Chapter IV: Introduction: Short Grammar of Old Japanese (1)

The pronunciation of Old Japanese follows a very simple scheme. There are the five vowels, _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, and no diphthongs, and the following consonants and digraphs _b_, _ch_, _d_, _dz_, _f_, _g_, _h_, _j_, _k_, _m_, _n_, _r_, _s_, _sh_, _t_, _ts_, _w_, _y_, _z_, _zh_. The syllables are all open, and consist of

(1) The five vowels.

(2) _b_, _k_, _m_, _n_, _r_, followed by all the vowels.

(3) _s_, _y_, _z_, followed by _a_, _e_, _o_, _u_.

(4) _h_, _w_, followed by _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_.

(5) _d_, _t_, followed by _a_, _e_, _o_.

(6) _f_, followed by _i_, _u_.

(7) _ch_, _j_, _sh_, _zh_, followed by _i_.

(8) _ts_, _dz_, followed by _u_.

Sixty-four open syllables in all, out of 105 possible ones, of which and their various agglutinations the whole language is made up.

The vowels are pronounced as in Italian, _a_ being the accented _a_, _e_ and _o_ the open sounds. The vowel _u_ is English _u_ in _put_, never as in _rut_ or _lute_. The vowels _a_, _e_, _o_ are half-long, _i_ and _u_ are shorter, and _u_ shortest of all. Value is given to each syllable, subject as above, with scarcely any ictus (as in French), but the last syllable of a word, especially in _u_, is always weakest, and the penultimate rather the strongest.

The consonants are pronounced as in English, _h_ well aspirated, but rather forward, even between vowels, _z_ as in _zany_, _zh_ as the _s_ in _pleasure_, _f_ may have descended from an original _p_, with _h_ and _w_.

The scheme, according to that of the _Oxford Dictionary_, would be--

a a
e e
i i
o o
u u
b b
ch tʃ
d d
dz dz
f f
g g
h h
j dʒ
k k
m m
n n
r r
s s
sh ʃ
t t
ts ts
w w
y y
z z
zh ʒ

The Chinese and Japanese languages differ from Aryan and Semitic forms of speech in the total absence of all concords dependent upon number, person, case, and gender, in the like default of relative words, and (from Aryan speech) in the absence of _narratio obliqua_. They further differ in the almost complete absence of any morphological moods or tenses. Chinese has, broadly speaking, no accidence at all; the grammar is a syntax teaching the right order and use of vocables (used as words), double vocables (constituting words), and the few form-words (empty words the Chinese call them) which serve as variously connective particles. In Japanese there is a very scanty accidence of the few adjectives the language possesses, and a more complete one of the verb; but the verbal forms are all (with an exception or two) resolvable into locutions, more or less agglutinated, scarcely constituting true inflexions. Hence, morphologically, even in Japanese there is neither mood nor tense, but there is an approach to both of the highest value to the language, giving it, in conjunction with a goodly number of particles, an articulation and plasticity wanting to Chinese. From the above considerations it will be readily understood that the power of expression even in Japanese is far inferior to that of Western speech. The imagery is, of necessity, extremely limited in range and flat in tone. It seems to me, however, of greater range and higher quality than in Chinese. But neither Chinese nor Japanese possesses a tithe of the capacity of Aryan and Semitic languages to express human thought and feeling, and describe the works of man or the appearances of nature.

Ὦ δῖος αἰθήρ, &c., thought and words, are absolutely unintelligible to the whole Far East.

Nevertheless the poetry of the two great Far Eastern languages has its charm, especially the early poetry of Japan, but that charm, depending as it does largely upon suggestiveness rather than definite statement, and upon characteristic form and decoration rather than content, can only be felt by those who are able to read the texts. The Japanese texts, apart from the labour of decipherment, in themselves present no difficulty, once their simple grammar and construction understood, and in their romanized dress, with the brief grammar that is now subjoined, and the other aids offered in the present volume and its accompanying volume of translations are, it is hoped, made accessible to the English reader who cannot give several years to the acquisition of the complicated scripts which Dai Nippon has taken over, by necessity rather than choice, from the Middle Kingdom.

The following sketch of the grammar of Old Japanese is intended merely to elucidate the texts, principally those of the Manyôshiu and the Taketori.[1] By Old Japanese is meant the unsinicized language of the Kojiki and Nihongi (as read _japonicé_) and particularly of the _uta_ quoted in those works, of the _norito_ or rituals, and of the texts above mentioned. There are no texts illustrating earlier stages of the language, and all etymologies are doubtful, both on that account and because the elements of Old Japanese are mere agglutinations (more or less contracted) of only sixty-four open syllables.

Japanese (by which expression Old Japanese is here always intended) has no affinity with Chinese, a language consisting of disconnected elements (simple or compound), for in it agglutination has to some extent contracted into inflexion or quasi-inflexion, and it possesses in addition a large number of particles which give it a plasticity not found in Chinese. In my opinion, had the development of Japanese not been arrested by Chinese influences about the middle of the first millennium, it might have won a far higher place than it occupies in the hierarchy of human speech.

This agglutinative inflexion is practically confined to the verb, and--to a slight extent--to nouns adjective, simple or verbalized. What may be called the stem of the verb shows a pure vocalic inflexion in _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_ or _u_. The stem in _u_ is the form usually found in native and foreign dictionaries--in Lemaréchal’s it is the stem in _e_ or _i_. To the stem the various locutions are suffixed to construct the forms representing, logically, moods and tenses as well as negative, causative, and potential-passive ‘voices’.

The stems in _e_, _i_ and _o_ are used as imperatives; _koge_, row!, _mi_, look!, _ko_ come!, often with addition of the vocative particle _yo_ (or _ro_)--_miyo_, _koyo_. They are also used as ‘indefinite’ (Chamberlain) forms, mood and tense being determined by that of the principal verb in the sentence. Before proceeding further it is well to state that in the regular Japanese sentence the principal verb is always at the end, the object (if expressed) in the middle, and the subject (if expressed) at the beginning of the sentence, while words of qualification precede the words qualified. In poetry however, especially in the Manyôshiu, inversions are common.

All syllables in Japanese are open, and the terminal syllables of the stems are the consonants _b_, _f_, _g_, _k_, _m_, _n_, _r_, _s_, the digraph _ts_, _w_, _y_, and _z_ followed by the vowels _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_ (also _u_ without consonant as in _suu_, _e_ stem _suwe_, to place). Before _i_ _ts_ becomes _ch_, and before _e_ and _a_ _t_, before _i_ _s_ becomes _sh_ and _z_ _zh_; before every vowel except _u_ _f_ becomes _h_. All verbs have the stem in _u_, most verbs have also the stem in _a_ and _i_, some have also the stem in _e_ only, some in _i_ only. There are a very few irregular verbs. The following list of verbs and their stems will illustrate the above remarks:--

_yerabu_, _yerabi_, _yerabe_, _yeraba_ choose
_omofu_, _omohi_, _omohe_, _omoha_ think
_kogu_, _kogi_, _koge_, _koga_ row
_sugu_, _sugi_ pass
_fuku_, _fuki_, _fuke_, _fuka_ blow
_tomu_, _tome_ stop
_tsukanu_, _tsukane_ bind
_toru_, _tori_, _tore_, _tora_ take
_watasu_, _watashi_, _watase_, _watasa_ pass over
_tatsu_, _tachi_, _tate_, _tata_ stand
_su[w]u_, _suwe_ place
_suyu_, _suye_ be rancid
_sufu_, _suhe_ suck
_mazu_, _mazhi_, _maze_, _maza_ mix
_miru_, _mi_ (_mire_) see
_suru_, _shi_, _se_ (_sure_) do
_kuru_, _ki_, _ko_, _kure_, _ke_, _kere_ come
[_wu_] _woru_, _wi_, _wiru_, _wore_, _wora_ be in, at

The Japanese verb has neither number nor person, the forms that follow therefore are indefinite as to number and person. The locutions--or more strictly the complements that with the stem make up the locution--are given below as suffixed to the stem.

Two moods may be distinguished. One I call Independent, in which form the verb is unconnected with any other verb, the other Dependent, in which the verb is connected with some verb in the Independent mood.[2] Mr. Chamberlain calls them Indicative and Oblique respectively.

There are in each mood three forms or quasi-tenses--a present, temporally indefinite; a past denoting action or state completed at or before the present or some indicated past time; and a future denoting action, &c., that may or will be completed at a future (or past-future) time. Each of these tenses in the Independent mood has a predicative or simpler form and a relative form--as relating to some noun. It is the simpler form, identical with the stem in _u_, which is found in the dictionaries (in Lemaréchal’s the stem in _a_, _i_, or _e_ is found). The relative form ends in _uru_ (modern _iru_ or _eru_). Thus _toki sugu_, time passes; _suguru toki_, tempus quod fugit (some verbs in _uru_ are transitive as _tatsu_, stand, _tatsuru_, make stand, set up). Only those verbs which have _e_ or _i_ stems throughout appear to possess this relative form;[3] in verbs with _i_ and _a_ stems this morphological distinction does not exist.

The Past has four forms, each double (P. predicative, R. relative).

(1) P. _ki_, R. _-shi_.

(2) P. _tari_ (_te-ari_), R. _-taru_ (_te-aru_).

(3) P. _-tariki_, R. _-tarishi_ (composed of (2) and (1)).

(4) P. _-nu_, R. _-nuru_.

[_ki_ (_kuru_) = come (cp. Ital. _vien fatto_); _shi_ (_suru_) = do; _te_ = stem of _tsu_, _tsuru_, continue; _ari_ is an irr. P. form of _aru_, be; _nu_ is an old verb = be.] In _i a_ verbs there is a past in P. _-eri_, R. _-eru_ (see below).

The Future is formed by suffixing _mu_ (or _namu_) to stem or _naramu_ (_ni [nu] aramu [aru]_) to R. form if any.

SCHEMATIC EXAMPLES.

_kogu_, row (with oars or sculls).

Stems. Present. Past. Future.
_kogu_ _kogu_, P. & R. _kogiki_, P. _kogamu_, P.
_kogi_ _kogishi_, R. (_koginamu_)
_koga_ _kogitari_, P. _kogu naramu_
_kogitaru_, R. [_tomuru naramu_, R.]
_kogitariki_, P.
_kogitarishi_, R.
_koginu_, P.
_koginuru_, R.
_kogeri_, P.
_kogeru_, R.

_tomu_, stop, and _sugu_, pass, are conjugated like _kogu_, except that _tomu_ replaces _i_ and _a_ of _kogu_ forms by _e_, and _sugu_ by _i_.

In the Dependent mood the forms are constructed with the help of _-ba_ (the particle _ha_, voiced). _Shikaba_ (etym. of _shika_?), _tareba_, _taraba_ (_te areba_, _-araba_), _naba_ (_nu_) and _naraba_ (_ni araba_).

SCHEMATIC EXAMPLES.

_kogeba_, as, since, when, &c., row.

_kogaba_, _koginaba_, _koginaraba_, if row.

_kogishikaba_, _kogitareba_, as, since, when &c., rowed.

_kogitaraba_, _kogishi naraba_, if rowed.

Of _tomu_, _sugu_, the Dependent Mood is similarly conjugated preserving the _e_ and _i_ vowels, and for _tomeba_ using _tomureba_ for _tomaba_ _tomeba_, for _sugiba_ _sugureba_, for _sugaba_ _sugiba_.

The negative voice (there are no negative words = not, no, none). The Present Independent is formed by changing the _-mu_ of future into _-zu_ or _-zaru_ (_zu aru_), P. and _-nu_, R. Thus _kogu_ (_kogamu_), _kogazu_, _kogazaru_, _koganu_; _sugu_, _sugimu_, _sugizu_, &c.

In the past _-zu_ becomes _zariki_, P., and _-zarishi_, R.; in the future _-zaramu_ or _-zhi_, P. and R. (_kogazaramu_, _kogazhi_).

There is a second future with sense of obligation exemplified as follows:--_kogu_ (not _koga_) _-mazhiku_ (indefinite), _-mazhi_, P., _-mazhiki_, R., _-mazhikariki_, P., past fut. _-mazhikarishi_, R., past fut. _-mazhikereba_, conditional, when as, &c., and _-mazhikuba_, hypothetical, if, &c.

In the Dependent Mood we have:--

_koganeba_, _kogazareba_, as, when, &c., not-row.

_kogazuba_, if not-row.

_kogazarishikaba_, as, when, &c., not-rowed.

_kogazariseba_, _kogazarishi naraba_, if not-rowed.

The Imperatives are:--

_Kogazare_ (_kogazu are_); _kogu nakare_ (_naku are_); _koguna_, _kogu koto nakare_ (row-thing do-not), _na kogi so_, _yume kogu na_ (emphatic imperative). But _na_ with _i_ or _e_ stem is an affirmative imperative _kogi na_, do row!

There is another past in _tsu_[4], _tsuru_ as _kogitsu_, _kogitsuru_, and a continuative form in _tsutsu_, _kogitsutsu_, while rowing. Also a form in _-keri_, P. and _-keru_, R. with a dependent _-kereba_ as _kogikeru_, _kogikereba_. This _keri_ form seems equivalent to a perfect definite, have rowed. Its etymology must be _ki -ari_; of _tsu_ the stem would be _te_, which added to stem in _i_ or _e_ makes forms such as _kogite_, _tomete_, which are continuative indefinites almost equal to ‘whilst’, _kogite_, _yuku_, whilst-row-go, i.e. row to (a place).

The negative form of _-te_ is _-de_, _kogade_, or _-zu_, _-zu ni_, _-zu shite_, as _kogazu_, not-row, _kogazu ni_, in, or by not-row, _kogazu shite_, not-row-do, all meaning essentially whilst-not-row.

The particles _mo_, too, _to mo_, that too (with variant _domo_) _keredomo_ (_ki-ari-to-mo_), following or suffixed to verb-forms, give a concessive force, although, even though, &c., _beku_, with sense of must, can, will, ought, is suffixed to the _u_ stem, thus _kogubeku_ is must, or ought to row, or will row--the forms of _beku_ are _beshi_, P.; _beki_, R.; _bemi_, _bekariki_, P.; _-shi_, R.; _bekereba_, _bekuba_, _bekarazu_, &c.; _beku mazhiku_ almost = _bekarazu_.

Causative verbs (often used as transitives or as honour-forms) are easily recognized. Thus _nageku_, sigh, lament, _nagekasu_; or forms derived from _su_ (_suru_), do, are added--_shimuru_, _seshimuru_, _sasuru_. Thus _yaku_, burn, _yakasu_, _yakashimuru_; _suru_ (_se_), do, _sesasuru_, make-do.

_Nu_ (_ni_) is an old verb ‘be’. _Ni_ + _aru_ = _naru_, become, be at, of, in. The future _namu_ is a common auxiliary suffix. _Namu_ may become _namashi_, by composition with _mashi_, more, a suffixed optative particle. Another optative is formed by adding the slight interrogative particle _ya_ to the form in _-aba_ as _yukabaya_, should like to go; sometimes the future form is in _-ramu_ (_aramu_?) added to the _u_-stem, as _aruramu_ for _aramu_, _kofuramu_ for _kohamu_ (_kohimu_), will love. _Aru_, be, is peculiar in that its P.-form is _ari_ not _aru_.

The verb _miru_, see, keeps the _mi_ throughout, _miru_, _miki_, _mishi_, _mimu_, _miba_, _mitsu_ (past), _mizu_, _minu_, _mizhi_, _mide_, &c.; but _mireba_, _miredomo_, _miru_ or _miheku_, &c. So _hi(ru)_, dry, _i(ru)_, shoot, _(w)i(ru)_, be in or at, _ki(ru)_, wear _ni(ru)_, be like, _ni(ru)_, boil. See Chamberlain, p. 66. By adding _u_, _uru_ (get) with or without _aru_ (be) verbs passive and potential are obtained. Thus _yaku_ (burn) + _ari_ + _uru_ = _yakaruru_, so we have _homeraruru_ (_homu_, praise), _sugiraruru_ (_sugu_, pass), _miraruru_ (_miru_, see). Or we have _miyuru_, see-get = seem, so _omoyuru_, _omoheru_ (from _omofu_, think), or _omoharuru_ (see Glossary, _omofu_, &c.), _iheru_ (_ihi-uru_), is said, &c. From _aru_ (be) lengthened to _arafu_, we get _araharu_, _araharuru_, _arahaseru_, be manifest or make manifest.

Other passive-like forms are _iyu_ (_i_), shot, _oyu_ (_oi_), grown old, _omohoyu_ (_omofu_), thought. There is a form in _-aku_, thus _ifu_, say, _ihaku_--even the future has it, _kakemu_, will utter, _kakemaku_, and the past _omoheraku_, the morphological origin of which is unknown. It seems to give a substantival character to the verb; _ihaku_, the saying (is); _omoheraku_, what was thought (is): also a frequentative (rare) in _mi_, _wemi-mi, wemazu mo_, smiling and not smiling.

Under _koso_ will be found the verbal forms used with that particle.

Of the verb _su_ _suru_, do, the principal forms are:--

Independent Mood.

_shi_, _su_, _suru_, (_koso_) _sure_.
_seri_, _seru_ (_koso_), _sere_.
_shiki_, _seshi_ (_koso_), _seshika_.
_shitari_, &c., _shitariki_, &c.
_shitsu_, _shitsuru_ (_koso_), _shitsure_.
_semu_, _suramu_ (_koso_), _-e_, _-e_.
_shitaramu_, _shitsuramu_, &c.

Dependent Mood.

_sureba_, _seshikaba_, _shitareba_.
_seba_, _senaba_, _shitaraba_.
_suredo_ (_mo_).
_suru mo_, _shite mo_.
_seshikado_, _shitaredo_, _seshi_ (_mo_).
_sebaya_.
_shitsutsu_, &c.

Negative Voice.

_sezu_, _senu_ (_koso_) _sene_.
_sezhi_, _sezaru_, and derived forms.
_sezuba_, _senedo_.
_sezare_, _suna_, _na se so_, &c.

Of the verb _ku_ _kuru_, come, the principal forms are:--

Independent Mood.

_ki_, _ku_, _kuru_, _kure_.
_kishi_, _koshi_ (_kiki_ not found), _kishika_, _koshika_.
_kitari_, &c., _kitariki_, &c.
_kinu_, _kinuru_, &c., _kitsu_, _kitsuru_, &c.
_komu_, _kuramu_, _kinamu_, &c.
_koyo_.
_kubeku_.

Dependent Mood.

_kureba_, _kishikaba_, &c.
_koba_, _kinaba_.
_kuredo_ (_mo_), &c.
_kobaya_.
_kitsutsu_.
_kite_.

Negative Voice.

_kozu_, _konu_, &c.
_kozhi_.
_kozareba_.
_koneba_.
_kozare_.
_kuna_.
_kuruna_.
_na ko so_.

The other forms of _kuru_ are easily formed from those of _suru_, replacing _se_ and _su_ by _ko_ and _ku_.

There are not many true adjectives. Such have a sort of positional inflexion--a predicative form in _-shi_, _akashi_, be red, a form used chiefly with verbs (but also indefinitely) in _-ku_, _akaku naru_, become red, and a form in _-ki_, used mainly with nouns, _akaki mono_, red thing. There is also a form in _-mu_, _-mi_, which has a verbal force denoting a state or condition.

Adjectives may also be verbalized by the addition of _aru_, be, and many of its forms with obvious contractions.

Lastly, adjectival expressions are formed by adding _naru_, be or become, to adjectival stems _yaharaka_, _yaharaka-naru_, soft, gentle.

Nouns substantive (and pronouns) are absolutely devoid of gender or case, and only occasionally have a plural suffix _ra_ or _tachi_ or _nodo_ or _domo_.

Pronouns are few, and--the personal pronouns especially--are little used, the subject of the verb being generally unexpressed and left to be gathered from the context.

First person _a_, _wa_, _are_, _ware_, _waga_, _wago-_, _wagi-_.

Second person _na_, _namuji_, _nase_, _imashi_, _imo_.

Third person _a_, _are_, _kare_ (_is_, _ille_, Aston).
_so_, _sore_ (_iste_, Aston).
_ko_, _kore_ (_hic_, Aston).

Interrogative Pronouns.

_Ta_, _tare_, who?
_na_, _nani_, what?
_izure_, _izu_, which, what?
_ika_, what manner? ποῖος.
_iku_, what number? &c., πόσος.

Other pronouns are _shi_, _onore_, _mi_, self, _onore_ and _mi_, often I _myself_, or I, _ono-ono_, every, _mina_, all. Other pronominal forms, chiefly indefinite, are explained in the glossary.

Only the principal particles need here be noticed. Others are explained in the glossary. The following are of special importance, and are found mainly in connexion with nouns as postpositions. They are _wa_ (_ha_), _ga_, _no_, _ni_, _he_ (_e_, _ye_) and _wo_.

_ha_ (_wa_, _ba_) isolates and emphasizes the noun rather as apart from the verb--_chichi haha ha, uwe-samukaramu_, father and mother, _they_ will be hungry and cold; _kono toki ha, ika ni shitsutsuka_, this time _then_ while doing what. This emphatic force explains its occurrence after verbs and sentences or clauses--_ihazu-ba_, not say indeed = should we not say …; _Yamato ni ha_, it is in Yamato that …; _yuki furu yo ha_, a night indeed on which snow falls: _a wo koso se to ha_, it is I indeed whom (you should call) husband.

_ga_ is a possessive particle, _wa-ga (warega) ohokimi_, my great lord; _Wazami ga hara_, plain of Wazami. It may be used before verbs, _tori ga naku_, the bird cries; or after, _nabiku ga gotoku_, like bending before. Sometimes it resembles _ha_ _kimi ga agari-ki-masamu_, my lord, he will embark.

_tsu_ is possessive, _amatsu kami_, gods of heaven, _kuni tsu kami_, gods of the land. It seems to follow names of things only.

_no_ (originally _nu_, be?) is used as a genitive particle, like ‘of’. It is more general than _ga_, which is special; _no_ sometimes almost equals _ha_ (_wa_). _Mi-torashi no adzusa no yumi no hazu no oto_, sound of the notch of the bow of whitewood of his royal grasp; _Uchi no ohonu_, the great moor of _Uchi_. This particle may connect other words than nouns, _ari no kotogoto_, all one has, or, there is (_ari_); _miru no goto_, like _miru_ (seaweed); _ame tsuchi no wakareshi toki_, heaven--earth’s separated time (time of separation of heaven and earth). This connexion by _no_ of parts of a sentence--often wide apart--other than nouns must be carefully kept in mind. Thus read _hito no [mono wo omofu]_, a man’s thinking of things (regretfully): not _[hito no mono] wo omofu_, to think of a man-thing (or man’s things, &c.)[5].

_ni_ (perhaps a stem of _nu_, be) = in, to, at, for, with, by, on, near; _Yamato ni_, in Yamato; _toki ni_, at time = when; _miya ni amori_, descend from heaven to the palace; _te ni tori_, take in the hand; _ashita ni_, on the morrow; _asagari ni tatasu_, start for morning-hunt; _tokoro ni yuku_, go to a place; also adverbially, _yasukaranaku ni_, in a not-restful way; _aya ni_, strangely; _kogi-yuku ni_, in or while rowing on; _tokoshihe ni_, everlastingly. _Ni_ sometimes transfers the action of a causative or transitive verb to the noun it follows.

_wo_, after a noun indicates it as object of action or, sometimes, as subject of state or condition; _unasaka wo sugite_, passing beyond bounds of ocean; _miyako wo tohomi_, _miyako_ (as to), be distant (Aston); _mikado wo sadame_, settle on a site for a palace; _kuni wo sadame_, terram debellare. In this sense _wo_ is often omitted, _oi mo sezu_, old-age even not-doing = never growing old. It may follow a verb as an emphatic particle, or even a noun as such, but in these cases there is probably an ellipsis of _suru_ (do) _omofu_, (think) or the like, or again it may follow a particle, _to bakari_, &c. (Aston). Where it appears to have an adversative force there is probably ellipsis of _omoheba_, _omohite_, &c. _Wo ba_ = _wo ha_, and singles out the noun as specially emphasized. _Wo_ sometimes almost equals _ni_.

_he_ (lit. quarter, direction, locality, tract in space or time) = towards (_ni_ = to). Rare in the texts in this volume, _yori_ (lit. approach, or be close to, or stop at), shortened often to _yo_, _yu_, means by extension ‘from’--in later language also ‘than’.

_ya_, _yo_, is a vocative or exclamative interjection.

_to_, that, is a connective particle = and, also after a phrase marks it as quotative; _toko miya to sadame_, establish as an everlasting shrine (or palace), _sugimu to omoheba_, thinking (intending) that it should outlast. _Hikohoshi ha Tanabata tsu me to_, Hikohoshi and the Weaving Woman; _se to ha norame_ (see under _ha_); _kamusabu to_, in a divinely awful manner; _hito wo yahase to … kuni wo osame to … makitamaheba_, as he was charged to subdue the people and pacify the land (people subdue that … land pacify that--as he was charged with). The different uses of _to_ can always be made out by taking it as _that_.

Other particles are:--

_ya_, slight dubitative and interrogative, also exclamative. With negative it gives an affirmative sense.

_ka_, stronger than _ya_.

_ya_ _ka_ with _ha_ (_yaha_ _kaha_) imply a certainty.

_ka mo_, final interjectional expression = is it not even so? i.e. emphatically or admiringly, it is so!

_kana_ (_gana_, _mo gana_), final interjection of emotion suited to what precedes.

_mo_, also, too, even; _mo … mo_, both … and.

_so_ (_zo_) perhaps, _sore_, this! emphasizes the preceding word.

_koso_ (_ko[re], so[re]_) this-that (Aston), more emphatic than _so_ (_zo_), commonly precedes the verb, expressed or understood. There is a quasi-conjugation with _koso_--

_koso koge_;

_koso kogere_;

_koso kogishika_,--_kogitare_,--_kogitarishika_,--_koginure_,-- _kogitsure_,--_kogame_,--_koginame_,--_kogurame,_ &c.

_a wo koso se to ha norame_--in prose, _a wo se to ha koso norame_, _do_ call me husband!

_namu_ (_nan_) is very like _koso_, but less emphatic.

_goto_ = _gotoku_, like also sometimes _kotogotoku_, generally, all; _goto ni_ (after the noun), every, each.

_dani_, even, at all events; _sura_, even (unexpected); _sahe_, even (additional).

_shi_, _nomi_, _bakari_, just, only, precisely--in ascending degree of certainty. All of these, especially _shi_, are often not more than slightly emphatic expletives.

_made_, up to; _gari_, direction of; _kara_, from; _kara_ (_gara_) = _nagara_ (_naru karada_ or _naru kara_), just as (applied to preceding noun); after verbs, whilst, although.

_kaku_, thus, _to mo kaku mo_, that way and this way, anyhow, somehow.

_kashi_, be it thus, so be it, may it be so! (Aston).

_mashi_ (_mase_, &c.), _mahoshiki_, verbal terminations expressing desire or contingency.

_meru_, verbal termination (derived from fut. in _mu_, _mu_ or _mi aru_?), indicates some degree of likelihood.

_ramu_, for _aramu_, _hana chiruramu_ = _hana chiru aramu_ = _hana chiramu_, the flowers will, wilt.

_rashi_ = _ramu_, nearly; _natsu kitarurashi_, seemeth the summer to have come (Aston). There is an adjectival ending, _rashiki_, of similar import.

Of the syntax of Old Japanese little need be said. It is simple owing to the absence of almost the whole apparatus of Western grammar. The order of words has already been mentioned, and in prose is rigid--in poetry inversions are common. In large measure it is the opposite of English order, and this fact, together with the relegation of the verb to the end of the sentence, and the absence of expressed subject, constitutes the initial and principal difficulty of Japanese, apart from that of the vocabulary, the elements of which have usually a connotation different from that of their nearest representatives in any Western language. The absence of relatives and paucity of pronouns are additional difficulties, and the reader has to grow familiar by practice with the modes in which the more definite thought of the West is represented in the vaguer and looser language of Old Japan, where the visual aids of later Sinico-Japanese are not present. Nevertheless if the real meanings of the words be attained, the logical subject kept in mind as gathered from the context, the relations of words and phrases in apposition rather than in accidental or strict syntactical connexion be observed, the influence of the particles in edifying the sentence into a construction understood, and some facility gained in keeping the mind in suspense until the principal verb--read with the relations to it of the subordinate verbs--be reached, there is no great difficulty, apart from the inevitable one of difference of circumstance and allusion, in arriving at a comprehension of the texts. And these will be found, especially the Lays, to have preserved a peculiar beauty and charm, if not of the highest order, of their own, which no version can hope to convey.

The opening of the first lay sufficiently exemplifies the reversed order of the Japanese sentence:--

Ko mo yo
mi ko mochi
fukushi mo yo

fukushi mochi
kono woka ni
na tsumasu ko--

Read almost directly backwards, we get:--

_Ko_ (maid) _tsumasu_ ([who] plucks) _na_ (salads) _ni_ (on) _kono woka_ (this knoll), _mochi_ (holding) _fukushi_ (truel), _yo mo_ (oh the) _fukushi_ (truel), _mochi_ (holding) _mi ko_ (fair basket), _mo yo_ (oh the) _ko_ (basket).

Maid who pluckest salads on this knoll holding a truel--oh the truel!--holding a fair basket--oh the basket!… _a wo se to norame_, me for thy husband name!

But even rendered almost in Japanese order, the lay is quite intelligible, and perhaps better to be appreciated than in any imitative version:--

Basket O! | fine basket bearing | truel O | fine truel bearing
| this knoll upon | herb-plucking maid! | your home-place tell
me | your name too tell me; | Yamato’s land | everywhere | I
hold rule over, | all where | I hold rule over, | me in sooth |
as husband call me | your homeplace too, your name too, tell me!

In dealing with the less easy texts of the Manyôshiu the following considerations must be kept in mind:--

The honour-forms (see below) indicate a (logical) second or third person, or something connected with such a person, directly or indirectly.

The particle _wo_ may often be rendered as if _ni_, or as an exclamation, or as if followed by some form of _omofu_. I do not regard it as in itself a quasi-conjunction. The various functions of _no_ must be kept in mind.

The frequency of inversion in order of words must not be forgotten. The _makura kotoba_ may be ruled out, as well as prefaces, exordiums, introductions, and the like--thus the kernel of meaning may be got at, and the decoration then added.

It must be recollected that of the elements of the vocabulary very few can be exactly rendered by a single English word, their connotation for the most part is more or less different from that of any possible English equivalent. In the Glossary an exhaustive definition of the meaning is not attempted, enough only is given to suggest the translation of the sentence in which the word appears. Hence since meanings came to change in the course of time, those given being only what are required for these texts sometimes differ from the meanings found in the foreign dictionaries, all of which are very imperfect--very seldom, however, from those offered by that excellent native dictionary the _Kotoba no Izumi_.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE MANYÔSHIU

I found the following remarks upon the somewhat lengthy, and--to me--not always very clear, observations of Masazumi concerning the language of the Manyôshiu contained in his _sôron_ or General Introduction.

PHONETIC CONTRACTIONS. These are not uncommon, and are principally vocalic. Such are _wagimo_ (my sister) for _waga imo_; _ariso_ (wild shore) for _ara iso_; _kafuchi_ (within the rivers) for _kaha uchi_; _amori_ (descent from heaven) for _ame ori_; _kurenawi_ (a shade of red) _kure no awi_, lit. an indigo (i.e. a dye) brought from China; _konure_ (tree-top) _ko no ure_; _ke_ (come, pass) _ki he_--_ke nagaku kohishi_, long time loved; _ke no kono goro ha_, a time lately gone by; _arumi_ (wild sea) _ara umi_; _futsuma_ (stout horse) _futo uma_. The above are substantival, others are adjectival or verbal, as:--

_naru_ (be in, at, of), _ni aru_, as in _Yamato naru_, _ihe naru_, &c.

_nari_--_ni ari_, as _oto su nari_ = _oto suru de ari_.

_naru_--_no aru_, as _hana naru toki_ = _hana no aru toki_.

_sareba_--_shi areba_, as _haru sareba_.

_chifu_--_to ifu_ (they call, ’tis called).

_ku_, _ki-yu_; _ke_, _ki-he_; _mesage_, _meshiage_; _kakage_, _kaki age_; _motage_, _mote age_, &c.

PHONETIC EXTENSIONS. Such are:--

_nagaru_--_nagarafu_, _nagarahi_, flow, flow in quantity, &c.

_yobu_--_yobafu_, _yobahi_, call, invite, pay court to (girl).

_nageku_--_nagekafu_, _nagekahi_, draw deep breath, lament, &c.

So causative forms exist used as honour-forms, _nagekasu_ for _nageku_, and a termination in _aku_ as _nagekaku_, _kakemaku_, _ihaku_, for _nageku_, _kakemu_, _ifu_ used substantively. _Ihafu_, bless, is perhaps an extension of _ifu_, speak, say.

Of _yobahi_ (_yobu_ extended) a humorous explanation is sometimes given, _yo_ (by night) _hahi_ (creep), visit stealthily by night. Etymology of this kind is extremely easy in Japanese.

AUXILIARY PARTICLES (_tasuke kotoba_):--

Such are _shi_ (emphatic), _kami-yo shi omohoyu_, _ihe shi shinubayu_.

_wo_ (emphatic), as in _yatsu yo ni wo_, _tanushiku wo arana(mu)_, but in phrases like _mitsutsu yukamu wo_, _wo_ = _mono wo_.

_ya_, _ame shiru ya_, _ama tobu ya_, _kashikoki ya_, _Afumi no ya_, _naku ya uguhisu_, &c.; but in _kimi ya komu_, _ya_ is dubitative--interrogative. In _kakusafubeshi ya_, _sugi nikerazu ya_, _ya_ = _ya ha_ = Lat. _num_.

_nane_, term of address and endearment, must not be confused with _nane_ of _imonane_, _senane_, which are terms of relationship.

_i_ suffixed as in _sekimori-i_, _Unahi-wotoki-i_ may be regarded as emphatic, or isolative (like _ha_, according to Chamberlain), or as etymologically = the Korean postposition _i_ (Aston).

_we_, a terminal interjection as _are ha sabushi we_.

_ro ka mo_, _tafutoki ro ka mo_, here _ro ka mo_ = is it not so even! _ro_, according to Mr. Chamberlain, is a post-position equivalent to _te_ or _nite_.

_mo_, _mo yo_, _mo ya_, _shi mo_, _ya shi_, _yo shi_, are all interjectional expressions, not mere fill-gaps, variously emphasizing or calling attention to the meaning of the words, &c., they are attached to.

HONOUR-WORDS. Such are _ohomi_ (exalted, grand), as _ohomi kami_, _ohomi uta_, _ohomi ma_; _mi_, as _mikokoro_, _miko_, _mi-hakashi_, _mi-keshi_, _mi-nemasu_ (His godship the God, His Majesty’s song, His Majesty’s horse, my lord’s meaning, my lord the Son (Prince), girt by my lord, my lord’s garments, my lord sleeps).

Other honour- (or praise-) words are:--

_oho_ (great), _futo_ (stout), _toyo_ (rich), _o_ (for _oho_) as in _obito_, _omi_ (court officials); _mi_, _ma_, _mo_, _sa_, _oho_ also denote excellence (εὐ), _wo_ may be antithetic to _oho_, or it may be a term of intimacy, a sort of diminutive of endearment.

The following honour-verbs should be here noted. _Tamafu_, _tamaheru_, _tamahari_, _oboshimesu_, _kikoshimesu_, _shiroshimesu_, _takashiru_, _owasu_, _owashimasu_, _masu_, _mimakareru_; verbs in causative form, _-asu_, _-saseru_, _-seshimu_; verbs in quasi-passive or potential, _-uru_, _-ruru_, _raruru_.

Other laudatory expressions are _tama_ (precious), _uma_ (delicious, fine), _midzu_ (brilliant, fine), _umashi_ (_uma_), _kuhashi_ (lovely). A curious gradation of honour-forms is seen in the following: _mi yomimaseru ohomi uta_ (where the lay is attributed to a mikado), _ohomi uta_, _mi uta_, _yomitamaheru uta_, _yomeru uta_ (when the author is _miko_, _ason_, or official of lower rank).

Among terms of affection may be noted:--

_waga_ (mine) or _wago ohokimi_, _waga kimi_, _waga kuni_, _waga se_, _wagimo_, _a oto_, _ago_, _na_, _se na_, _na se nane_, _nanimo_, _imo nane_ (my great lord, my lord, our land, my husband, my younger sister (wife or mistress), my brother, my child, thou, thou elder brother, elder brother thou, thou elder sister, thou younger sister, &c.).

Words of exclamation, hope, entreaty, wonder, &c.:--

_Ana_, _ana ni_ (_ni_ is not a particle), _ya_ (= _yo!_), _ka_ (= ?), _kana_, _gana_, _mo gana_, _kamo_, _mo ga mo_, _moga_, _ga mo na_, _ya mo_, _shika_, _sane_, _ne_, _kose_, _kosene_, _na-so na-yume_, _ari kosenu ka mo_ (_ari-koso-ne_). These are explained in the notes to the text or in the glossary--their meaning is obvious for the most part.

Repetitive or cumulative expressions (_kasane kotoba_) are common in the Manyôshiu and contain, mostly, a quibble in meaning or rhyme in sound. Such are _chichi no mi no chichi_ (father = _chichi_ = maiden-hair tree--the quibble is on the two _chichi_, and the double meaning of _mi_, fruit and person). _Hahasoba no haha_, mother (_haha_), as of the oak (_hahaso_ = Quercus dentata), &c. _Shiga no karasaki sakiku araba_ (here the rhyme is _Karasaki_ (Cape Kara in Shiga) and _sakiku araba_ (if flourish)). Such expressions are explained in the notes or glossary.

Other repetitive expressions are simply emphatic or poetic: _Tsudohi tsudohi imashite_, they (the gods) assembling, _kamu hafuri hafuri_, burying--burying him (a mikado or miko) as a god; _ake no sohobune sohobune_, a red red-stained red-stained-ship, &c.

WORDS RELATING TO THE SOVRAN. _Sumeramikoto_ (Supreme Majesty) is found only in the _dai_ (arguments), not in the _uta_. The commonest term in the latter is _Ohokimi_ (great Lord, grand seigneur), but this expression is not confined to the Sovran. Other terms are _sumeragi_ (_sumerogi_, _suberogi_) and _sumerami_; _-gi_ = prince, _mi_ = princess (conf. Izanagi and Izanami, Inviting Male and Inviting Female (K.)); but see Aston, _Shintô_. What _sume_ means is uncertain, it may be connected with _sube_ (_shiru_), universally know, i.e. govern the land. Other expressions are _kamuro kamu subera_ or _sumera_ or _sumero_, _kamu_ adding the notion of ‘divine’. _Ohokimi_, ‘chief’, I take to be the oldest; the other forms smack of China. As to ‘ro’, see above remarks on the particle ‘ro’. In the Kogi etymology _ro_ = the _re o_ of _are oya_ in _kamu are oya_ = god-born ancestry.

_Mikado_ means grand gate or palace, and by metonymy came to signify its lord, just as at the present day _miya_ (grand mansion) denotes an imperial prince. _Mikado_ also means ‘sovran dominion’ as in _toho-mikado_, distant palace, that is, wide dominion, sometimes applied specially to the Tsukushi government, to Korea, or even to China, as on the confines of, but still within, the authority of the _Ohokimi_ of Japan. The following phrases may be here noticed--_mikoto kashikomi_, dread majesty, _Ohokimi no make_ (or _hiki_) _no manimani_, in obeisance to the _Ohokimi’s_ will or appointment.

_Mi_ has several meanings which must be distinguished. They are (1) an honour-prefix, grand, great; (2) prefix of praise, εὐ = _ma_, true, real; (3) self; (4) body, person; (5) a stem of _miru_, see (6) root of _midzu_; (7) fruit of tree or herb; (8) the numeral three; (9) as a termination _se wo hayami_, swift the stream; _hiromi_, broad-like; _fukami_, deep.

Of the intensive prefixes _i_, _ka_, and _ta_, no explanation has yet been given. They resemble Greek ζα. Examples are _i-yuki_, _ka-guroki_, _ta-moto-horu_.

For the purposes of the present work, Dr. Aston’s grammar of the written language (third edition) is much the most useful.

THE SCRIPT OF THE MANYÔSHIU

The Lays are written wholly in Chinese characters. But these are employed in several very peculiar ways, and the texts as they stand are completely unintelligible to a Chinese, even to a Japanese, who has not specially studied them. In all the editions, however, except the Riyakuge, the columns of text are accompanied by a _kana_ transliteration--in the Riyakuge the _kana_ (_hira_) transliteration is given separately from the text.

At the date of the compilation of the Anthology--the middle of the eighth century--neither of the existing Japanese syllabaries had been invented. Their creation is ascribed to the learned priest _Kûkai_ (_Kôbô Daishi_), the Doctor Promulgator of the Law of Buddha, who died in 834, nearly a hundred years later than the date of the final _tanka_ of the Manyôshiu. The Chinese character had therefore, perforce, to be employed in writing down the lays collected in the manner set forth in the volume of translations. The ideographs were used in part phonetically, in part lexicographically, as they had already been used in writing the Kojiki and the poems cited in that history, and in the almost contemporaneous but very different Nihongi.

The ideographs used phonetically were not, however, always employed in the same way. The forty-seven sounds of the syllabary--

_a_ _i_ _u_ _e (ye)_ _o_
_ka_ _ki_ _ku_ _ke_ _ko_
_sa_ _shi_ _su_ _se_ _so_
_ta_ _chi_ _tsu_ _te_ _to_
_na_ _ni_ _nu_ _ne_ _no_
_ha_ _hi_ _f(h.w.)u_ _he_ _ho_
_ma_ _mi_ _mu_ _me_ _mo_
_ya_ _yu_ _yo_
_ra_ _ri_ _ru_ _re_ _ro_
_wa_ _wi_ _we_ _wo_

--were already recognized, and were represented by a sort of alphabet composed of several hundreds of Chinese ideographs, each pronounced exactly or approximately _sinice_--that is _japonico-sinice_, or according to _on_ or Chinese sound. Thus a was represented by two ideographs, 阿 (_a_ in Chinese) and 安 (_an_ in Chinese), _shi_ by twenty-five characters, such as 志 (_chih_ in Chinese), 思 (_ssu_ in Chinese), &c. The other sounds were represented by varying numbers of characters. According to this system, _ame_ (heaven or rain) would or might be written 安米, _tsuchi_ (soil) 都知 and so forth. A complete list of these Chinese phonetic ideographs is given in the _Sôron_ (Introductory) volume of the Kogi.

A second method of using the ideographs was to employ them according to their _kun_ (reading i.e. in pure Japanese), thus _utate_ (extremely) was represented by 得田手, _chihahi_ (for _sachihafi_, bless) by 千羽日. Sometimes two characters represented one sound, thus 嗚呼 for _a_, 五十 (_isozhi_) for _i_, 牛鳴, _ushi no naku_, ‘moo’ of cow, for _mu_. Some sounds (_ku_, _ri_, _ru_, _ro_, _wa_) are not found thus symbolized, that is, _japonicé_. A curious double character is 石花 for _se_, another is 羊{蹄} (_hitsuzhi no ashi_) for _shi_. A third and very confused script is exemplified in 還金 _kaherikomu_ (return), where _kaheri_ is _kun_ and _komu_ (kon) is _on_, and 知三 _shirasamu_ (shall know), where _shira_ is _kun_ modified grammatically, and _samu_ (_san_ = three) is _on_ representing the inflexion.

Still more confusingly, an ideograph may be used with an _on_ (Chinese) sound resembling a _kun_ (native) word, and the _kun_ word may be employed, not in its natural sense, but as it were punningly, though more often no quibble is intended. Thus 兼 of which the _on_ is _ken_, may be used for the verbal termination _kemu_, as in 茢兼 (_karikemu_, will have reaped), where 茢 is employed lexicographically as _kemu_, as just explained. So 不有君 does not mean _kimi arazu_ (lord is not) but _ari nakuni_, as there is not. Similar examples are _kaherikomu_ and _shirasamu_ cited above. So 難 _nan_ (difficult) for _nani_, what?, {點} _ten_ for _-temu_; 徳 _toku_ for _toko_, and so forth.

Or the Japanese reading of a character may be taken, but in a signification different from its true meaning, thus 庭 _niha_, a court or yard, for the particles _ni ha_, 玉 _tama_, jewel or pearl, for _tamashii_, soul, or even 湯龜 _yu-game_ = water-tortoise for _yukame_ = will go, or the combination 石二 = stone-two, which puzzled Shitagau so sorely, and finally turned out to mean _made_ = until, to which may be added the commonest of all 鴨 = _kamo_, a wild duck, used for _ka mo_, an expression of mingled entreaty and doubt.

The above devices were no doubt resorted to partly to supply the place of a syllabary, partly for purposes of abbreviation, the full writing of long Japanese words with a Chinese character for each syllable being found too laborious.

But characters are often also used in a punning or humorous way. Thus 二二 = 2 × 2 are employed to represent the syllable _shi_ (which means 4 in Japano-Chinese), but here is used phonetically to represent the emphatic particle _shi_ or the syllable _shi_ merely. So 山上復有山 = mountain 山 upon mountain to represent 出 _idzuru_, go forth, out, &c., 三伏一向衣 = three-prostrations-one-regard-night, i.e. a moonlight night (when one salutes the moon), 八十一 (81) as equivalent to _ku ku_, nine times nine, part of the word _kukumeru_ (= _fukumeru_, hold in mouth, imply), and so forth. Characters used otherwise than to express their true meaning are called _kariji_, borrow-characters, i.e. characters borrowed to signify some other meaning than their own. Characters used in the orthodox manner are called _manaji_--true characters.

There are also _guji_, 具字 double characters used, where one would suffice, thus 何物 for 何 _nani_. This is probably a mere embellishment.

Contracted script is not uncommon; thus we find 山下 for 山下出風 = _arashi_, a violent wind (rushing down from the mountains).

Lastly, there are abbreviated characters--a full list of which is given in the Kogi, together with a few characters peculiar to the Anthology and contracted expressions such as _amori_ for _ame ori_, _Yamato naru_ for _Y. ni aru_, _haru sareba_ for _haru shi areba_, _chifu_ for _to ifu_ (modern _tefu_ = _chō_ of Kyôto), and so forth.

The above system of scripts is known as Manyôgaki and is sometimes imitated in modern productions as in a recently published play now before me.

Texts preserved in such scripts could not fail to be corrupt or obscure in parts. Not only from the difficulty of reading the ideographs when these came to be translated into _kana_, but from the fact that the manuscripts were often in _cursive_ character, easily misread and miswritten by the copyists. The text of the Manyôshiu I have used is throughout that of the Kogi, but I have not omitted in the notes to the translations to give some attention to the various readings cited in that work. By far the best discussion of these seems to be that of Keichiu which with the Kogi is much superior in my opinion to the commentary of either Mabuchi or Motowori[6]--the latter especially appears to be lacking in critical acumen.

The following additional remarks on the script are important. According to Amano Nobukage (died 1734), in the Manyô script the Chinese characters are read _japonicé_ in four ways:--

1. _mana_, as 心 _kokoro_ (heart, mind, &c.), where single characters are read as true Japanese words.

2. Where combined characters are read true, as 春霞 _harukasumi_ (spring-mist); 秋風 _aki-kaze_ (autumn-wind).

3. Where combined characters are read in full, but the meaning of the whole is not the sum of the meanings of the parts, as 垣津{旗} _kakitsubata_ (Iris laevigata)--the characters separately mean--_kaki_ (fence), _tsu_ (place), _hata_ (flag).

4. Where combined characters are read together as a whole, as 春鳥 _uguhisu_ (Cettia cantans), lit. spring-bird; 三五夜 _mochidzuki_ (full-moon), lit. three-five-night = fifteenth night of a lunar month, when the moon is full.

To these categories must be added that of humorous combinations, thus 十六 (sixteen) = _shi shi_ (4 × 4), and is used for _shishi_ (flesh); 靑頭鷄 _kamo_ (wild-duck), lit. green-head-fowl.

In the Kogi text the characters are used in the following modes, all of which are fully illustrated by examples in a section of the _sōron_ or General Introduction to the Edition.

A. According to the _on_ or Chinese sound (Japano-Chinese).

1. Full, as 阿 _a_, 伊 _i_; so in Chinese.

2. Contracted, as 安 _a_, 印 _i_; in Chinese _an_, _in_.

B. According to the _kun_ (_yomi_) or Japanese reading.

1. 天 _ame_ (heaven), 地 _tsuchi_ (earth), 大地 _ohotokoro_ (great
place). Each character is here read with one of its ordinary
Japanese pronunciations and meanings.

2. Combined characters of similar meaning read as one word
(Japanese)--明淸 _akirakeku_ (bright).

3. Combined characters of different meaning read as one
word--海士 _ama_ (fisherman), 蜻蛉 _akitsu_ [or _seirei_]
(dragon-fly).

4. The characters are read as = a Chinese translation of the
Japanese word--行知所 _shiroshimeshi_ (govern).

5. The character or combination is read according to an ancient
meaning--不知 _isa_ (no, not so), 服 _hada_ (naked skin).

6. The character is read specially--縵 _kadzura_ (chaplet), 棟
_kura_ (saddle).

7. The character is abbreviated--建 for 健, 已 for 起.

In addition the Kogi gives the following categories:--

_gikun_, combinations not literally translated into Japanese--玄{黄} _ametsuchi_ (heaven and earth), lit. dark-blue (of sky) and yellow-brown (of earth), 親親 _chichi-haha_ (parents, father and mother), lit. love-love. A great many of these are given; many would scarcely suggest the meaning of the combination; sometimes, as when 蓋 _futa_ (lid), is used to express 二 _futa_ (two), a word-play is involved.

_kariji_ or borrowed characters which have been already exemplified. But one curious expression may be added, {喚}犬{追}馬鏡 _masokagami_ (true-pure-mirror), the characters mean call (or bark?)-dog-follow-horse (_ma_) mirror; call-dog-follow is a humorous (?) description of _ma_, meaning horse, but here used for the homophon _ma_, true, εὐ, part of _ma so_, which has the same meaning.

Subjoined is the script of the text of Lay 118 which well exemplifies the peculiarities of Manyôgaki. The columnar transliteration represents the similar transliteration into syllabic _kana_ in the usual editions inclusive of the Kogi.

FOOTNOTES

[1] For a more complete account the grammars of Aston and Chamberlain must be consulted.

[2] For the purposes of Old Japanese the grammatical nomenclature of Aryan grammar seems to me misleading and I use it therefore as little as possible.

[3] See _miru_ below.

[4] _tsu_ is usually taken as = complete, finished, but it may be = _nu_ (be). Like _nu_ (_no_) it is used as a genitive postposition or particle. See _infra_.

[5] So in _Sasagani no (koromo ni kakari, ware wo) tanomuru_ (Aston) the sentence is read, _S. ha waga koromo ni kakarite ware wo tanomu_.

[6] In the volume of translations the texts of the Manyôshiu and Taketori are further considered and some account given of the various editions of them published by the principal commentators.

1. UTSU SEMI no. 虛蟬乃。
2. YO [NO] HITO NAREBA. 世人有者。
3. OHO KIMI no. 大王之。
4. MI KOTO KASHIKOmi. 御命恐彌。
5. shiki SHIMAno. 礒城島能。
6. YAMATO [NO] KUNI no. 日本國乃。
7. ISO[NO]KAMI. 石上。
8. _Furu_ [NO] SATO ni. 振里爾。
9. HIMO TOKAZU. 紐不解。
10. MARONE WO SUREBA. 丸寐乎爲者。
11. AGA KESERU. 吾衣有。
12. KOROMO HA narenu. 服者奈禮奴。
13. MIRUGOTO [NI]. 毎見。
14. KOHI HA MASAREDO. 戀者雖益。
15. IRO ni =ideba=. 色二山上復有山者。
16. =hito= SHIRINUBEMI. 一可知美。
17. FUYU [_no_] YO (NO). 各夜之。
18. AKE _mo_ KANE_tsutsu_. 明毛不得呼鷄。
19. =i mo= NEZU ni. 五十毋不宿二。
20. ARE _ha_ so KOFUru. 吾齒曾戀流。
21. IMO GA =tadaka= ni. 妹之直香仁。

Roman = Chinese phonetic.

Italic = Japanese phonetic.

=Clarendon= = _Kariji_ or rebus characters.

Small capitals = Japanese translation of characters.]

(i.e. previous to the end of the 4th century after Christ. CHINA was heard of towards the end of the mythical era under the name of GO.)]

shizen onkyô

VOX VERA NATURAE]

MANYÔSHIU TEXT

TRANSLITERATED

MAKI I KAMI

Kusagusa no uta. Hatsuse no Asakura no miya ni amenoshita shiroshimeshishi Sumeramikoto no mi-yo.

1

Ko mo yo 1
mi ko mochi
fukushi mo yo
fukushi mochi
kono woka ni 5
na tsumasu ko
ihe norase
na norasane
soramitsu
Yamato no kuni ha 10
oshinabete
are koso wore
shikinabete
are koso mase
a wo koso 15
se to ha norame
ihe wo mo na wo mo!

1 _mo yo_, interjectional phrase of mingled admiration and entreaty.

6 _na_, herbs. _ko_, girl, _ko_ in 1, 2 = basket or satchel.

7 _norase_, honour-causative imperative.

8 _norasane_, hortative form of honour-causative with particle _ne_; it implies some degree of respect.

9 A _makura kotoba_ (m. k.) applied to _yama_ (Yamato).

12 _are_ = _ware_; _koso wore_, emphatic declarative of _woru_, be, be in, at, &c.

13 Almost equivalent to 11 _oshinabete_ = _oshi nabikasete_, causing all to acknowledge my power and protection.

16 _se_ = brother, husband, lover.

17 _na_ here and in 8 = name.

vv. 1-6 lead up to _ko_ the first climax; 7-14 to the second climax; 15-17 to the final climax. 1-6 furnish a good instance of the reversed order of words in the Japanese sentence.

For _soramitsu_ see List m. k.

Takechi no Woka no miya ni amenoshita shiroshimeshishi Sumera mikoto no mi yo.

2

Sumera mikoto no Kagu yama ni noborimashite kunimi shitamaheru toki mi yomimaseru ohomi uta.

Yamato ni ha 1
mura yama aredo
tori-yorofu
Ame-no-kagu-yama
nobori-tachi 5
kuni-mi wo sureba
kuni hara ha
keburi tachi-tatsu
unabara ha
kamome tachi-tatsu 10
umashi kuni so
Akitsushima
Yamato no kuni ha!

6 The logical subject is, I the Mikado.

11 _so_ is, perhaps, oftener written _zo_.

For _Akitsushima_ see List m. k.

3

Sumeramikoto no Uchi no nu mi kari shitamaheru toki Nakachi Himemiko no Hashihito no Muraji Oyu wo shite tatematsurase tamafu uta.

Yasumishishi 1
waga ohokimi no
ashita ni ha
tori-nade-tamahi
yufube ni ha 5
i-yori-tatashishi
mi torashi no
adzusa no yumi no
nari hazu no
oto su nari 10
asa-kari ni
ima tatasurashi
yufu-kari ni
ima tatasurashi
mi torashi no 15
adzusa no yumi no
nari hazu no
oto su nari!

Tamakiharu 1
Uchi no ohonu ni
uma namete
asa fumasuramu
sono fukakusa nu. 5

6 _i_, a prefix of which the value is lost.

9 _nari_ here means sound, twang.

12 _tatasurashi_ = _tatsuramu_.

2 _Uchi_ may = _utsutsu_, or possibly _ude_, arm.

For _yasumishishi_, _mi torashi no_, _adzusa no yumi_ and _tamakiharu_ see List of m. k. The m. k. it must be remembered are epithets, or expressions in the nature of epithets, only. Thus 7, 8 and 15, 16 are simply double m. k. of _nari_, indeed _nari hazu no_ is almost another m. k. of _oto_.

4 _fumasuramu_ = _fumamu_.

4

Sanuki no kuni Aya no kohori ni idemaseru toki Ikusa no Ohokimi no yama wo mite yomitamaheru uta.

Kasumitatsu 1
nagaki haru hi no
kure ni keru
wadzuki mo shirazu
murakimono 5
kokoro wo itami
nuye no tori
uranage woreba
tamatasuki
kake no yoroshiku 10
tohotsu kami
waga ohokimi no
idemashi no
yama koshi no kaze no
hitori woru 15
waga koromode ni
asa yohi ni
kaherahinureba
masurawo to
omoheru are mo 20
kusamakura
tabi nishi areba
omohi-yaru
tadzuki wo shirani
Tsunu no ura no 25
ama wotomera ga
yakushiho no
omohi so yakuru
aga shita-gokoro.

Yama koshi ni 1
kaze wo tokizhi ni
nuru yo ochizu
ihe naru imo wo
kakete shinubitsu. 5

In the _dai_ the _no_ after _Ohokimi_ is read with _yomi … uta_. In 3 and 22 _ni_ is rather a verbal form (_nu_) than a postposition.

8 _uranage_ = _uchi ni nageki_, inwardly, profoundly, lamenting.

10 _kake_ (_kakuru_) a verb of wide connotation, fundamentally, hang on or over, suspend, put to, forth or on, _[kotoba wo] kake_, utter, as here.

18 _kaherahinureba_ = _kaherinureba_.

19 _masurawo_ is said to be _ma-ara shi-wo_, right-bold-man, or better (more grammatically) _masa_ (or _masu_)_-ara-wo_, which has the same meaning.

22 _shi_ is a particle of emphasis.

23 _omohi-yaru_, thought-send-away, get rid of (unpleasing) thoughts; _omohi_, common throughout the Lays, means think, think affectionately or regretfully of, &c.

3 _nuru yo ochizu_, without missing a sleeping night.

5 _kakete_ = _kokoro ni kakete_, bearing in mind. _shinubu_ is to love, yearn for, regret. _omohi_ is the more general term, _shinubu_ more special, _shitahi_, affection, _kofuru_, _kohi_, &c., love of men and women. But these connotations are not strictly adhered to.

5

Nakachi no Ohoye no [Afumi no miya ni shiroshimeshishi Sumera mikoto] Mitsu yama no mi uta.

Takayama ha 1
Unebi wo yeshi to
Miminashi to
ahi-arisohiki
kamiyo yori 5
kaku narurashi
inishihe mo
shika nare koso
utsusemi mo
Tsuma wo 10
arasofurashiki.

Takayama to 1
Miminashi yama to
ahishi toki
tachite mi ni koshi
Inami kuni hara. 5

In the _dai_ _… meshishi_ is the participial past form of _mesu_. Care must be taken to distinguish between this _shi_ and such a terminational _shi_ as _narurashi_ (6), _koshi_ (4).

1 Read _Kaguyama ha Unebi wo yeshi to_ (_te_) _Miminashi to ahi arisohi_.

4 Observe the past form in _ki_.

6 _narurashi_ = _naramu_, nearly.

7 _inishi-he_ = passed away period, i.e. ancient.

10 A three-syllable verse.

11 supply _mono nari_.

1 A mistake in the script, it should be _Kaguyama_.

4 _mi_, see.

Afumi no Ohotsu no miya ni amenoshita shiroshimeshishi Sumera mikoto no mi yo.

6

Sumera mikoto uchi no ohomahetsu kimi Fujihara no Asomi ni mikotonori shite haru yama no hana no iro aki yama no momichi no nihohi wo arasohashimetamafu toki Nukata no Ohokimi no uta mochite kotowaritamaheru sono uta.

Fuyukomori 1
haru sarikureba
nakazarishi
tori mo ki-nakinu
sakazarishi 5
hana mo sakeredo
yama mo shimi
irite mo [kikazu]
kusa fukami
torite mo mizu 10
aki yama no
ko no ha wo mite ha
momitsu wo ba
torite so shinubu
awoki wo ba 15
okite so nageku
soko shi tanushi
aki yama are ha!

4 _ki-nakinu_, come-sing-finished, the past in _nu_.

6, 7 Read as if _hana mo sake yama mo shigedo_.

10 _toramu to mo mizu_.

12 _ko_ = _ki_, tree.

13 _momitsu_, _momi_, is red.

16 _nageku_, _naga-iki_, sigh, with pleasure or pain.

17 _tanushi_, _tanoshiki_.

18 _are_, _ware_.