Chapter XIII: Part 13

101. #lange fridai#: #langa frīgedæg#, an ancient name for Good Friday, so called from its fast and observances. #gon--fantston#, appears to refer to some procession of the laity at the blessing of the font on Easter Eve, perhaps local, as it is not noticed in the service books. Brand, Popular Antiquities (Bohn), i. 158, quotes from Googe’s translation of the Regnum Papisticum of Kirchmayer, ‘Nine times about the font they marche, and on the Saintes do call; | Then still at length they stande, and straight the priest begins withall.’ Of course there was a procession of the clergy to and from the font, Frere, Use of Sarum, i. 149. In ‘ðor-of in esterne be we wunen | Seuene siðes to funt cumen,’ GE 3289, the reference is to the procession made to the font every afternoon in Easter week. The font is the symbol of the sepulchre because, as Durandus, vi. De Sabbato sancto, says, ‘fit hac die baptismus, quia in eo consepulti sumus christo.’ It is noteworthy that nothing is said of the Easter Sepulchre, which was probably not instituted before the fourteenth century.

103. #tweire kinne#, of two kinds; OE. #twēgra cynna#, but kinnes, 104, 105 is a _sing. gen._ in form, with plural meaning: see 81/80 note.

105. #do#: comp. 122/185 note.

106. #faire him#, becoming to him; ‘bicumeliche,’ 86/116.

107. #underfo#, used absolutely, like mod. receive, to communicate: comp. the full expression 86/117. #himseluen to hele#, to his spiritual well-being. #here oðer#, one of these two; but #eiðer þese wedes#, 86/126 can only mean, at this date, each, i.e. both of these garments. If eiðer be a mistake for oðer, then þis wede must be read in l. 125.

109. #sinbote# is explained by ll. 119, 120.

112. #crisme cloð#: in the service books ‘chrismalis pannus, vestis’: ‘crismale seu vestis candida que super caput baptizati imponitur significat secundum rabanum interioris et exterioris hominis castitatem et innocentiam,’ Durandus vi. The chrism cloth was put on with the words, ‘Accipe vestem candidam, sanctam et immaculatam,’ after the sign of the cross had been made with chrism on the head of the person baptized.

115. #for þat#, by reason of which, through which.

116. #iuele# is predicative dative, equivalent to the usual construction with to, as in l. 125. It is OE.; comp. ‘heora nan him ne mehte bion nane gode,’ Orosius 282/18.

118. #embe#: usually þe . . . embe, about which.

120. #he#: for the personal pronoun used instead of a repeated relative, comp. ‘hem,’ 87/156; ‘He ðurh hwam kinges rixit, ⁊ alle mihtes . . . of him cumeð, he lai bewunden on fiteres,’ VV 49/27. #bet ⁊ milce bit#, amends and prays for mercy; comp. 36/126, 44/238. Read seiende.

121. #Miserere# &c.: Ecclus. xxx. 24.

123. #likeð . . . selðe#, is pleased at the prosperity of all of them.

126. #soule#, #lichame#, datives; comp. ‘himseluen to hele,’ 85/107; 176/24 note.

129. #Amice# &c.: S. Matt. xxii. 12.

132. ‘Haec est dies quam fecit Dominus: exultemus et laetemur in ea,’ Ps. cxvii. 24.

135. #oðerluker#, in quite another fashion: a comparative adverb: see 125/270.

140. #for þi . . . for ꝥ þe#, for this reason . . . because.

142. #þer togenes#, for its coming, to meet it, as in ‘biþ hit eft him togeanes gehealden on þæm heofonlican goldhorde,’ BH 53/13. Comp. ‘þer to,’ 85/91, and for a similar pregnant use of ‘efterward,’ 77/63; ‘hamward,’ 91/93.

143. Holthausen in ES xv. 307 emends this sentence by omitting ⁊ before bringe and before þus and changing bringe, leue into bringeð, leueð. It might be better to omit þe and retain ⁊ before bringeð, with leued and omission of ⁊ before þus.

145. #Accipite# &c.: from the Missal, with substitution of commedite (S. Matt. xxvi. 26) for manducate (1 Cor. xi. 24), as in all the English service books. After #novi#, add ‘et aeterni testamenti, misterium fidei.’

148. #to lesende#: see 81/85 note.

149. #Caro# &c.: S. John vi. 56: the quotation in l. 151 is from verse 54 of the same.

152. Morris says #muge# = muge ge: probably the latter word has dropped out.

154. #ouelete#, oblation, the thing offered, here the wafer to be consecrated. OE. #oflǣte#, #oflēte# from L. oblata.

156. #⁊ . . . hem#, and which: comp. 86/120. #swimesse#, lit. silent mass, explained in Specimens as a mass without music; in Bradley-Strat. as a low mass. But the words of consecration were used in masses low and high; the meaning is the Canon of the Mass, containing the words of consecration, which was said _secreto_, and was often called _secretum_, as by Durandus, ‘secretum silentium in quo & misse canon devote dicitur.’ Comp. ‘Si comenca puis le secrei | De la messe, par bone fei; | Et quant li secrez ert finez, | Est danz Theophle auant alez; | Receut le dulz cors de Jhesu,’ Adgar, Mary Legends, 113/1041; and see the Lay Folks Mass Book, pp. 267, 274. A similar compound is ‘swidages,’ OEH ii. 101/15, the still days, the last three days of Holy Week, which is called ‘swiwike’ in MS. Cleopatra of AR 70/7.

157. Comp. ‘colorem et saporem panis voluit [Christus] remanere, et sub illa specie veram corporis Christi substantiam latere,’ Hildebert, 535.

159-61. The words in brackets were supplied in Specimens, with translation, ‘Greater might doth our Saviour than the holy words which he spake by his (the priest’s) mouth, when he giveth mankind his flesh and his blood,’ an explanation unsatisfactory in substance, for the ‘might’ is not ‘greater,’ but the same. Besides ‘his’ must refer to helende, and the earliest certain example of man’s kind = mankind ‘þar he for mans kind wil dei,’ CM 14909, is more than a century later; the word in this text is ‘mankin,’ 86/136 (#mann cynn#), ‘manken,’ OEH ii. 19/14. #mannes cuinde# cannot mean anything but man’s nature, humanitas, like Orm’s ‘mennisske kinde,’ Dedic. 218, ‘mennisscnessess kinde,’ id. 15687. Omitting the supplement the meaning appears to be, Our Saviour works a greater miracle than if the words of consecration were literally fulfilled, since he gives us in the sacrament his perfect human nature.

161. #⁊ Naþeles# &c., and moreover when a man eats and drinks in the ordinary way, the bread he eats and the drink he drinks do change into flesh and blood by the natural working of the body, wherefore &c.

163. #swo doð#: comp. 6/18 note.

166. #estene dai#, day of dainties, with a word-play on #estre# as in #hu sel# = #wu god#: #sǣl#, happiness.

169. #sleðrende#, falling gently, like dew or rain. #Pluit# &c.: Ps. lxxvii. 24, 25.

172. #biliue#, food: comp. ‘bileue,’ 87/149.

173. #Manna# &c.: ‘filii Israel dixerunt ad invicem: Manhu? quod significat: Quid est hoc?’ Exod. xvi. 15.

177. #clensende#: see 81/85 note.

178. #michele sinnes#, mortal sins.

179. ‘Qui enim manducat et bibit indigne, iudicium sibi manducat et bibit: non diiudicans corpus Domini,’ 1 Cor. xi. 29.

182. #agen#, with reference to; an early example of this use: comp. OF. devers.

189. #driste#, for drihte, Lord, as at 35/79. For st = ht, see KH 249 note. But Morris reads Ariste, resurrection.

_Cross-References_

1/3 (note) = I. A (Worcester Fragments)
81/67, 81/80, 81/85 (notes) = XI. (Hic Dicendum est de Propheta)
91/93 (note) = XIII. (Vices and Virtues)
p. 312 = VIII. (Poema Morale)

_Errata_

#Phonology:# ... and _e_ (9 times), bed 11 [_comma missing_]
_ea_ in smeart _pt. s._ OEH ii. 21/27, _ia_ in giarked 84
[_“_ia_ in giarked 84” added by author_]
#eo#, _å_-umlaut of #e# [_a_-umlaut]
#eo#, _u_- and _å_-umlaut of #i# [_a_-umlaut]
#a# + #g# ... toȝanes OEH ii. 177/32 is #tōgēanes#.
[_corrected by author from #togeanes#_]
underfoð 106 (#-fēhþ#) has _o_ from the plural [#--fēhþ#]
#ēa# + #g# [#eā#]
In nemed 118 ... #ss# is simplified [#s# is]
The infinitive ... _pr. pl. subj._ 88, [88;]
_pt. pl._ 31; gon _inf._ 101, goð _pr. s._ 4, 56. [31,]
112. ... secundum rabanum [_lower-case as shown_]

XIII. VICES AND VIRTUES

#Manuscript:# Stowe 34, British Museum: of the early part of the thirteenth century; written on vellum, 223 × 160 mm., by three scribes, with numerous corrections by at least three other hands. It belonged once to William Fleetwood, Recorder of London, and to Thomas Astley. See Catalogue of the Stowe MSS., and Catalogue of an Exhibition of the Stowe MSS., no. 240.

#Facsimile:# Palæographical Society; Second Series, plate 92.

#Edition:# Holthausen, F., Part i. Text and Translation. E. E. T. S., O. S. 89.

#Literature:# Schmidt, G. Ueber die Sprache und Heimat der ‘Vices and Virtues.’ Leipzig, 1899; Philippsen, M. Die Deklination in den ‘Vices and Virtues.’ Kieler Diss. Erlangen, 1911; Heuser, W., Anglia, xvii. 88.

#Phonology:# Oral #a# and #a# before nasals is _a_, wascen 82, swanc 4; #a# before lengthening groups wavers between _a_ (9 times) and _o_ (5), lande 16, londe 8, understanden 34, understonden 138. #æ# is regularly _a_, after 42, cwað 94, was 3; wrecche 60, 116 comes from #wrecca#. #e# is generally _e_, but umlaut #e# before nasal is _a_ (representing #æ#, Bülbring, § 171) in namden 117, inamde 120, sant 127, sante 84, wante 88; before lengthening groups _e_, lengðe 45, but _a_ as above in andin 122, andeden 123, wand 93, and _æ_ in wænden 46, strænges 28; _a_, _æ_ for umlaut #e# before nasals is characteristic of the South-Eastern area (Morsbach, § 108); _i_ for #e# in ðingþ 41 is due to confusion of #þencan# and #þyncan#; hwilliche 112 descends from #hwilc#. _i_ is _i_, bidde 52, finde 83; cherche 9 is #cyrice#, ferst 91, ðessere 22 (3) come from forms with #y#. #o# is _o_, dropes 12, borde 15; ðane 3 is LWS. #ðane#. #u# is _u_, cumeð 26, swunken 146, grundwall 53, but beswonken 136, forðer 45 (late North. #forþor#). #y# is _e_, euele 26, kennes 13, þelliche 36; #mycel# is muchele 4 (3), beside michele 21 (8); þincþ 47, 63, þingþ 70 represent #þyncþ#.

The representation of #ā# wavers between _a_ and _o_, the former predominating, lare 20 (3), lore 57 (3), swa 5, swo 12, wat 136, wot 137; before two consonants, annesse 115, onnesse 148, tacneð 79, tocneð 130. #ǣ{1}# is regularly _a_, ani 35 (5), sade 75 (8); before two consonants, alche 139, aure 125 (3), but _æ_ in ær 4, 47, bræde 44, mæst 29, næure 31, tæche 54, _ea_ in sea 22; ilke 130 descends from #ylc#. #ǣ{2}# is also _a_, dade 92, 98, rad 19, 42, ware 129; before two consonants, blastes 27, latst 48, but _æ_ in ræd 44, wære 60, and _e_ in leten 56, nahwer 83. #ē# is _e_, bene 95, feden 116, before two consonants, dest 36, misferde 125, but _ie_ in hie 36, hier 144, and more frequently in other places, bienes VV 65/3, diest id. 41/2; _o_ in doð 33, 42 is from the plural. #ī# is _i_, liue 8, wisdome 32, but bleðeliche 66 beside bliðeliche 63. #ō# is _o_, don 123, godnesse 91. #ū# is _u_, trukede 120, dust 70. #ȳ# is _e_ in screden 116, _ie_ in inȝied 80, 91 (#ingehȳd#), _i_ in litle 12, litel 42, 91, little 136.

#ea# before #r# + cons. is _a_, harm VV 29/10; before lengthening groups _a_, harde 31, warnin 27 (4), warð 87, but middeneard 6; the _i_-umlaut is _e_, wernde 83. #ea# before #l# + cons. is also _a_, all 6 (14), grundwall 53, halt 40 (#heald#), scalt 38, but _ea_ survives in ealde 128, healden 57 (4), before a lengthening group; the _i_-umlaut is _e_, eldest 118. #eo# before #r# + cons. is _e_, berȝen 140, berȝin 138, ferr 45, herte 34, 82, but _ie_ in hierte 31, 98, liernin 64, 138, _a_ in harkeð 66 (*#heorcian#); _eo_ survives in weorc VV 95/3 &c.; the _i_-umlaut is _ie_, hierdes 1, but worð 133. #eo# before #l# + cons. is seen in seluen 20. #eo#, _u_-umlaut of #e#, is _e_ in heuene 24, heuneriches 140; after #w#, _o_ in woreld 2 (5). #eo#, _u_- and _å_-umlaut of #i#, is _e_, icleped 58, leðebeiȝe 15, seððen 5, the datives ðese 60, 143, 144, ðesen 119, 120, ðese 53, 140; #heora# is here 15, 30, and hire 14: niðer 30 is without umlaut. #ea# after palatals is _a_, scal 79: #ie# after #g# is _i_, ȝif 90, 101, ȝiuen 40, ȝiue 74, _e_ in beȝete 125, forȝete 60, _ei_ (for ie) in forȝeit 149. #ȝef# is ȝif 32, gif 102. #eo# after #sc# is _u_, scule 8, sculen 1, 74, but scolde 129. #eom# is am 59, #heom#, hem 112.

#ēa# is _ea_, breade 100, dead 87, forleas 7, teares 73 (8), but bred 77, ec 2: aȝean 93 is #ongēan#: the _i_-umlaut has _e_, ȝemeleastes 13, hersum 15, hersumnesse 115 (2), iherde 95 (5), netene 130, but unbiliefde 33. #ēo# is mostly _ie_, bien 12 &c., dier 129, dieuliche 11, lief 3, ouerȝiede 6, ðies 79, 91, but _e_ in be 39, betwen 112, deules 26, lef 88, twene 139; _eo_ is rare, beon VV 121/10. The _i_-umlaut is _e_, fiftene 95, inede 74, steren 9, and _ie_, niede 92 (4), niedfulle 74, stieren 1, stierde 5. Palatal #ēa# after #g# is seen in ȝear 95, biȝeates 14 (#begēat#, Napier, OE. Glosses 2698); after #sc# in scadwisnesse 121. #ȝīet# is ȝiet 90, 95.

#a# + #g# is _aȝ_, laȝe 128, 131, forðdraȝen 97. #æ# + #g# is _ai_, faire 11, mai 34, sai 94 (#sæge#), tail 129, but daiȝ 77. #e# + #g# is _ei_, aweiward 48, seið 17 (#segeð#), but iseȝen 119 (#gesegen#). #o# + #g# is seen in ibroiden 28; #o# + #ht# in þohtes 25, 30. #u# + #g# is _uȝ_, muȝe 97, muge 125. #ā# + #g#, #h# are seen in wauȝe 89, auh 17; #ǣ{1}# + #ht# in betaht 7; #ǣ{2}# + #g# in ȝeseiȝe 124; #ē# + #g# in wreiȝede 83; #ī# + #g# in stieð 24; #ō# + #g# in bowes 44, #ō# + #ht# in besouhte 84, ȝeþouht 46, þouhten 77; #ea# + #h# in iseih 94; #ie# + #ht# in miht 98, mihte 5 &c., mihtes 46, niht 77; #eo# + #ht# in riht 146; #ēa# + #h# in þeih 105; #īe# + #ht# in ieiht 96; #ā# + #w# in saule 10 (6), sawle 80: naht 12, 87, 126 is #nāht#. nielnesse 30 represents #neowolnes#. #ēa# + #w# gives _eaw_, feawe 40, sceawin 25 (3), unðeawes 55; #ēo# + #w#, _ew_, ȝew 20, ȝewer 19, ȝewere 20, newe 131, #īe# + #w#, _ew_, trewe 39.

#a# without stress is levelled to _e_ in andswereð 51, middeneard 6; #o# to _e_ in forðer 45, niðer 30, sikere 12, sikerliker 98, sikerest 113, te 28, 42; #u# to _e_ in leðebeiȝe 15. #e# is lost in eule 81, heuneriches 140, o in nielnesse 30, _e_ is added in ofte 60. #on# is a 149.

For #w# the rune is used. #ll# is simplified in dieuliche 11. #n# is doubled in þennken 49: for almihtin 143, see 79/17 note. Initial #f# is _f_, ferr 45, #f# between vowels or vowel and liquid is _u_, euele 26, aure 125, otherwise _f_, unbeliefde 33. #d# is doubled in godd 7, goddspell 118, lost in finst 40; #dd# is simplified in amidewarde 70; for #d#, _t_ appears in halt 40. Initial #þ# becomes _t_ after #t# in tin 40, tu 37, 47, 87; for #þ#, _d_ is written in seid 21, 67, speked 73, tobrekd 35, wid 71. #s# is represented by _sc_ in bledscin 147: #sc# is regularly _sc_ [š], iscop 52, scal 79, sceawin 25, scipes 14, scolde 129, scule 8, wascen 82. The stop #c# is written _k_ before _e_, _i_, lokin 1, munekes 38 and before another consonant, forsakþ 20, tobrekð 32, but tobrecþ 36, _c_ in other positions, cumen 113, exceptionally _ch_ in ilche 52 (#ilca#), arche 5, 9 (if not French), _g_ in ðingþ 41 (4): #ic# is ic and ich. #č# is _ch_, alche 139, beseche 58, ilich 69, iswinch 48, michel 122 &c., tæche 54, þelliche 36, þench 89, þenchinde 59, but exceptionally _k_ in beseke 106, beseken 97, ilke 130 (#ylc# confused with #ilca#): #čč# is _cch_, wacchen 114, wrecche 60, 116. #cg# is _gg_, segge 99, 109; #cs#, _x_, rixin, rixið 110; #cw#, _cw_, becweð 86, cwað 94, cwide 86. Palatal #g# is _ȝ_, initially, biȝeates 14, ȝemeleastes 13, but Gif 102 (with capital letter); medially, maniȝe 4 (4), heriȝen 147 (3), wuniȝeð 15, 18, muȝe 97, VV 3/18, 73/17 &c., but muge 125. The prefix #ge-# is often retained, ȝewriten 23, ȝeþanc 57, ȝeswinkes 145, beside iþanke 66, iswinch 48, and _ȝ_ is added in ȝew 20, ȝewer 19, ȝewere 20, ouerȝiede 6. For the stop, _g_ is used initially, grundwall 53, agunnen 123, ȝegunnen 53, but iȝunnen 47, medially, bringen 8, but the palatal symbol is used for the spirant after _l_, _r_, berȝin 138 &c., folȝin 44 (3), foriswelȝen 39: #myr(i)gþ# is represented by merhðe 25, merchþe 140. #g# is lost in heuiliche 48. For #h#, _ȝ_ is written in þurȝwunie 131, ðurȝwuneð 133; _h_ is added in Hvte 143, lost in þurwuneð 128, inȝied 80, 91 (inȝehied VV 141/1): initial #hl# is preserved in hlesteð 17 (3), but lhesten 50, lesten 44.

#Accidence:# Strong declension of _masc._ and _neut._ nouns. _Sing. g._ -es, priestes 43, kennes 13, scipes 14: _d._ -e, hlauerde 143, netene 130, but daiȝ 151 (comp. OE. #on dæg#), hlauerd 52, ræd 44, sal 111 (OE. #æt sumum sǣle#, #on sumne sǣl#) are without inflection. _Pl. n. a._ of masculines, -es, hierdes 1, bowes 44, but wintre 4 (#wintru#); neuters are _n._ dier 129, _a._ ȝear 95, þing 137, bede 114 (#gebēdu#): _pl. g._ ðinge 71; _d._ -es, blastes 27, biȝeates 14, ȝeswinkes 145, wordes 66. Of the _fem._ nouns of the strong declension, forbisne 66, mihte 126, niede 151, sawle 51 (3), scadwisnesse 121 have added e in the _s. n._ and bene 95, mihte 106, niede 92, 150 in the _s. a._ _Gen._ -e, herte 34: _d._ -e, bræde 44, cherche 9, but sea 22, woreld 2 (4). _Pl. g._ saule 13; _d._ ȝemeleastes 13, mihtes 46 (5); _a._ dade 92, 98, mihtes 69. Nouns of the weak declension are _s. d._ hope 28, ileaue 28; _a._ lichame 10; _pl. n._ dropes 12; _d._ wisen 117; _a._ wacchen 114. The minor declensions are represented by mann _s. n._ 33, mannes _s. g._ 145, manne _s. d._ 33, stieresmanne 15, man _s. a._ 127, stieresmann 3, manne 124, stieresmenn _pl. n._ 8, mannen _pl. d._ 38, stieresmannen 18, 21, stieresman[nen] 23; moder _s. n._ 109; faderes _pl. n._ 109, 111.

Remnants of the strong declension of adjectives in the sing. are haliȝes _g. m._ 145, faste _d. m._, rihte 28, dieuliche _d. f._ 11, mannliche 10, michele 21, 96, faire _d. neut._ 11. The weak declension in the sing. has -e throughout, unware _n. m._ 41, unwise 33, eule _n. f._ 81, gode 80, lieue 136, muchele _d. m._ 5, wilde 6, bitere _d. f._ 22, ealde 128, soðe 29, &c., gode _a. m._ 3, 35, michele _a. f._ 25, little _a. neut._ 136; exceptions are hali 64, 117, 124, muchel 48. The _pl._ strong and weak has -e in all cases, sikere _n._ 12, halie _d._ 140, euele _a._ 26, but hali _n._ 108, 111, hersum 15, hali _d._ 46, 53 are uninflected; comparatives and superlatives are gladdere _s. n. f._ 98, eldes[t] _pl. d._, wisest 118, #ān# is a _n. m._ 91, on 118, an _f._ 66, 126, one _a. f._ 106, #nān#, non _n. f._ 71, _neut._ 103, none _d. m._ 10, 11, _f._ 72, _neut._ 32, 134. Adjectives used as nouns are gode _s. d. neut._ 72, 134, arst _s. a. neut._ 71, betste 89, god 38, 40, lasse 43, litel 42, gode _pl. d._ 150.

The personal pronouns are ic 45 (8), ich 46 (8), me, we, us, þu, (ðat) tu 37, 58, (scalt) tu 87, ðe, ȝew 20. The pronoun of the third person is _s. n._ he _m._ 4, 7, ?hie 45, hie _f._ 108, 109, he 110, hit _neut._ 29; _d._ him _m._ 7, hire _f._ 110; _a._ hie _m._ 36, _f._ 5, his 127; _pl. n._ hie 2; _d._ hem 56; _a._ hes 50, 54, 56. Reflexives are me seluen 19, hem _pl. d._ 112: possessives, min 57, 79, mine _pl._ 76, 79, þin 98, ðine _s. d. f._ 57, 90, 91, _s. a. m._ 95, _s. a. f._ 95, tin _s. a. neut._ 40, þi 96, ure 23, ȝewer 19, ȝewere 20, his 82, is 93, hire 81, here _pl._ 30, hire 14. The definite article is _s. n._ ðe _m._ 17, _f._ 79, 80, se 81, þat _neut._ 80, 117; _d._ ðan _m._ 33, 52, ðe 5 (6), ðo 69, ðare _f._ 29 (8), ðe 9, 31, ða 147, ðe _neut._ 64, ðo 100; _a._ ðane _m._ 3, 53, ðanne 127, ðe _f._ 25, 39, ða 4, 9, þat _neut._ 89, ðe _instr._ 98: _pl. n._ ða 8, ðe 1; _d._ ðan 74, ða 21 (3), ðe 46 (4); _a._ ðe 26, ðo 31. The article is used as pronoun antecedent to relatives, se ðe, he who 19, 65, ðo ðe, those who 1, 2: ðat is demonstrative 17, 33, 64, 80, 102, 121. The compound demonstrative is _s. n._ þies _f._ 91, 79 (with _neut._ bedd); _d._ ðese _m._ 60, 144, ðessere _f._ 22, 71, 131, ðese _neut._ 143; _a._ ðese _f._ 58, 124, þis _neut._ 20, 136: _pl. n._ þese 73; _d._ ðesen 119, 120, þese 38, 53, 140; _a._ ðese 103. The relatives are ðe 1, ðat 37, 60, what, se ðe 148, who; ðe 4 means with which. Interrogatives are hwam _s. d. f._ 71, hwat 17, 36, hwilliche 112: #ilca# is ilche _s. d. m._ 52, #þyllic#, þelliche _pl. d._ 36. Indefinites are se ðe 125, whoso; se . . . he 132; hwat hwat 134, whatever, me 113, man 104, 110; feawe _pl._ 40; sum _s. n._ 113, sume _s. d. m._ 111, _pl. a._ 97; oþres _s. g. neut._ 77, oðer _s. d. f._ 61, oðre _pl. d._ 108; ilke _s. n. m._ 130, alche _s. d. m._ 139; auriche _s. d. neut._ 130; ani 35 &c.; maniȝes _s. g. m._ 145, _neut._ 12, manies 117, maniȝe _pl. n._ 12, manie 119, maniȝe _pl. d._ 55, _pl. a._ 4, 119; all _s. a. m._ 6, _f._ 39, al _s. a. neut._ 37, alle _pl. n._ 14, 129, alre _pl. g._ 71, alle _pl. d._ 14 (7), _pl. a._ 137.

Infinitives of the second weak conjugation, except watrien 79, end in -in, andin 122, folȝin 44 (3), rixin 110, all others in -en, -ien, berȝen 140, beseken 97, herien 143, except berȝin 138, herborȝin 115. The _dat. inf._ is not inflected; to laten, to libben 88, to speken, to þennken 49 are virtually nominatives. Presents are _s._ 1. beseche 58, habbe 56; 2. hauest 53, lokest 47, syncopated are dalst 37, finst 40, hafst 37, latst 48; 3. answereð 51, haueð 45, rixeð 148, tocneð 130, rixið 110, and twelve others, but syncopated forms predominate, hafð 35, sant 127, and nineteen others; _pl._ 1. fareð 21, habbeð 119 (3), speked 73, finde we 83; 3. cumeð 26, stieð 24, wuniȝeð 15, 18, exceptionally folgið 3, seggeð 109, stikð 30; _subjunctive s._ 2. beseke 106, forðbringe 54, heriȝe 149, sette 59, tæche 54, þanke 150; 3. beȝete 125, þurȝwunie 131; _pl._ 1. bledscin, heriȝen 147, hvte we 143, segge we 99, speken 71, þankin 147; 3. forliesen 9, lokien 14, tobreken 27: _imperative s._ 2. becweð 86, sai 94, wand 93; halt 40 for hald; _pl._ 2. hlesteð 17. Past of Strong Verbs: Ia. _s._ 3. cwað 94, iseih 94; _pl._ 1. ȝeseiȝe we 124: Ic. _s._ 3. swanc 4, warð 87, worð 133; _pl._ 3. agunnen 123, swunken 146: III. _s._ 3. forleas 7: IV. _s._ 3. iscop 52: V. _s._ 3. hatte 106, 126. Participles present: Ia. spekinde 112; past: Ia. iseȝen 119: Ic. agunnen 133, ȝegunnen 53, iȝunnen 47, beswonken 136, ȝeborȝen 119, iborȝen 133, ibroiden 28: II. ȝeswiken 57, ȝewriten 23: V. ihoten 29, 128. Past of Weak Verbs: _s._ 1. hadde 46, 47; 3. besouhte 84, ȝeherde 93, hadde 7, sade 75 &c.; _pl._ 3. andeden 123, namden 117. Participles present: liuiende 16, þenchinde 59, wuniende 60; past: betaht 7, ȝeluued 90, icleped 58, ihafd 56, ieiht 96 (#geīecan#), unbiliefde _adj. s. d._ 33. Minor Groups: wat _pr. s._ 136, wot 137, witen _pr. pl._ 41, wite 2. _pr. imp._ 73; auh _pr. s._ 17; scal 1. _pr. s._ 79, scalt 2. _pr. s._ 38 (3), sculen _pr. pl._ 1, 74, scule 8, scolde _pt. s._ 129; miht 2. _pr. s._ 98, 139, mai _pr. s._ 34 (3), muȝe 2. _pr. s. subj._ 97, muge _pr. s. subj._ 125, mihte _pt. s._ 5 (3), mihten _pt. pl._ 13 (3), mihtin 122; bien _inf._ 72, 87, am 1. _pr. s._ 59, is _pr. s._ 23, nis 103, bieð _pr. pl._ 2 (4), bien _pr. pl. subj._ 12, 15, 105, be 2. _imp. s._ 39, was _pt. s._ 3, waren _pt. pl._ 77, wære _pt. s. subj._ 60, ware 129; wile 1. _pr. s._ 46 (3), wilt 2. _pr. s._ 63 (3), wile 37 (_subj._ form), wile _pr. s._ 31 (4), willeð _pr. pl._ 16, wile 40 (for willen, _subj._ form), woldest 2. _pt. s._ 49, wolde _pt. s._ 82, wolden _pt. pl._ 39; don _inf._ 123, dest 2. _pr. s._ 36, doð _pr. s._ 33, dede _pt. s._ 42, deden _pt. pl._ 121, idon _pp._ 45, 90, don 134.

#Dialect:# Here, as in the Trinity College manuscript of the Poema Morale, a scribe of the northern border of the South-Eastern area has turned a composition in the dialect of the Middle or Western South into his own, with occasional retention of Southern forms. After a considerable interval his version was copied with little alteration by the three scribes of the Stowe manuscript, for the differences between the sections are mainly graphic and only in a minor degree dialectal. As a consequence, the language of VV is older than that current at the time when the copy was made; in some respects older than that of MS. T of the PM., as in its representation of #ā#, #ā# + #g#, #ā# + #w#. Occasional lapses into OE. forms at the beginning of the manuscript, such as acwellan _inf._ VV 9/19, daȝas 27/22 (which would have been in OE. #dagum#), have been thought to point to an OE. original, but they are more probably due to a scribe acquainted with the older native literature.

#Vocabulary:# Scandinavian are hahte 21, skele 121, sckelewisnesse 107; an OE. borrowing is stieresmann 3: French are carite 29, cariteð 58, hert 35, prophete 75, richeise 88, (stan) roches 31, seruise 130, and probably arche 5: offrin 129 is a pre-Conquest Latin borrowing.

#Introduction:# The book is imperfect at the beginning, but probably little has been lost. It opens in the middle of a confession by a sinful soul of a formidable array of sins, to which Reason (‘Scadwisnesse,’ 90/62, ‘Ratio,’ 92/135) replies by a series of discourses on the virtues which will help the soul against its vices. The first extract, written by the first scribe, is part of this. The second piece, written by the third hand, concludes the book.

The writer speaks of his work as a compilation from many authors (93/144). The framework of it may have been suggested by S. Isidore’s Synonyma de Lamentatione Animae Peccatricis, wherein Homo and Ratio hold similar alternate discourse (Opera vi. 472), but nothing else. The author appears to have been acquainted with the writings of Hugh of St. Victor (_d._ 1140); he may have borrowed from him (Opera i. 69) the idea of the contest between Mercy and Truth (VV 113), but the influence of the older English literature dominates his style, vocabulary, and mode of thought.

1. #hierdes#, pastors: comp. ‘þe selue herdes beð þe lorþewes of holi chiriche,’ OEH ii. 39/12; ‘se cyning ⁊ se biscop sceoldan beon Cristenra folca hyrdas,’ BH 45/25. #lokin#, to take care of, preserve: comp. 4/20; ‘ðe sceaweres ðe lokeden ðe hali burh,’ VV 103/13, 121/11; generally with _acc._, but ‘to lokin of mine wrecche lichame,’ VV 17/3. #⁊# = and, 89/28.

2. #ute#, in the cloister.

3. #noe#: a type of Christ; the Ark is the Church, a common idea, Ælf. Hom. Cath., ii. 60; OEH ii. 43/4; AR 142/12, but especially beloved of Hugh of St. Victor, ‘Noe significat Christum sive quemlibet praelatum qui in quantum potest facit arcam, id est, aedificat Ecclesiam,’ i. 226.

4. #þe#, with which: see 46/292 note.

5. #mihte . . . ȝemaked#, was able to complete: the last word is more adjective than participle and its syntax is primitive, comp. ‘hie alle on þone Cyning wærun feohtende oþ þæt hie hine ofslægenne hæfdon,’ AS. Chron. 755 A.D.

8. #to liue ⁊ to londe#: a zeugma, #bringen# has its ordinary meaning with #to londe#, but #bringen to liue# means, preserve alive, without any sense of motion; comp. ‘To lyue God him wolde bringe,’ Gregorius, 269; similarly ‘to liue go,’ escape death, KH 97, where see note for other uses of the same kind. Note the variant in 88/16.

10. #For none winde#, because of any wind.

11. #on#, in: comp. 90/66, 93/147; ‘forsakene on godes awene muðe,’ VV 3/2; ‘wakien on godes seruise,’ id. 3/27, and often in this text. See 83/15 note.

13. #kennes#: see 81/80 note.

15. #leðebeiȝe#, pliant, ready to obey: OE. #leoþu-bīege#, supple-jointed; the figurative use is noteworthy: comp. ‘leðebeih ⁊ hersum gode,’ VV 109/3: ‘Soð was leðebei,’ id. 113/26.

16. #liuiende lande#, land of the living: glossed ‘terra uiuentium,’ VV 41/11.

18. ‘Qui vos audit, me audit: et qui vos spernit, me spernit,’ S. Luke x. 16.

20. #fullȝewiss#: see 32/40.

21. #hahte#, danger: OWScand. hǣtta; see Björkman, 99.

22. #hoc mare magnum#: Ps. ciii. 25. #bitere#: probably from ‘Porro iuxta allegoriam, mare sive stagnum quod cum suis transire desiderat [Dominus], tenebrosus amarusque seculi praesentis accipitur aestus,’ Bede, ed. Giles, xi. 70 (comment on S. Luke viii. 22).

23. #Ascendunt# &c.: Ps. cvi. 26.

26. #deules blastes#: comp. ‘Al so al holi chirche, þet is schip icleoped, schal ancren . . . so holde þet tes deofles puffes, þet beoð temptaciuns, hit ne ouerworþe,’ AR 142/12: ‘flante vento diabolicarum suggestionum,’ Hugh of S. Victor, ii. 483.

28. #strænges#, strands. The expressions ‘rihte ileaue,’ ‘soðe luue’ are of common occurrence; comp. 113/49, 189/435; OEH ii. 47/25, 103/28; Orm 46/1407, and for the latter, Ælf. Lives, i. 354/247. But ‘faste hope’ is unusual; comp. VV 15/27, 39/1. For #hope te#, see 178/89.

31. #nexin#, soften: OE. #hnexian#: beside the ordinary neschen, OE. #hnescian#. This text has ‘nexxin,’ 145/33, ‘nexce herte,’ 63/26: these forms do not apparently occur anywhere else.

32. #watere of wisdome#: suggested by ‘Sitierunt, et invocaverunt te (sapientiam), et data est illis aqua de petra altissima, et requies sitis de lapide duro,’ Wisdom xi. 4. Comp. ‘flowinde wettres of wittie wordes,’ SK 687. #ðar . . . to#: see 1/3.

33. #unbiliefde#, unbelieving, as though not possessed of belief: OE. #gelīefed#, believing, a believer. With 33-44, comp. OEH ii. 29/33-36.

35. The unwise man, if he have any generous purpose, makes shipwreck (on the stone-rock of the unbeliever), because the latter collides with his good will and wrecks it by using such words as these. The figure of the ship and the rock is continued in this sentence; the change of subject in ‘he hert’ is not uncommon.

37. #spelleres#, talkers, preachers. For #hadede#, see 4/20.

38. Holthausen puts a comma after mannen, making #Wile ðu# subjunctive, if thou wilt, which was no doubt the intention of the author.

39. #be trewe mann#: equivalent to our, Be a man!

42. #te gode#: comp. 30/21.

45. #Hie# &c. Charity has led me into talking about it at greater length than I had intended. Comp. ‘Ich hadde iþoht ðat ic naht ne scolde writen bute of ðese haliȝe mihtes . . . ðanne am ic iladd ut oðerhwile, ær ic hit ouht wite, to oðer þinge,’ VV 53/15.

47. #lokest aweiward#, avertest thy face: comp. ‘a-weiward his heued heold[;] [&] nolde hit ihere,’ L, MS. O 8878.

48. #heuiliche latst#, appearest to be wearied; in common phrase, look bored.

51. #me to helpe#, for my help: comp. 85/107; 176/24 note.

53. #grundwall#, foundation: comp. ‘Ne mai no mann leiȝen oðer grundwall’ (= fundamentum), VV 93/30.

54. #forðbringe#, bring forward, utter; perhaps here, build up on the foundation already laid.

58. #halwende#, sanctifying, purifying: OE. #hālgian#, comp. 130/78.

59. #for ðan# &c., because I am very pensive as long as I dwell in this wretched body: comp. ‘Ðarhwile ðe ðu art,’ VV 75/9, translating ‘Dum es.’ This archaic use of the particle þe is characteristic of the writer: so ‘ðar ðe,’ 91/109, VV 69/25; ‘ðarof ðe,’ id. 69/26; ‘ðar to ðe,’ id. 73/15; ‘ðo ðe,’ id. 49/15; #ðat#, what, in l. 60 is elsewhere ‘þat ðe,’ VV 65/16: #Ðas þe# in l. 63 is for Ðas.

61. Comp. ‘for ðan ȝif hit ne helpð one, hit helpð an oðer,’ VV 53/18.

63. #Ðas þe#, according to that, according to what you say, so then: adverbial use descended from OE. #þæs#, _gen. sing. neut._ of the article #se#, with þe annexed, as sometimes in OE.; so too in ‘Harke nu ðe formeste forbysne ðe he mankenn sceawede ðas þe we cunnen understonden,’ VV 49/12, where the meaning is, so far as we can understand. Otherwise þas þe, þes þe is regularly associated in ME. with a comparative adverb, as ‘ðu scalt hauen ðas te more iswink,’ VV 75/4.

65. #Qui# &c.: S. John viii. 47.

66. #on iþanke#: comp. 12/4.

67. ‘Qui enim sine humilitate virtutes congregat, in ventum pulverem portat,’ S. Greg. Op. i. 1461. Alcuin quotes with substitution of ‘bona opera agit’ for ‘virtutes congregat,’ Op. ii. 132.

72. #wið healden#, restrained; which gives an inadequate sense: omit wið, which is due to the preceding wið, the meaning then is, without which (humility) no other virtue can be possessed to any advantage or use. Comp. ‘for ðan hie (humility) is þe swa swiðe nedfull ðat tu ne miht none oðre mihte habben ne healden . . . bute þu ðese habbe,’ VV 53/21. wiðhealden has the meaning, keep company with, associate with, in ‘he is to luuiȝen ⁊ to wiðhealden,’ VV 101/5, 101/10.

73. #Wite ðu to soðe#, know thou for a truth; a favourite expression of the writer, but with te, not to, as at VV 41/32, 55/23, 59/11, 69/28, ‘wite ðu te fulle soðe,’ 65/22: comp. the variants at 70/158, 76/7, 142/73, 143/75, 91, and, ‘wite ȝe hit to wisse,’ SJ 27/16. #ðe . . . spekeð#: comp. 81/77.

74. #inede#, needy persons: comp. the ME. verbs ineden, neden; OE. #genīedan#.

75. #Fuerunt# &c.: Ps. xli. 4.

77. #Of--teares#, of tears of another kind; so 91/101.

78. #Lacrimis# &c.: Ps. vi. 7.

79. Comp. ‘Sit animae beatae culcitra conscientiae suae puritas: sit cervical aut capitale tranquillitas: coopertorium securitas: et in hoc strato delectabiliter dormiat et feliciter requiescat,’ Hugh of St. Victor, iii. 236.

82. #þar of ðe#, whereof, of what: comp. ‘Ðar is ðin herte ðarof ðe ðu mæst þenkst,’ VV 69/26.

85. #Dispone# &c.: Isa. xxxviii. 1. Omit ⁊ before #tu#.

86. #cwide#, legacy.

88. #lað#: comp. 189/412: #richeise# is accusative.

89. #dede þat betste#, took the best course.

90. #for--idon#, exerted myself cheerfully for love of thee.

91. #god inȝied#: referring to Hezekiah’s words, ‘Memento quaeso quomodo ambulaverim coram te in veritate et in corde perfecto.’

93. #hamward#, on his way home; ‘antequam egrederetur Isaias mediam partem atrii, factus est sermo Domini ad eum, dicens: Revertere,’ 4 Kings xx. 4. Comp. ‘þa ða he hamwerd wæs,’ Ælf. Lives, i. 318/181, ii. 150/110; ‘eoten wæs ut-weard,’ Beowulf, 761; ‘þiderward,’ 83/18; ‘þa wes it cud ouer al þe burh þet þe helind wes þiderward,’ OEH i. 3/15; ‘is towerd on worulde,’ Ælf. Lives, ii. 170/28. These expressions are elliptical; farende or the like is to be understood.

94. #Vidi# &c.: Isa. xxxviii. 5. #lacrimam tuam#: so Codex Amiatinus. The Vulgate has ‘lacrymas tuas’.

97. #muȝe forðdraȝen#, art able to produce from thy store; L. depromere.

99. #forð mid#: see 1/19. #Ciba# &c.: Ps. lxxix. 6 (adapted).

104. #alswa alswa . . . alswa#, even as . . . even so.

107. #sckelewisnesse#, skillwiseness, discretion: OWScand. skilvíss.

108. #beheue#: comp. 74/225, 127/346: a favourite word of this writer, see VV 99/25, 107/28, 109/8: comp. ‘Geþyld is micel mægen · and mannum nyd-behefe,’ Ælf. Lives, ii. 166/142; ‘hemseluen to unbihefe,’ OEH ii. 121/24.

109. #moder#: ‘Haec dico ut discretionem, quae omnium virtutum et mater et nutrix est, detegam,’ Ælredi Regula; ‘imetnesse is alre mihta moder,’ OEH i. 101/24; ‘Witerlice meteȝung is alræ mæȝene moder,’ Twelfth Cent. Hom. 90/29.

110. #rixin# is a mistake due to the preceding rixið: the text, as it stands, must mean, who wills to rule and follow her. hlesten is the word associated with folȝin in VV, comp. ‘for ðan ðe hie nolden godes lare hlesten ne folȝin,’ 61/16, ‘Hlest ⁊ folȝih se ðe wile,’ 77/9.

111. #vitas patrum#: see pp. 551, 2, ed. Roswey, Antwerp, 1628. #sume sal#, at a time when a number of the hermits of the Thebaid came to visit S. Antony, ‘perfectionis inquisitione et collationis gratia.’

112. #on--cumen#: ‘quaenam virtus . . . certe ad Deum recto tramite firmoque gressu perduceret.’

115. #annesse#: ‘remotiorem vitam et eremi secreta.’ Comp. ‘Munec mai ut-faren mid ileaue in to hermitorie, oðer in to onnesse te wunien,’ VV 73/24. The same word means unity at 93/148.

116. #to lokin# is syntactically on a level with #herborȝin#, but has to, because it is separated from ðurh: comp. ‘Hit bieð sume þat non imeðe ne cunnen of hem seluen to feden,’ VV 139/23.

117. #on manieskennes wisen#: see 81/80 and 132/9.

118. #on#: S. Antony. #Ðurh# &c. Holthausen translates, ‘Through all these we have seen and heard a great many saved, and many by all these named virtues perished, because _discretio_ failed them,’ which gives an unsatisfactory sense for the second clause and involves a forced meaning for ‘of’ as equivalent to ðurh (for which the only near parallels in VV are 97/19, 103/3), and a meaning in which it would hardly be used immediately after ‘manie’; ‘inamde’ (elsewhere ‘forenammde,’ VV 15/29) is superfluous. The original is, ‘Omnia quidem haec quae dixistis, necessaria sunt et utilia sitientibus Deum: sed his principalem tribuere gratiam nequaquam nos innumerabiles multorum fratrum casus et experimenta permittunt. Nam saepe vidimus fratres has observationes tenentes repentino casu deceptos, eo quod in bono quod coeperant discretionem minime tenuerunt.’ The English appears to be corrupt: mihten belongs to the former ðesen; the second alle is repeated from the first; under the superfluous inamde lurks the equivalent for repentino casu, which would hardly be overlooked by the translator; perhaps in a mu{n}de, in a handwhile, in a moment. The sense would then be, We have seen and heard of very many persons protected (comp. VV 73/7) by all these virtues, and (we have seen) many of these lapse in a moment, because discretion failed them. This meaning of mund is not in the dictionaries, and the evidence for it is slight, but comp. Varnhagen’s note on ‘boten a mounde’ in Anglia, iii. 283. More usual, but less appropriate, would be, in a niede.

125. #muge# is subjunctive after se ðe, indefinite, whosoever, as is wile in ‘Weriȝe se ðe wile,’ VV 89/33, but se ðe, he who, is followed by the indicative, ‘se ðe luueð,’ VV 41/7 (= qui diligit), ‘se ðe swereð,’ id. 79/3 (= qui iurat). There seems to be no distinction in meaning between ‘Bie war, ȝif ðu wilt,’ VV 59/2, and ‘Bie war, ȝif ðu wile,’ id. 61/8, but the forms of this verb are confused, see 89/37. Note also the indicative after ‘hwat hwat,’ 92/134.

126. #to laten#, to be passed over without mention, to be omitted.

127. #ðe--to sant#, to whom God sends it.

128. This is from S. Gregory, ‘Quia nimirum virtus boni operis perseverantia est; et voce Veritatis dicitur: Qui autem perseveraverit usque in finem, hic salvus erit. Et praecepto legis cauda hostiae in sacrificio iubetur offerri. In cauda quippe finis est corporis; et ille bene immolat qui sacrificium boni operis usque ad finem debitae perducit actionis,’ In Evang. Homiliae, ii. 25, § 1. Similarly S. Isidore, v. 427; Alanus, 78. See Lev. iii. 9.

129. #alle dier#, a subject without a verb; the construction is altered.

132. S. Matt. x. 22, xxiv. 13.

136. #beswonken#, worked at; like L. elaborare, with acc. as in OE. #he it wat# &c.: a favourite expression of the author, as VV 21/3, 95/26; ‘He it wot ðe all wot,’ id. 75/2.

137. #wissin . . . warnin#: so ‘wissedest ⁊ warnedest,’ VV 21/27.

139. #twene#, doubt: OE. #twȳn#.

143. #Hvte we#, let us: comp. 175/422; ‘Wuten we fare,’ VV 23/22.

147. #on#, in: see 83/15.

149. #ne heriȝe#: see 25/241 note.

151. #ofte ⁊ ȝelome#: see 32/47.

153. #implet#: a variant, without authority, for imple.

_Cross-References_

25/241 (note) = VI. (The Proverbs of Alfred)
46/292 (note) = VIII. (Poema Morale)
79/17, 81/80 (notes) = XI. (Hic Dicendum est de Propheta)

_Errata_

#Facsimile:# Palæographical Society [_anomalous æ unchanged_]
#ea# before #r# ... halt 40 (#heald#) [40,]
#ēa# is _ea_ ... #ȝīet# is ȝiet 90, 95.
[_text unchanged: apparent error for #gīet#_]
#a# + #g# is _aȝ_, laȝe 128, 131, forðdraȝen 97 [forðdragen]
59. ... ‘ðarof ðe,’ id. 69/26 [_open quote missing_]
‘ðar to ðe,’ id. 73/15 [_close quote missing_]
93. ... Comp. ‘þa ða he hamwerd wæs,’ [Comp,]

XIV. LAȜAMON

#Manuscripts:# i. Cotton Caligula A 9, British Museum (C); on vellum, 216 × 153 mm.; 192 folios in double columns of 32 to 34 lines, written by two scribes in the first quarter of the thirteenth century. It is bound up with another manuscript containing the Owl and the Nightingale and other pieces.

ii. Cotton Otho C 13, British Museum (O); injured in the fire of 1731; on vellum; 145 folios in double columns of 38 lines; written in one hand, of the third quarter of the thirteenth century.

C is by far the better representative of the original, yet O alone not infrequently preserves it in details; though fifty years later than C, it has probably been transmitted through fewer copies than the latter. Mistakes common to both versions have been derived from an intermediate manuscript X. O represents a recension of X, made by a man who was mainly interested in the chronicle of events, a matter-of-fact person who stood in a critical attitude to his exemplar and took no pleasure in simile, epic repetition or descriptive touch. Under his handling, much that is characteristic of the author disappears.

#Facsimiles:# Of C. Madden, i. p. xxxv, and New Palaeographical Society, plate 86. Of O. Madden, i. p. xxxviii.

#Editions:# Madden, Sir Frederic, Laȝamons Brut, London, 1847. Of the present extract: Mätzner, E., Altenglische Sprachproben, i. 19-39; Morris, R., Specimens, 64-86.

#Literature:# =Manuscripts and Texts.= *Bartels, L., Die Zuverlässigkeit der Handschriften von Laȝamons Brut, Halle, 1913; Seyger, R., Beiträge zu Laȝamons Brut, Halle, 1912; Stratmann, F. H., ES iii. 269; iv. 96, 7; v. 375; Zessack, A., Die beiden Handschriften von Layamons Brut und ihr Verhältnis zu einander, Breslau, 1888. =Sources.= Brown, A. C. L., Welsh Traditions in Layamon’s Brut. Modern Philology, i. 95-103; Imelmann, R., Laȝamon Versuch über seine Quellen, Berlin, 1906; Krautwald, H., Layamon’s Brut verglichen mit Wace’s Roman de Brut, Breslau, 1887; Wülker, R., Ueber die Quellen Layamons, Paul-Braune, Beiträge, iii. 524-55. =Phonology.= Bowen, E. W., Open and close ē in Layamon. Anglia, xvi. 380; Lucht, P., Lautlehre der älteren Laȝamonhandschrift, Berlin, 1905; *Luhmann, A., Die Überlieferung von Laȝamons Brut, Halle, 1906; Stratmann, F. H., Das paragogische N in Laȝamon. Anglia, iii. 552, 3. =Grammar.= Bohnke, M., Die Flexion des Verbums in Laȝamons Brut, Berlin, 1906; Funke, O., Kasus-Syntax bei Orrm und Laȝamon, Wien, 1907; Hoffmann, P., Das grammatische Genus in Laȝamons Brut, Halle, 1909, completed in Morsbachs Studien, xxxvi; Lange, H., Das Zeitwort in . . . Laȝamon’s Brut, Strassburg, 1906; Lichtsinn, P., Der syntaktische Gebrauch des Infinitivs in Laȝamon’s Brut, Kiel, 1913. =Vocabulary.= Monroe, B. S., French Words in Laȝamon, Modern Philology, iv. 559. =Metre.= Brandstädter, K., Stabreim und Endreim in Layamons Brut, Kirchhain, 1912; Luick, K., Anglia, Beiblatt, xii. 37, 8; Trautmann, M., Anglia, ii. 153-73; Bartels, as above. =Style.= Regel, K., Spruch und Bild im Layamon, Anglia, i. 197-251; *Seyger, as above. =Antiquarian.= Kolbe, M., Schild, Helm und Panzer zur Zeit Laȝamons, Breslau, 1891; Krautwald, as above. B. S. Monroe, in Modern Philology, iv. 559-67, gives a detailed bibliography.

#Phonology:# (1) =of C.= Oral #a# is _a_, fare 176, habben 189, but færeð 43, færen 45, hæfuest 50; uerden 48 is from #fēran#. #a# before nasals is normally _o_, comp 120, moni 93 (5 times), but whanene 31, whænnenen 27, þenne 182, muni 113; #a# before lengthening groups is _o_, hond 201, imong 141, but and 9 &c., andswerden 11 (6), answarede 51 (4), angles 34. #æ# is _a_ (48), _e_ (20), _æ_ (16), after 179, æfter 186, bad 241, bed 298, hafde 212 (7), hæfde 233 (3), hehde (for hefde) 69, wes 8 (5), wæs 78, nes 104 (3), heleðes 248, sætterdæi 75. #e# is normally _e_, bereð 44, sellic 267 (often elsewhere seollic), speken 12; before lengthening groups, ende, uelde 211, hende 273; but _æ_ is common, spækeð 159, ænde 34, 109, fæld 209, hændest 95, hændeliche 99; Hængest 89 (8) is the common form; _a_ occurs in fareð 276 (#ferian#), ualde 203, þa 15, 39, 68, _u_ in sugge 52, suggeð 167; _eo_ in heoreð 58 (if from #herian#): #bærnan# gives berneð 108, #forbærnan#, forbærnen 165, #ærnan#, ærneð 108, #mengan#, mæingde 292, beside mengde C 15530 (Morsbach, § 107, anm. 3). #i# is _i_, blisse 146, wille 25, but _u_ in nulle 191, nuste 264, us 62, wulle 25, and the pres. forms of #willan#; before lengthening groups _i_, child 44, þinge 61. #o# is _o_, folc 36, hope 58, but durste 137, dursten 158; #on# is mostly an or o, once æn 211; before lengthening groups _o_, bord 215, wolde 20 (4), wolden 19, 192, but walden 12, 42. #u# is _u_, burh 173, cumen 137, iwune 117, but ilomp 122, sonedæi 75; before lengthening groups _u_, funde 298, murnede 293. #y# is normally _u_, cume 118, wunne 188, but kime 263, kineborne 168, kineliche 173, kinelond 56, 192; before lengthening groups _u_, guldene 257, vmbe 36: king 139 is the regular form, but kenge 94.

#ā# is regularly _a_, hali 66, ihaten 34, but _æ_ in bræd 218, bræ[d]ne 209, mære 42, særi 103; before two consonants _a_, hatte 32, ladlic 294, madmes 134, but hæhte 59 (7). #ǣ{1}# is _æ_, bilæfuen 24, hæðene 8 (3), sæ 2, spræde 210, or _e_, bitechen 191, breden 250, stenene 222, but _a_ in bitache 173, haðene 295 (possibly Scandinavian), _ea_ in leare 150; before two consonants _æ_, ælche 129, æuer 44, læfdi 74, lædden 259, næuere 176, or _a_, alc 51, alchen 280, auere 7, nauere 23, vnwraste 80, wraððe 150, but _e_ in arerde 223, elchen 21. #ǣ{2}# is _æ_, æten 251, dæde 197, þræd 218, or _e_, deden 96, vnimete 254, but _eo_ in weore 8, weoren 2 (9), neoren 138, and _a_ in mare 223; before two consonants, þærfore 175, setten 250. #ē# is _e_, greten 144, ueden 190, but heo 73, þæ 63, 231; before two consonants, imetten 18, lette 283, but igrætten 18 (_r. w._ imetten), iuædde 100. #ī# is _i_, bliðe 24, 116, swiðe 2, fiftene 36, but bluðeliche 282, swuðe 129. #ō# is _o_, com 113, godne 49, most 110, but neoðeles 83. #ū# is _u_, bute 176, runen 148, 159, but ronenen 156. #ȳ# is _u_, biclused 177, cudðe 98, iscrudde 100, but forþi 48, 66, þa 8, 184.

#ea# before #r# + cons. is _a_, ȝare 224, iȝarked 238, 240, and _æ_, hærm 8, 295, kærf 217; the _i_-umlaut is seen in awariede 81, and, before a lengthening group, in ferde 85. #ea# before #l# + cons. is regularly _a_, al 37, and the numerous forms of #eall#, scat 189, but hælf 117, helue 129; before lengthening groups, _a_, alde 28, anwalde 83, athalden 20, halden 150 &c., walden 71, but athælde 83, hælden 13, holden 143, olden 187: the _i_-umlaut is _a_ before lengthening groups, aldeste 29, halde 290, iuald 109, but _æ_ in ælderen 193, ælderne 69. #eo# before #r# + cons. is _eo_, feor 160, heorte 288, but hærcne 147, werpeð 37; before lengthening groups, ȝeorne 288: the #wur# group has _u_, iwurðe 90, wurðliche 190, wurðscipe 71. The _i_-umlaut before lengthening groups is seen in ȝirnde 206, sturne 120, but deorne 148: #wiersa# is wurse 81, 291. #eo# before #l# + cons. is _eo_ in seolf 81 &c. #eo#, the _å_-umlaut of #e#, is seen in feole 119, weoli 60; #eo#, _u_- and _å_-umlaut of #i#, in cleopien 249 and its forms, heore 37 &c., seoluer 88, seoððen 96, 97, seoueðe 64, but hennen 160, iluued 22, and without umlaut, niðer 82. #ea# after palatals is _a_, scal 38, _æ_, ȝæf 134, _e_, ȝef 133, 299, and before nasal _o_, scome 86. #ie# after #ġ# is _e_, biȝeten 87, ȝeuen 88, and _i_, biȝite 172, ȝif 201, ȝiuen 297: after #sc#, _æ_ in schæren 216. #ȝef#, _conj._, is ȝif 10 &c. #eo# after #ġ# is _u_, ȝunge 160, ȝungen 187: #geond# is ȝeond 209. #eo# after #sc# is seen in scolde 241, scolden 45, scullen 24, 39, 68. #heom# is heom 9; #eom#, am 175, æm 24, 263, næm 176.

#ēa# is usually _æ_, æc 28, hæne 204, særes 216, slæn 165, but _e_ in ȝette 242, ȝettest 184, iȝette 206, hehne 102, ileuen 53, 80, _a_ in bad (influenced by #bæd#) 239; before two consonants _æ_, hæfden 87: the _i_-umlaut is _e_, bemen 249, dremden 146, heren 13 and its forms, ileueð 53, but _æ_ in hæren 19, 68, ihærde 264, ihærd 156, _i_ in hiren 184, biliueð 91, _eo_ in heoreð 58 (if from #hīeran#), ileoueð 80, 81. #ēo# is regularly _eo_, beon 175 &c., biheold 288, feollen 127, freond 273, leoden 165, þreo 4; the _i_-umlaut is mostly wanting, deore 68 (4), freonde, _dat._ 273, neode 171, 212, but (fif)tene 36, 233. OE. #sīen# is seon 27. #ēa# after a palatal is seen in ȝer 36, ȝere 44, ȝeuen 76, ȝiuen 73 (4), ȝifuen 72, 76. #gīet# is ȝet 65.

#a# + #g# is _aȝ_, laȝe 69 (6), ofslaȝen 163, but dæȝen 69, ofslæȝen 138. #æ# + #g# is mostly _æi_, dæie 23, fæire 18 (9), fræinede 265, mæi 73, mæidene 290, sæide 152, uæin 263, but _ai_ in dai 130, fain 286, mai 174, 204, main 290, maide 266, 283, maiden 282, _ei_ in feire 210, feirest 89, seide 240 (3), seið 270, _æ_ in færeste 7, _æȝ_ in dæȝe 193, 194. #e# + #g# is generally _ei_, leide 215, toȝeines 240, þeines 101, weies 202, but awæi 129, bilæde 220: #e# + #h# is seen in hæhte 225, hæhten 230: #i# + #g# in þrien 284, þreoien 277 (influenced by #þrēo#): #i# + #h# in dihteð 67, dihte 135, isihðe 103: #o# + #g#, #h# in hohfulle 156, dohter 181: #u# + #g#, #h# in duȝeðe 141 (6), fluȝen 129, 130, but floȝen 129, fuhten 127. #ā# + #g# is _aȝ_, aȝene 208, 296, aȝere 201; #ā# + #h# is _oh_, oht 113, ohte 84 (3). #ǣ{1}# + #g#, #h# is seen in fæie 127, bitæht 205, bitæhten 284; #ǣ{2}# + #g# in maies 182; #ē# + #g# in beyne 168, twene 168 (with loss of g); #ī# + #g# in fridæi 74; #ō# + #g# in droȝen 93, inoȝe 134, sloȝen 126, ofsloȝen 119, vnnifoȝe 130; #ō# + #h# in biþohte 111, 142, noht 80, rohten, sohten 10, þohten 122, exceptionally afeoh 188. #ea# + #h#, #ht# is seen in æhtene 234, isæh 116, mæhti 65, sæh 23, sæxisce 97, sæxelonde 271, but saxelonde 124, 278, saxisce 114, sexisc 180; the _i_-umlaut in mihte 46, mihte 58, nihtes 23. #eo# + #h#, #ht# is mostly _i_, cnihtes 17, fihte 115, 172, rihten 20, but feht 120, 126, sexte 39, fæhte 155, sæxte 63, Peohtes 84, 107. #ēa# + #h#, is _eh_, heh 66, neh 291, _æh_, hæh 64, 65, hæhliche 16, 190, hæhne 205; #ēa# + #g# gives hæȝe 141, 259: the umlaut is wanting in hæhste 62 (3), hærre 13, ihæȝed 153. #ēo# + #g#, #h# is seen in driȝen 25, 196, iuaid 175, ræh 291. #ā# + #w# appears in nawiht 104; #ī# + #w# in tisdæi 76; #ēo# + #w# in acneowe 261, bleowen 249, neowe 28, 106, treowe 28, eouwer 24 (4), eoure 54, æoure 53, eou 26: feorðe 61, 72 is #fēorþa#.

The prefix #æt# is _at_, atstonde 183, atwite 204; #on# is _a_ in afon 178, afeoh 188, among 146, but imong 157 is #gemang#. #oþ# is _a_ in aþet 229: #o# is levelled to _e_ in whanene 31, whænnenen 27, wunder 213: _eo_ is written for #e# in cusseoð 277; _i_ for #e# in cristine 294. The glide e is inserted in æuere 132, nauere 23, læuedi 65, næueden 228; i is prefixed in iliue 22, probably by anticipation of iluued.