Chapter I (3)

+140.+ +The future perfect progressive describes an action which will be progressing at some future time. It is formed by using the future perfect time form of the verb _be_ and the present participle.+

Future Perfect Progressive

_Singular_ _Plural_

1st. I shall have been seeing. We shall have been seeing.
2d. You will have been seeing. You will have been seeing.
3d. He will have been seeing. They will have been seeing.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences mark all the progressive forms, and note whether they are present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or future perfect.

1. The old order is passing.
2. Men will be struggling for freedom so long as slavery exists.
3. The class struggle has been growing more intense as wealth has
accumulated.
4. The workers are realizing their power.
5. He had been talking for an hour when we arrived.
6. Next Monday I shall have been working for one year.
7. The workers will be paying interest on war debts for generations
to come unless they repudiate.
8. While Marx was writing his books, he lived in abject poverty.
9. The Industrial Relations Commission has been investigating
industrial conditions.
10. Ferrer was martyred because the Modern Schools were educating the
people.
11. The nations of Europe had been preparing for war for many years.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

+141.+ Notice carefully the following sentences; select the subjects in these sentences which show _who_ or _what_ performed the action; select the subjects that show _who_ or _what_ receives the action. Do you notice any difference in the meaning of these sentences? Do you notice any difference in their form?

The engine struck the man.
The man was struck by the engine.

The system enslaves men.
Men are enslaved by the system.

Leaders often betray the people.
The people are often betrayed by leaders.

Let us look carefully at the first two sentences. You remember when we studied transitive verbs we found that every transitive verb had an _object_ which was the receiver of the action expressed in the verb. Now you notice in this first sentence, _The engine struck the man_, we have the transitive verb _struck_. _Engine_ is the subject of the verb and _man_ is the object of the verb, the receiver of the action expressed by the verb _struck_.

Now in the sentence, _The man was struck by the engine_, we have the same thought expressed but in a different manner. The word _man_, which was the object of the verb _struck_ in the first sentence, has now become the subject of the sentence, and we have changed our verb form from _struck_ to _was struck_. In the first sentence of the subject, _engine_ was the _actor_. In the second sentence, _The man was struck by the engine_, the subject of the sentence, _man_, is the _receiver_ of the action expressed in the verb.

+142.+ So we have thus changed the verb form from _struck_ to _was struck_ to indicate that the subject of the verb is the receiver of the action. _Struck_ is called the active form of the verb because the subject of the verb is the actor. _Was struck_ is called the passive form of the verb because the subject receives the action. Passive means _receiving_. In the passive form the subject is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb.

+143.+ You remember that complete verbs have no object or complement, therefore it would follow that they cannot be put in the passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take the complete verb, _sleep_, for example. We do not _sleep_ anything, hence _sleep_ has no passive form for there is no object which can be used as the subject, the receiver of the action.

+Only transitive verbs can be put into the passive form.+ Remember that a transitive verb in the passive form is one that represents its subject as receiving the action.

The present, past, future and all the perfect time forms of transitive verbs can be changed from active to passive. The progressive time forms can be changed into the passive, but it makes an awkward construction and should be avoided as much as possible. Occasionally, however, we find it worth our while to use these forms, as for example:

The book is being written by the man.

This is the passive form of the present progressive, _The man is writing a book_.

The book was being written by the man.

This is the passive form of the past progressive, _The man was writing the book_.

+144.+ The future progressive passive is awkward, and the present and past progressive forms are the only forms we find used in the passive. The best writers use them sparingly for we can usually say the same thing by using the active form of the verb and have a sentence which sounds much better.

Exercise 2

All the verbs in the following sentences are _transitive_ verbs in the _active_ form. Rewrite each sentence, putting the verb into the _passive_ form and making the _object_ of the _active_ verb the _subject_ of the _passive_ verb; as, for example, the first sentence should be rewritten as follows:

_War on Russia was declared by Germany on August 1, 1914._

1. Germany declared war on Russia, August 1, 1914.
2. Who will sign the Emancipation Proclamation of the Proletariat?
3. Marx and Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto.
4. Spain murdered Francisco Ferrer, October 13, 1909.
5. We celebrate the first of May as International Labor Day.
6. The people of Paris stormed the Bastille, July 14, 1789.
7. Wat Tyler was leading the English workers in rebellion against
the King when the Mayor of London stabbed him in 1381.
8. The Inquisition burned Bruno at the stake for heresy in 1600.
9. The Paris Commune followed the German siege of Paris in 1871.

SUMMARY

+145.+ Now let us take the verb _see_ and name all the time forms which we can describe with the changes in the verb forms which we have learned to make and also with the verb phrases which we can construct with the help of the verbs, _be_, _have_, _shall_ and _will_.

First, we want to express the present, what is happening now, and we want to put it in both the active and passive forms, so we say:

+PRESENT TIME+

+Active+ +Passive+

_Singular_ _Singular_

I see. I am seen.
You see. You are seen.
He sees. He is seen.

_Plural_ _Plural_

We see. We are seen.
You see. You are seen.
They see. They are seen.

Note that the only change in the verb form in the present ACTIVE is the _s-form_ for the third person singular. In the present passive the only change is the special form of the verb _be_ for the first and third persons, singular.

When we want to tell what occurred yesterday or some time in the past, stated in the active and passive form, we say:

+PAST TIME+

+Active+ +Passive+

_Singular_ _Singular_

I saw. I was seen.
You saw. You were seen.
He saw. He was seen.

_Plural_ _Plural_

We saw. We were seen.
You saw. You were seen.
They saw. They were seen.

We have one other division of time which we must express--the future. Primitive man doubtless lived principally in the present, but with the development of memory and the means of recording events by a written language, he was able to make the deeds and achievements of the past a vital part of his life. But not until the faculty of thinking developed was the mind able to project itself into the future and make tomorrow the hope of today. Future time expresses hope, desire, growth.

+FUTURE TIME+

+Active+ +Passive+

_Singular_ _Singular_

I shall see. I shall be seen.
You will see. You will be seen.
He will see. He will be seen.

_Plural_ _Plural_

We shall see. We shall be seen.
You will see. You will be seen.
They will see. They will be seen.

Then you remember we had to devise a way of describing an action perfected or completed at the present or at some time in the past or at some time in the future--so we have present perfect, past perfect and future perfect.

+PRESENT PERFECT+

+Active+ +Passive+

_Singular_ _Singular_

I have seen. I have been seen.
You have seen. You have been seen.
He has seen. He has been seen.

_Plural_ _Plural_

We have seen. We have been seen.
You have seen. You have been seen.
They have seen. They have been seen.

+PAST PERFECT+

+Active+ +Passive+

_Singular_ _Singular_

I had seen. I had been seen.
You had seen. You had been seen.
He had seen. He had been seen.

_Plural_ _Plural_

We had seen. We had been seen.
You had seen. You had been seen.
They had seen. They had been seen.

+FUTURE PERFECT+

+Active+ +Passive+

_Singular_ _Singular_

I shall have seen. I shall have been seen.
You will have seen. You will have been seen.
He will have seen. He will have been seen.

_Plural_ _Plural_

We shall have seen. We shall have been seen.
You will have seen. You will have been seen.
They will have seen. They will have been seen.

+146.+ But these are not all the phases of time which we can express. We have progressive, continuous action. So each of these six time forms has a progressive form.

+PRESENT PROGRESSIVE+

+Active+ +Passive+

_Singular_ _Singular_

I am seeing. I am being seen.
You are seeing. You are being seen.
He is seeing. He is being seen.

_Plural_ _Plural_

We are seeing. We are being seen.
You are seeing. You are being seen.
They are seeing. They are being seen.

+PAST PROGRESSIVE+

+Active+ +Passive+

_Singular_ _Singular_

I was seeing. I was being seen.
You were seeing. You were being seen.
He was seeing. He was being seen.

_Plural_ _Plural_

We were seeing. We were being seen.
You were seeing. You were being seen.
They were seeing. They were being seen.

Only the Present and Past Progressive forms have a passive form. The rest of the Progressive forms are expressed in the active forms only.

+FUTURE PROGRESSIVE+

_Singular_ _Plural_

I shall be seeing. We shall be seeing.
You will be seeing. You will be seeing.
He will be seeing. They will be seeing.

+PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+

_Singular_ _Plural_

I have been seeing. We have been seeing.
You have been seeing. You have been seeing.
He has been seeing. They have been seeing.

+PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+

_Singular_ _Plural_

I had been seeing. We had been seeing.
You had been seeing. You had been seeing.
He had been seeing. They had been seeing.

+FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE+

_Singular_ _Plural_

I shall have been seeing. We shall have been seeing.
You will have been seeing. You will have been seeing.
He will have been seeing. They will have been seeing.

Exercise 3

Write the four following sentences in their active and passive forms, as the sentence, _War sweeps the earth_, is written.

1. Education gives power.
2. Knowledge frees men.
3. Labor unions help the workers.
4. The people seek justice.

+Present+ _Active_ War sweeps the earth.
_Passive_ The earth is swept by war.

+Past+ _Active_ War swept the earth.
_Passive_ The earth was swept by war.

+Future+ _Active_ War shall sweep the earth.
_Passive_ The earth shall be swept by war.

+Pres. Per.+ _Active_ War has swept the earth.
_Passive_ The earth has been swept by war.

+Past Per.+ _Active_ War had swept the earth.
_Passive_ The earth had been swept by war.

+Fut. Per.+ _Active_ War shall have swept the earth.
_Passive_ The earth shall have been swept by war.

Exercise 4

Underscore all the verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation. Write all the time forms of the transitive verb, _lose_, as the time forms of the verb _see_ are written in the foregoing table.

When we study the animal world and try to explain to ourselves that
struggle for existence which is maintained by each living being
against adverse circumstances and against its enemies, we realize that
the more the principles of solidarity and equality are developed in an
animal society, and have become habitual to it, the more chance it has
of surviving and coming triumphantly out of the struggle against
hardships and foes. The more thoroughly each member of the society
feels his solidarity with each other member of the society, the more
completely are developed in all of them those two qualities which are
the main factors of all progress; courage, on the one hand, and, on
the other, free individual initiative. And, on the contrary, the more
any animal society, or little group of animals, loses this feeling of
solidarity--which may chance as the result of exceptional scarcity or
else of exceptional plenty--the more the two other factors of
progress, courage and individual initiative, diminish; in the end they
disappear, and the society falls into decay and sinks before its foes.
Without mutual confidence no struggle is possible; there is no
courage, no initiative, no solidarity--and no victory!--_Kropotkin_.

SPELLING

LESSON 8

In pronouncing words of more than one syllable we always lay a little greater stress upon one syllable of the word; that is, that syllable receives the emphasis of the voice so as to make it more prominent than the other syllables. This is called accent, and the syllable which receives the special stress is called the accented syllable.

+Accent is the stress of the voice upon one syllable of the word.+

You will notice when you look up the pronunciation of words in your dictionary that a little mark called the accent mark is placed after the accented syllable, as for example: di-vide'.

Many words differ in meaning according to which syllable receives the accent. Our spelling lesson for this week contains a number of these words.

These words, when accented on the first syllable, are nouns; when accented on the second syllable, they are verbs.

+Monday+

Con' tract Con tract'
Pro' test Pro test'
Rec' ord Re cord'
Im' port Im port'
De' tail De tail'

+Tuesday+

Con' vert Con vert'
Con' flict Con flict'
Prog' ress Pro gress'
Im' press Im press'
Ref' use Re fuse'

+Wednesday+

Con' test Con test'
Con' duct Con duct'
Proj' ect Pro ject'
Des' ert De sert'
Ex' tract Ex tract'

+Thursday+

Con' trast Con trast'
Con' sort Con sort'
Reb' el Re bel'
Con' script Con script'
Pres' ent Pre sent'

+Friday+

Com' pound Com pound'
Re' tail Re tail'
Com' press Com press'
Im' print Im print'
Com' bine Com bine'

+Saturday+

Con' fine Con fine'
Sus' pect Sus pect'
Com' mune Com mune'
Ex' port Ex port'
In' crease In crease'

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 9

Dear Comrade:

You have been studying several weeks now in this Plain English Course and we trust you are enjoying the unfolding of the powers of expression. We have been necessarily studying rules to some extent but you have seen how these grew out of the need for expression. We have been breaking the sentence up into its different parts. First we had the names of things and now we are studying the words used to tell what these things _do_ and _are_--namely verbs. And as our life has grown complex and our powers of thinking diversified covering the whole range of time, past, present and future, we have had to invent many forms of the verb to express it all.

Now do not try to commit these facts concerning the verb to memory. You are not studying English in order to know rules. You are studying English that you may be able to say and write the things you _think_. So first of all, _think_, _think_! That is your inalienable right! Do not accept anything just by blind belief. Think it out for yourself. Study until you see the '_why_' of it all. "Independent thinking has given us the present, and we will forever continue to make tomorrow better than today. The right to think is inalienable, or a man is a machine. Thought is life or a human soul is a thing."

And do not lack the courage of your own thoughts. _You_ do not need to cringe or apologize to any man. "Our life is not an apology but a life." Dare to think and dare to express and live your thought.

Did you ever read Emerson's definition of genius? "To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men,--that is genius." Then he says, "We dismiss without notice our own thoughts, because they are ours. Tomorrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense, precisely what we have thought and felt all along and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another."

Have you not experienced this? How often we hear some one express a truth and we say to ourselves, "That is just what I have long believed but I have never dared say so." We have been so taught all our lives to depend on some outside power and discredit the power within ourselves, that we pay no attention to the thoughts that are ours for who are we that we should dare to think and perchance disagree with those who have assumed authority over us! But that is precisely what we should dare to do--to think and to do our own thinking always. Who dares place anything before a man!

So _think_ as you study these lessons and use these rules and formulas simply as means to an end, as tools to aid you in expressing these thoughts.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PARTICIPLES

+147.+ We have found that the verb has five forms, made by internal changes in the verb itself,--the present time form, the s-form, the past time form, the present participle and the past participle.

We have also found that we can express various time forms by verb phrases formed by using the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_ and _be_ with one of the verb forms. All of these forms are used as the asserting word in the sentence. So long as the verb or verb phrase forms the predicate--the word or words that assert something of the subject--it still remains a verb. But we have found that the participle forms of the verb may be used as other parts of speech while still retaining some of the qualities of the verb.

+148.+ You remember a sentence which we used when we studied participles, _Making shoes is his work_. Here we have the present participle _making_, with its object _shoes_, used as the subject of the verb _is_. Now a noun never takes an object, so _making_ in this sentence is partly a verb, partly a noun, and is called a participle, which means _partaker_.

We have studied and used two forms of participles, the present and the past participle. The present participle always ends in _ing_ and expresses action or existence in the present, or at the time mentioned in the sentence. For example, _being_, _bringing_, _working_, _seeing_, _loving_, _hating_, etc.

The past participle we found to be one of the principal parts of the verb. It expresses action or existence which is past or completed, at the time mentioned in the sentence. It is formed by adding _d_ or _ed_ to the regular verbs and by a change in the form in irregular verbs. For example, regular verbs: _learned_ from _learn_, _defeated_ from _defeat_, _watched_ from _watch_. Irregular verbs: _taught_ from _teach_, _seen_ from _see_, _won_ from _win_.

+We have found that these participles may be used either as nouns or as adjectives.+ As for example:

The _crying_ of the child annoyed the people.
The _crying_ child ran to its mother.
The _coming_ of the new day will bring peace.
We await the _coming_ day of peace.

PARTICIPLE PHRASES

+149.+ The present and the past participles are each single words; but we may also have participle phrases; that is, two or more words used as a participle, as for example:

His _having joined_ the strikers caused him to lose his job.
The man, _having been discharged_, left the mill.

In these sentences we have the participle phrases, _having joined_ and _having been discharged_. _Having joined_ is a participle phrase used as a noun, the subject of the verb _caused_. _Having been discharged_ is a participle phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun _man_. Notice that _having joined_ is an active participle describing the action performed by the man who is referred to by the pronoun _his_. _Having been discharged_ is a passive participle expressing an action of which the subject of the sentence, _man_, is the receiver.

These are both perfect participles, expressing actions which are complete at the present time.

+150.+ We have also progressive participles expressing action which is continuing or progressing. These progressive participles are also used in both the active and the passive forms. The progressive active participle is formed by using _having been_ with the present participle, as _having been working_. The progressive passive participle is formed by using _being_ with the past participle, as for example, _being watched_, _being driven_, _being gone_, etc. So we have six participles, three active and three passive.

Note the following table:

+Active+

_Present._ Sending.

_Perfect._ Having sent.

_Progressive._ Having been sending.

+Passive+

_Past._ Sent.

_Perfect._ Having been sent.

_Progressive._ Being sent.

+These participle phrases may be used either as nouns or as adjectives.+

Exercise 1

In the following sentences mark the participles and the participle phrases. Underscore those used as _nouns_ with a single line; those used as _adjectives_ with two lines.

1. He denies having been hired by the employer.
2. Our friends, having arrived, joined us at dinner.
3. The rain, falling incessantly, kept us from going.
4. Having often seen him passing, I judged he lived near.
5. The man, being discouraged and ill, was unable to do his work well.
6. Happiness shared is happiness doubled.
7. Having finished his work, he rests at last.
8. The army, beaten but not vanquished, waited for the morrow.
9. The men, having been unemployed for months, were desperate.
10. Being prepared will not save us from war.
11. "Rest is not quitting this busy career;
Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere.
It's loving and serving the highest and best;
It's onward, not swerving; and that is true rest."

Exercise 2

Write the six participle forms of the verbs _see_ and _teach_, and use in sentences of your own construction.

INFINITIVES

+151.+ We have found that the various forms of the participles may be used as other parts of speech. They partake of the nature of a verb and either of a noun or an adjective. Notice the following sentences:

Traveling is pleasant.
Eating is necessary.

Can you think of any other way in which you could express the same thought? Do you not sometimes say,

To travel is pleasant.
To eat is necessary.

We have expressed practically the same thought in these two sentences, which is expressed in the sentences above, where we used the participle. _To travel_ and _to eat_ are used as nouns, subjects of the verb _is_ just as _traveling_ and _eating_ are used as nouns, the subjects of the verb _is_.

Here we have another form of the verb used as a noun. When we use the verb in this way, we are not speaking of the _traveling_ or _eating_ as belonging to or being done by any particular person, nor do we indicate whether one person or more than one is concerned in the action. It might be anyone doing the traveling or eating, and it might be one person or a thousand. We are making a general statement of everybody in the world, so we call this form the _infinitive_.

+152.+ Infinite means _unlimited_, without limit as to persons or number. Almost every verb in the language may be used in this way, and since _to_ is generally used before the infinitive, _to_ is often called the sign of the infinitive. For example:

_To be_, or not _to be_, that is the question.
_To have_ and _to hold_ is the problem.
He likes _to travel_.

You note in all of these infinitives _to_ is used with the simple form of the verb.

+153.+ _To_ is generally omitted after verbs like _help_, _hear_, _bid_, _feel_, _let_, _make_, _see_ and _have_, or words of similar meaning. For example:

Help me (to) find it.
He bade me (to) stay.
Feel it (to) shake.
Make him (to) come.
Hear me (to) sing.
Let us (to) go.
See him (to) run.
Have him (to) copy this.

+154.+ _To_ is also omitted after _need_ and _dare_ when _not_ is used.

They need to work.
They need not work.

They dared to come.
They dared not come.

+155.+ _To_ is sometimes omitted after prepositions:

He will do anything for his class, except (to) fight for it.
He would do nothing but (to) go away.

+156.+ We have a number of different forms of the infinitive, both active and passive. Note the following table:

+Active+

_Present._ To love.
_Perfect._ To have loved.
_Present Prog._ To be loving.
_Perfect Prog._ To have been loving.

+Passive+

_Present._ To be loved.
_Perfect._ To have been loved.

+157.+ Notice that only the _present_ and _perfect_ infinitives have the _passive_ form. The progressive infinitives cannot be used in the passive. Remember also that only _incomplete_ verbs, those which require an object to receive the action, can have a passive form.

The verb _loved_, which we have used in the above table, has a passive form because it is an incomplete verb, for there must be that which is the object of our love.

+158.+ The complete verbs,--verbs which require no object,--cannot have a passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take for example the verb _dwell_. This is a complete verb which can have no passive form. You cannot dwell anything, therefore you cannot say _to be dwelt_ or _to have been dwelt_.

+So complete verbs have only the four active forms+, as follows:

+Active+

_Present._ To dwell.
_Perfect._ To have dwelt.
_Present Prog._ To be dwelling.
_Perfect Prog._ To have been dwelling.

+159.+ Infinitives, like participles, may be used either as nouns or adjectives. When used as nouns, they are used in the various ways in which nouns are used. The infinitive may be the _subject_ of a sentence, thus:

_To hesitate_ now will be fatal.
_To be defeated_ is no crime.

+160.+ The infinitive may be the _object_ or _complement_ of the verb. For example:

He wanted _to see_ you.
His desire is _to learn_.

+161.+ The infinitive may be used as the object of a _preposition_; as,

He is about _to go_.
They will do anything for the cause except _to live_ for it.

+162.+ The infinitive may be used as an adjective to modify a noun. For example:

He showed me the way _to go_.
We must have food _to eat_ and clothes _to wear_.
The question _to be decided_ is before us.
Claim your right _to live_.

+163.+ The infinitive may also be used as an adverb to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective or adverb, thus:

He was forced _to go_.
They are slow _to learn_.
The fruit was not ripe enough _to eat_.

Note that the infinitives in these sentences may all be changed into adverb phrases. As for example in the first sentence, He was forced _to go_, the infinitive _to go_, which modifies the verb _forced_, may be changed to the adverb phrase, _into going_, thus, _He was forced into going_. In the second sentence, _They are slow to learn_, the infinitive _to learn_ may be changed into the adverb phrase _in learning_, thus, _They are slow in learning_. In the last sentence, _The fruit is not ripe enough to eat_, the infinitive _to eat_, which modifies the adverb _enough_, may be changed into the adverb phrase, _for eating_, as for example, _The fruit was not ripe enough for eating_.

+164.+ The infinitive is quite a useful form of the verb, and we will find that we use it very frequently in expressing our ideas. While it is not the asserting word in the sentence, it retains the nature of a verb and may have both an object and an adverb modifier. As for example, in the sentence:

I wish _to learn_ my lesson quickly.

_To learn_ is the infinitive, used as a noun, the object of the verb _wish_. The infinitive also has an object, to learn--_what?_ _My lesson_ is the object of the infinitive _to learn_. We also have an adverb modifier in the adverb _quickly_, which tells _how_ I wish to learn my lesson. So the infinitive retains its verb nature, in that it may have an object and it may be modified by an adverb.

Exercise 3

Notice carefully the use of the infinitives in the following sentences. Underscore all infinitives.

1. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.
2. Teach us to think and give us courage to act.
3. Children love to be praised, but hate to be censured.
4. To obey is the creed taught the working class by the masters.
5. To be exploited has always been the fate of the workers.
6. Ferrer wrote on his prison wall, "To love a woman passionately, to
have an ideal which I can serve, to have the desire to fight
until I win--what more can I wish or ask?"
7. The people wish the man to be punished for the crime.
8. Primitive man found plenty of wood to burn.
9. We have learned to use coal and oil.
10. The lecture to have been given this evening has been postponed.
11. They are eager to hear the news.
12. He has failed to come.
13. We felt the house shake on its foundation.
14. Have him find the book for me.
15. To be defeated is no crime; never to have dared is the real crime.
16. The rich will do anything for the poor except to get off their
backs.
17. To have slept while others fought is your shame.
18. Claim your right to do, to dream and to dare.

Exercise 4

Write sentences containing the six infinitive forms of the verb _obey_.

DON'TS FOR INFINITIVES

+165.+ +Don't split your infinitives.+ Keep the _to_ and the infinitive together as much as possible. Don't say, _They intended to never come back_. Say rather, _They intended never to come back_. Sometimes, however, the meaning can be more aptly expressed by placing the adverb modifier between the _to_ and the infinitive, as for example:

To almost succeed is not enough.
It will be found to far exceed our expectations.

In these sentences the adverbs _almost_ and _far_ express our meaning more closely if they are placed between the _to_ and the infinitive. Ordinarily, however, do not split your infinitives, but place the adverb modifier either before or after the infinitive.

+166.+ +Don't use _to_ by itself without the rest of the infinitive.+ Don't say, _Do as I tell you to_. Say instead, _Do as I tell you to do_; or, _Do as I tell you_. Don't say, _He deceived us once and he is likely to again_. Say rather, _He deceived us once and he is likely to deceive us again_, or _to do so again_.

+167.+ +Don't use _and_ for _to_. Don't say, _Try and go if you can_. Say instead, _Try to go if you can_.

Correct the following sentences:

We ought to bravely fight for our rights.
I will do all my employer tells me to.
We shall try and get our lessons.
I ought to at least help my comrades but I am afraid to.

Exercise 5

Study carefully the infinitives in the following quotation. Notice which are active and which are passive infinitives.

The twenty thousand men prematurely slain on a field of battle, mean,
to the women of their race, twenty thousand human creatures _to be
borne_ within them for months, _to be given_ birth to in anguish, _to
be fed_ from their breasts and _to be reared_ with toil, if the
members of the tribe and the strength of the nation are _to be
maintained_. In nations continually at war, incessant and unbroken
child-bearing is by war imposed on all women if the state is _to
survive_; and whenever war occurs, if numbers are _to be maintained_,
there must be an increased child-bearing and rearing. This throws upon
woman, as woman, a war tax, compared with which all that the male
expends in military preparations is comparatively light.

It is especially in the domain of war that we, the bearers of men's
bodies, who supply its most valuable munition, who, not amid the
clamor and ardor of battle, but singly, and alone, with a
three-in-the-morning courage, shed our blood and face death that the
battle-field might have its food, a food more precious to us than our
heart's blood; it is we, especially, who, in the domain of war, have
our word _to say_, a word no man can say for us. It is our intention
_to enter_ into the domain of war and _to labor_ there till in the
course of generations we have extinguished it.--_Olive Schreiner_.

Exercise 6

Mark the participles and infinitives.

Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold!
Bright and yellow, hard and cold,
Molten, graven, hammer'd and roll'd;
Heavy to get, and light to hold;
Hoarded, barter'd, bought, and sold,
Stolen, borrow'd, squander'd, doled:
Spurn'd by the young, but hugg'd by the old
To the very verge of the churchyard mould;
Price of many a crime untold:
Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold!
Good or bad a thousand-fold!
How widely its agencies vary--
To save--to ruin--to curse--to bless--
As even its minted coins express,
Now stamp'd with the image of Good Queen Bess,
And now of a bloody Mary.--_Thos. Hood_.

SPELLING

LESSON 9

In our English lessons, we have been studying the division of words into parts of speech. We have been studying them as we use them in expressing our thoughts but we may study them in other ways also. We may study them as words alone.

Studied in this way we find that we have simple, compound and derivative words. For example, _man_, _man-slaughter_, _manly_. _Man_ is a simple word. _Man-slaughter_ is a compound word formed of two simple words. _Manly_ is a derivative word derived from _man_.

When a compound word is first formed, it is usually written with a hyphen; but after the word has been used awhile the hyphen is often dropped and the two parts are written together as a simple word.

+A simple word is a single word which cannot be divided into other words without changing its meaning.+

+A compound word is composed of two or more simple words into which it may be divided, each retaining its own meaning.+

+A derivative word is one which is derived from a simple word by the addition of another syllable.+

In next week's lesson we will take up the study of these derivatives.

Divide the compound words in this week's lesson into the simple words of which they are composed.

+Monday+

Birthday
Coal-tar
Craftsman
Foreman
Gunpowder

+Tuesday+

Handkerchief
Headquarters
Lawsuit
Lockout
Bookkeeper

+Wednesday+

Motorman
Newspaper
Pasteboard
Postage-stamp
Postmaster

+Thursday+

Salesman
Second-hand
Shirtwaist
Sidewalk
Staircase

+Friday+

Trademark
Time-table
Typewriter
Tableware
Sewing-machine

+Saturday+

Undergarment
Underhand
Water-mark
Woodwork
Workshop

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 10

Dear Comrade:

We have been studying this course in Plain English for some weeks now and I trust that you have been enjoying as well as benefiting by the study of our wonderful and expressive language. Did you ever stop to think what a wonderful step it was in evolution when man first began to use the spoken word? And yet it was a still more wonderful step in advance when he began to use the written word for our highest evolution, and development would have been impossible without the help of written speech. An illiterate man may be a good workman and prosperous so far as the material things of life and his immediate contact with his fellow men are concerned, but we have only to think for a moment of what this world would be if we had no written language, to understand what a mighty power it has been in evolution.

Suppose we had no way by which we could communicate with our friends at a distance. Suppose there were no written words by which we could set down the countless dealings between man and man. What a hopeless tangle this social life of ours would soon become! Suppose also that we had no knowledge of the past, no knowledge of the discoveries and inventions of past generations except that which could be handed down to us through oral speech. All our knowledge of history, of the deeds and development of the past, all the observations by which science has uncovered to us the mysteries of nature would be largely lost to us. It was the invention of writing alone which made possible man's growth from barbarism to civilization, and it is more true than we oftentimes realize, that it is "only a wall of books that separates the civilized man of to-day from the savage of yesterday." And yet I wonder if we have ever stopped to think how this art of writing developed. Knowledge of the alphabet and of the letters by which we form our words and hence are able to express our ideas, has become such a common-place thing to us that we have forgotten what a wonder it is and how it has slowly grown and developed through the centuries. Yet there are races to-day that have no written language such as we know and to whom our written language seems truly a miracle.

The story is told of an Indian who was sent from one colony to another with four loaves of bread accompanied by a letter stating their number. The Indian ate one of the loaves and of course, was found out. The next time when he was sent upon a similar errand he repeated the theft but he took the precaution to hide the letter under a stone while he was eating the bread so that it might not see him!

But it is only the things that we do not understand which we invest with mystery and as we study the story of the alphabet in this series of letters we find that it has been a natural development accomplished by the growing powers of man. In succeeding letters we will trace this most interesting story of the alphabet.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

HELPING VERBS

+168.+ We have found that whenever a verb is used by itself in making an assertion it denotes either present or past time. When we use a verb phrase, it expresses some other time than the past or present. These verb phrases are formed by using _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_, and the various forms of the verb _be_ with some form of the principal verb. These verbs which help to form verb phrases are called _helping_, or _auxiliary verbs_. Auxiliary means helping.

We have used _have_ and _had_ with the past participle to form the present perfect and past perfect time forms. We have used _shall_ and _will_ with different forms of the verb to denote future time, and we have used different forms of the verb _be_ in making the various other time forms. So _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_ and the various forms of the verb _be_ are _helping verbs_, which we use to help us in making verb phrases.

+169.+ But these are not all of the helping verbs. There are other helping verbs which we use in forming verb phrases to express different ideas. These are such verbs as _should_ and _would_, _may_ and _might_, _can_ and _could_, _must_ and _ought_, _do_ and _did_.

Exercise 1

Fill the blank spaces in the following sentences with the appropriate forms of the helping verbs, _shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_ and _be_.

1. When......the workers organize?
2. Education......help us win.
3. The world......had enough of war.
4. We......deceived by the masters.
5. The workers......organized into craft unions.
6. They......never ceased the struggle.
7. The state......founded on exploitation.
8. Mutual aid......been an important factor in evolution.
9. The truth......taught to the people.
10. The victory......gained by the proletariat.
11. The nations of Europe......preparing for war for years.
12. The International......recognized war for defense.
13. We......not made the class distinctions, but we......recognize
them as long as they exist.
14. The evolution of animals and the evolution of
plants......proceeded according to the same general laws.
15. We......never win while the majority remains ignorant.
16. The strikers......betrayed by their leaders.

SHOULD AND WOULD

+170.+ _Should_ and _would_ are the past-time forms of _shall_ and _will_. We use them to express action or existence dependent upon some condition, thus:

I should go if I were well enough.
He should join us if you asked him.

In these sentences _should_ and _would_ express action which is possible now or will be in the future, provided some other action takes place.

The same distinction which we found made in the use _shall_ and _will_ has been made with _should_ and _would_; that is, that _should_ used with the first person, expresses action dependent upon condition; but _would_, used with the first person, implies exercise of the will. This rule is not closely followed, though it expresses a nice distinction in the use of _should_ and _would_. In ordinary usage we use either _should_ or _would_ with the first person without any distinction of meaning, as for example:

I should struggle on even if it meant death.
I would stand for my principles though I stood entirely alone.

We do not use _should_ however, with the second and third persons to express an action or existence dependent upon some condition. _Should_ used with the second and third person implies obligation. _Would_ is used with the second or third person to express an action dependent upon some condition, as for example:

He would not go, even if you insisted.
They would come if you invited them.
You would believe him if you could hear him.
You would be surprised if I should tell you the reason.

+171.+ _Should_ and _would_ in all of the sentences which we have quoted are used to express action or existence dependent upon some condition which is expressed in that part of the sentence introduced by such conjunctions as _if_ and _though_.

The parts of the sentence introduced by these conjunctions express the condition upon which the other action is dependent. When we use _should_ in sentences without this condition, it means practically the same as _ought_, and implies an obligation. We use _should_ with the first and second and third persons when we use it with this meaning, as for example:

I should have gone yesterday.
You should be with us in this fight.
They should never fear defeat.

+172.+ _Ought_ could be used in all these sentences and express practically the same meaning. _Should_ used in this way implies obligation.

Exercise 2

Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verb in that sentence.

1. ...... The workers should organize if they desire to control
production.
2. ...... The proletariat would destroy this system if they
understood their power.
3. ...... Every worker would join his fellows if he could but realize
the class struggle.
4. ...... We would all enjoy plenty if we produced for use instead of
for profit.
5. ...... The ruling class would not give up their privileges even
though they knew that their cupidity endangers society.
6. ...... The injury of one should be the injury of all.
7. ...... The workers' International should stand for the
international solidarity of the workers.
8. ...... You should never fear the ridicule of little minds.
9. ...... You would never fear ridicule if you were conscious of your
own power.
10. ...... No man should fear to think for himself.
11. ...... No man would fear to think for himself if the world were
truly free.
12. ...... Compromise now would mean defeat.

MAY AND MIGHT

+173.+ _May_ used as a helping verb means present permission in regard to an action or possession, as:

You may come with us.
He may have the money.

+174.+ It may also mean a possible action or possession. _You may come with us_, for example, might mean that some time in the future it is possible that you will come with us. _He may have the money_, might mean either _He is given permission to have the money_, or _It is possible that he has it_.

_May_, used with many verb forms, means _it is possible_. For example: _He may be hungry_, _He may have starved_. _He may have been starving_; that is, it is possible that _he is hungry_; that _he has starved_; that _he was starving_.

+175.+ _Might_ is the past form of _may_ and expresses past permission to do or to be and also possibility in the past. For example: _The officer said he might go_. That is, he gave him permission to go. _You might have helped your comrades_; that is, _you had the power to have helped_.

_Might_ is also used to express permission or the power to do in the present and future, on condition. For example:

He might find work if he were trained.
The workers might destroy this insane system if they would.

Exercise 3

Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verbs _may_ or _might_ in that sentence.

1. ...... The solidarity of the workers might have averted this war.
2. ...... "Of all sad words of tongue or pen,
The saddest are these--'it might have been.'"
3. ...... You might join us.
4. ...... The people struggle that they may live.
5. ...... Try; you might succeed.
6. ...... The day may come when this day's deeds shall be remembered.
7. ...... Victory might be ours if we dared to face the issue.
8. ...... "Men may come and men may go;
But I go on forever."
9. ...... It seemed possible that we might win.
10. ...... May we ever be loyal and true!
11. ...... It appeared for a time that we might be involved in war.
12. ...... Let come what may, we will not yield.

CAN AND COULD

+176.+ _Can_ is the present-time form and _could_ the past-time form, and both imply ability or power to do or to be. _You can go_ means _You are able to go_,--_You have the power to go_. _You may go_ means _You have permission to go_. _Can_ is often used when we should use _may_, when we mean to give permission. Habit plays a great part in our life and knowledge of the right way does not always suffice. It is only continued effort that will establish correct habits of speech. Good English would be easy of accomplishment if "to do were as easy as to know what it were good to do."

We are too often like the mother in the story. "Can I have a piece of pie?" asked the child. "May I?" the mother corrected. Then the child asked, "May I have a piece of pie?" and the mother answered, "Yes, you can." Knowledge said, _may_; habit said _can_, and the ready tongue obeyed the force of habit.

Say the correct word over and over aloud until it sounds right to your ear and flows readily to your tongue.

+177.+ _Could_ is sometimes used in the present sense to denote power to do, conditioned upon willingness, as:

He could if he would.

Exercise 4

Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verbs _can_ or _could_ in that sentence.

1. ...... I can say love when others say hate;
I can say every man when others say one man;
What can I do? I can give myself to life,
When other men refuse themselves to life.
2. ...... No one can be free till all are free.
3. ...... They could win their freedom if they would prepare
themselves to be free.
4. ...... What can I do, being alone?
5. ...... If all men could catch the vision of freedom, wars would
cease.
6. ...... Could you find a better way to spend your time than in
study?
7. ...... Men would rise in revolt if they could know the facts.

MUST AND OUGHT

+178.+ _Must_ and _ought_ imply obligation. _Must_ conveys the idea of being obliged to do an action from necessity or compulsion, as,

You must have known it.
He must go.

_Ought_ was originally the past time form of _owe_, hence means _to be indebted to_, _to owe_. It conveys the idea of a moral obligation, as,

You ought to help the cause.
You ought to understand.

+179+. _Ought_ is always used with the infinitive, and the same form is used to express both the present and the past time. The difference in time is expressed by a change in the infinitive instead of a change in the form of the helping verb. With _may_ and _might_ and _can_ and _could_, present and past time are expressed by a change in the form of the helping verb. With the helping verb _ought_, the difference in time is expressed in the infinitive. For example:

He ought to pay us our wages.

This means, _He owes it to us to pay us our wages now_.

He ought to have paid us our wages.

This means, _He owed it to us to pay us our wages some time in the past_.

+180.+ The present infinitive is used with the helping verb _ought_ to express present time and the perfect infinitive is used with _ought_ to express past time.

Exercise 5

Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verb _must_ or _ought_ in that sentence.

1. ...... Service must be the key note of the future.
2. ...... Competition must give place to co-operation.
3. ...... Ought we to fear, who know the truth?
4. ...... Government ought to be the administration of things.
5. ...... No man ought to have the power of life and death over any
other human being.
6. ...... It may cost much but humanity must be set free at any cost.
7. ...... What ought to be the attitude of the workers toward war?
8. ...... "For man must work and woman must weep,
For there is little to do and many to keep."
9. ...... The day must come when we can live the dream.

DO AND DID

+181.+ _Do_ and _did_ are used as helping verbs to give emphasis--to form emphatic verb phrases. _Do_ is the present time form and _did_ the past time form, as for example:

I do wish you would come.
I did hope he would win.

+182.+ When we use the negative _not_ we use the helping verbs _do_ and _did_ to form our verb phrases. For example, we do not say:

I obey not.
I walked not.
He comes not.
They arrived not.

But in expressing the present and past time forms with the negative _not_, we say instead:

I do not obey.
I did not walk.
He does not come.
They did not arrive.

+183.+ We also use _do_ and _did_ with the present and past time forms of the verb in writing interrogative sentences. For example, we do not say:

Comes he with them?
Studied you yesterday?
Found they the book?
Think you it is true?

But we say instead:

Does he come with them?
Did you study yesterday?
Did they find the book?
Do you think it is true?

Exercise 6

Write in the blank space before each sentence the number of the paragraph which governs the use of the helping verb _do_ or _did_ in that sentence.

1. ...... Slaves do not think; they obey.
2. ...... Men do not obey; they think.
3. ...... Do you know that two per cent of the people own sixty per
cent of the wealth?
4. ...... The children of the masses do not have the opportunity to
attend school.
5. ...... Did not every nation claim a war for defense?
6. ...... "We did not dare to breathe a prayer,
Or give our anguish scope."
7. ...... We do desire the freedom of the people.
8. ...... We did hope that war might be averted.

+Let us sum up the auxiliary or helping verbs.+

+184.+ Helping verbs are used to express:

+The different time forms+--_shall_, _will_, _have_, _had_, _be_.
+Power to do or to be+--_can_, _could_, _might_.
+Permission+--_may_ and _might_.
+Possibility+--_may_ and _might_.
+Obligation+--_must_, _ought_ and _should_.
+Necessity+--_must_.
+Condition+--_would_.

Mark the helping verbs in the following exercise:

Exercise 7