction _and_. Often in using verb phrases, we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both phrases. When this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted in the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the conjunction. As, for example:

The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class.

In this sentence the helping verb _is_ belongs in both the phrases but is omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding sentence. In the second phrase, only the past participle _controlled_ is used. It is understood that we mean,

The People's College _is owned_ and _is controlled_ by the working
class.

Exercise 8

Note the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect the verb phrases. Supply the helping verb where it is omitted.

1. Our system of education is rooted and grounded in outgrown dogmas.
2. We have written but have received no answer.
3. Will you come or stay?
4. Man must struggle or remain in slavery.
5. The workers are organizing and demanding their rights.
6. We must arouse and educate our comrades.
7. We have sought but have not found.

Prepositional Phrases

+343.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional phrases.+

These phrases may be used as adjective phrases. For example:

The books _in the book case_ and _on the table_ belong to me.

These phrases may be used as adverb phrases. For example:

He works _with speed_ and _with ease_.

Exercise 9

Note in the following sentences, the prepositional phrases which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Mark which are used as adjective and which as adverb phrases.

1. Education is the road out of ignorance and into the light.
2. The army charged over the plain and up the hill.
3. The first men lived in groups and in clans.
4. Democracy means government of the people and by the people.
5. Shall we take the path toward progress or toward barbarism.
6. They are not fighting for their country but for their king.
7. Human rights are not protected by the law nor by the courts.
8. The problem of the working class and of society is the problem of
equitable distribution.
9. They are deceived by their leaders and by their press.
10. You can pay either by the week or by the month.
11. Our government is not the rule of the majority but of the
minority.

Infinitives and Participles

+344.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives and participles.+

Exercise 10

In the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.

1. Those words will inspire us to dream and to dare.
2. We shall learn to produce and to distribute.
3. To be or not to be, that is the question.
4. Puffing and panting, the great engine pulled up to the station.
5. A cringing and trembling coward fears to demand his own.
6. The warped and twisted facts in the daily press deceive the masses.
7. Singing and dancing should be enjoyed by all children.
8. The exploiting and robbing of the people is made a virtue in ruling
class ethics.

CLAUSES

+345.+ +Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of equal rank.+ For example:

_The floods came and the winds blew._

Each of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself, but they are combined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate conjunction, _and_. Clauses united in this way may have a compound subject and a compound predicate, but two complete clauses must be united by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound sentence. For example:

The rain and snow fell, _and_ the wind blew a mighty gale.

Here the first clause in the compound sentence, _the rain and snow fell_, contains a compound subject, _rain and snow_.

The boys are running and shouting, _and_ the girls are gathering flowers.

Here the first clause has a compound predicate, _are running_ and _shouting_. The second _and_ connects the two clauses forming the compound sentence.

CORRELATIVES

+346.+ Certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs, such as _both, and_; _either, or_; _neither, nor_; _whether, or_. These pairs are called correlatives. The first word in the pair, as, _both_, _either_, _neither_, or _whether_, is used as an assistant conjunction helping the other to do the connecting. These are used in such sentences as:

I have _both_ seen _and_ heard him.
They will join us _either_ in April _or_ in May.
Labor has received _neither_ liberty _nor_ justice.
_Whether_ to go forward _or_ to retreat was the problem.

Note that _nor_ is always the proper correlative to use with _neither_ and also with the negatives _not_ and _never_ when they apply to what follows as well as to what precedes. For example:

There are thousands in this country who can _neither_ read _nor_
write.
_Neither_ you _nor_ I can foretell the future.
He will _not_ write _nor_ should you.
Capital punishment is _nothing_ more _nor_ less than legalized murder.
We shall _never_ lower our colors _nor_ retreat.

_Or_ is always used with the correlative _either_. For example:

We will _either_ come _or_ write you.
_Either_ he was mistaken _or_ he deliberately lied.

Exercise 11

Note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions _and_, _but_, _or_ and _nor_, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use of _and_ as an introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting it with that which has gone before.

In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of
intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the
human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber
make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a
traitor.

They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of
man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room
for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for
every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave,
and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my
own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express
what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man
and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars,
under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being.

All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I
do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim
that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have
descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I
have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is
an intellectual thief and robber.

Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the
chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth,
and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into
partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for
his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most
work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how
to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty;
liberty is wealth.

It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the
man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to
those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves,
exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a
generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when
there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid
women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I
don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't
know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do
know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never
touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander
glory, than liberty for man, woman and child.

Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever
in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist.
But come and take up thine abode with the children of men
forever.--_Ingersoll_.

SPELLING

LESSON 20

We found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other words. We also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other words. Derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways:

1. By adding suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffix _ly_, as for example; _chiefly_, _truly_, _really_, _lately_, etc.

2. By changing _ble_ to _bly_, as in _ably_, _nobly_, etc.

3. By adding the suffix _ward_, as in _forward_, _upward_, _skyward_, _downward_, _homeward_, etc.

4. We have some adverbs formed by adding the prefix _a_ to adjectives and nouns, as _ahead_, _afoot_, _afresh_, also by adding the prefix _be_, as in _besides_, _beyond_.

We often misspell a number of adverbs by adding _s_ where it does not rightfully belong; as, _anywheres_, _everywheres_, _backwards_, _forwards_, _towards_, _upwards_, _downwards_, _afterwards_, _homewards_, etc. All of these words should be written without the _s_.

We also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of two other parts of speech, such as _sometime_, _henceforth_, _forever_, _overheard_, _outside_, etc.

In the lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, adjectives are given having opposite meanings. Make the proper adverbs from these adjectives by the addition of the suffix _ly_.

Thursday's and Friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and adverbs that end in _ly_. Look up in your dictionary and be sure you know which are adjectives and which are adverbs.

Saturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs.

+Monday+

Haughty--Humble
Wise--Ignorant
Careful--Careless
Firm--Wavering

+Tuesday+

Honest--Deceitful
Fearful--Fearless
Punctual--Tardy
Identical--Different

+Wednesday+

Thoughtful--Thoughtless
Rich--Poor
Attentive--Inattentive
Industrious--Lazy

+Thursday+

Quickly
Lovely
Clearly
Cleanly

+Friday+

Homely
Truly
Courtly
Nearly

+Saturday+

Otherwise
Herewith
Sometime
Always

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 21

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order of the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last. The need of connective words does not come in any language until the language is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective words, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the child begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the things with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that express what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to reason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the relationship existing between things.