Chapter X: Part 10

=Centrobaric Method.= The method ordinarily used to determine by calculation the centre of gravity of a projected gun. The principle used is that the volume generated by any surface in revolving about a fixed axis is measured by the product of the surface into the path described by its centre of gravity. The moments of the weights of the several parts are referred to an axis usually taken tangent to the knob of the cascabel. The sum of these moments, divided by the weight of the piece, gives the distance of the centre of gravity from the assumed axis. In homogeneous guns, the volumes of the several parts can be used instead of the weights.

=Centurion.= A military officer among the ancient Romans, who commanded a (_centum_) hundred men.

=Century.= In an ancient military sense, meant a hundred soldiers, who were employed in working the battering-ram.

=Cephalonia.= One of the Ionian Islands; was taken from the Ætolians by the Romans 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian in 135. It was conquered by the Normans in 1146, afterwards passed into the possession of the Venetians, and was taken by the English in 1819.

=Cephisus.= A river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated and slain by the Catalans in 1311.

=Cercelée=, or =Recercelée=. In heraldry, is a cross circling or curling at the ends, like a ram’s horn.

=Cercle= (_Grand-cercle_), Fr. A form observed under the old government of France, by which it was directed that every evening at a specific hour the sergeants and corporals of brigade should assemble to receive orders, the former standing in front of the latter. Subsequent to the grand cercle, a smaller one was made in each regiment, when general or regimental orders were again repeated to the sergeants of each regiment, and from them communicated to the officers of the several companies.

=Ceremonies, Stated Military.= Exercises, such as parades, reviews, inspections, escorts of the color, escorts of honor, funeral honors, guard-mounting, etc.

=Cerignola.= A town of South Italy, in the province of Capitanata. Here, in 1503, the French were defeated by the Spaniards, and the Duke of Nemours, who commanded the former, was slain.

=Cerro Gordo.= A celebrated mountain-pass in Mexico, about 60 miles northwest of Vera Cruz. Here an army of about 12,000 Mexicans under Santa Anna was totally defeated by about 8000 U. S. troops under Gen. Scott, April 18, 1847. The Mexicans lost about 1000 killed and wounded, besides 3000 prisoners; the American loss was 431 killed and wounded.

=Certificate of Disability.= See DISABILITY.

=Certificate of Merit.= See MERIT, CERTIFICATE OF.

=Cessation of Arms.= An armistice or truce, agreed to by the commanders of armies, to give them time for a capitulation, or for other purposes.

=Ceuta.= A fortified seaport of Morocco, opposite Gibraltar. The castle stands on the highest point of the ancient _Abyla_, one of the pillars of Hercules, terminating a peninsula. This was a Mauritanian town under the Romans, and in 1415 was taken from the Moors by the Portuguese. In 1580 it passed into the possession of the Spanish, in whose hands it afterwards remained.

=Ceylon= (anc. _Taprobane_). An island in the Indian Ocean. It was invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda, 1505, but it was known to the Romans in the time of Claudius, 41. The Dutch landed in Ceylon in 1602; they captured the capital, Colombo, in 1503. Intercourse with the British began in 1713. A large portion of the country was taken by them in 1782, but was restored in 1783. The Dutch settlements were seized by the British, 1795. Ceylon was ceded to the British by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred or imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sovereignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815.

=Chæronea= (_Bœotia_). Here Greece was ruined by Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating 30,000 Thebans, Athenians, etc., August 6 or 7, 338 B.C. Here Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were slain, 86 B.C.

=Chain.= A chain made of a kind of wire, divided into links of an equal length, is made use of by military engineers for setting out works on the ground, because cord lines are apt to shrink and give way.

=Chain-ball.= See PROJECTILE.

=Chain-mail.= A kind of armor made of interlaced rings, both flexible and strong; much used in the 12th and 13th centuries.

=Chain-shot.= See PROJECTILE.

=Chair.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Chalcedon.= In Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colonized by Magarians about 684 B.C. It was taken by Darius, 505 B.C.; by the Romans, 74; plundered by the Goths, 259 A.D.; taken by Chosroes the Persian, 609; by Orchan the Turk in 1338.

=Chalcis.= An ancient Greek city, of great antiquity, the capital of the island of Eubœa. It rose to great eminence, but finally became a tributary of Athens, from whose sway it revolted several times, being as often, however, subdued, and held until the downfall of the Athenian empire at the close of the Peloponnesian war. In later times it was successively occupied by the Macedonians, Antiochus, Mithridates, and the Romans. It joined the Achæans in the last war against the Romans, and the town was in consequence destroyed by Mummius. The modern city of Egripo, or Negropont, built on its site, for a time in possession of the Venetians, was taken by the Turks in 1470.

=Chalgrove.= In Oxfordshire, England. At a skirmish here with Prince Rupert, June 18, 1643, John Hampden, of the Parliament party, was mortally wounded. A column was erected to his memory, June 18, 1843.

=Challenge.= The act of a sentinel in questioning or demanding the countersign from those who appear at his post.

=Challenge.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 26, 27, and 28.

=Challenge of Members of Courts-martial.= When a member shall be challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge, of which the court shall, after due deliberation, determine the relevancy or validity, and decide accordingly; and no challenge to more than one member at a time shall be received by the court.

=Châlons-sur-Marne.= A town of France, in the department of Marne. Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the last of the pretenders to the throne termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aetius defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire into Pannonia.

=Chamade.= A signal made for parley by beat of drum.

=Chamber.= Of a mine, that place where the powder is deposited.

=Chamber.= In howitzers, and mortars of the old model, was the smallest part of the bore, and contained the charge of powder. In the howitzers the chamber was cylindrical, and was united with the large cylinder of the bore by a conical surface; the angles of intersection of the conical surface with the cylinders of the bore and chamber were rounded (in profile) by arcs of circles. In the 8-inch howitzer, the chamber was united with the cylinder of the bore by spherical surface, in order that the shell might, when necessary, be inserted without a sabot. The chamber is omitted in _all_ cannon of the late models, the cylinder of the bore terminating at the bottom in a semi-ellipsoid. The old chambers were subcaliber. The first use of a chamber _larger_ than the bore occurred, it is believed, in a gun invented by an American named Ferris. The gun had a great range. One of the most important improvements in recent ordnance consists in the use of this chamber. The English, who deserve the credit of first appreciating it, now use it in all their largest guns. See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

=Chambersburg.= The capital of Franklin Co., Pa. This place was the scene of several exciting incidents during the civil war. It was occupied by a party of Confederate cavalry under Gen. Stuart in 1862, by a part of Gen. Ewell’s forces in June, 1863, and next month almost totally destroyed by fire by a party of Confederate cavalry under Gen. McCausland.

=Chamfron=, or =Chamfrain=. The frontlet of a barbed or armed horse, usually having a spike between the eyes.

=Champ de Mars.= An open square in front of the Military School, Paris, which was used for the great meetings of the French people, reviews, etc.

=Champigny.= A town of France, department of the Seine, 8 miles east-southeast of Paris. On November 30, 1870, a force of 120,000 French under Gens. Trochu and Ducrot, who made a sortie from Paris, were met near here by the Germans, and some severe fighting ensued, with great loss on both sides, the French holding the taken possessions until the contest was renewed, December 2, when the French were compelled to retreat.

=Champion Hills.= In Hinds Co., Miss., west of Jackson. Here the Confederate forces under Gen. Pemberton were defeated by the Union troops under Gen. Grant, May 16, 1863.

=Champlain, Lake.= An extensive body of water forming part of the boundary between the States of Vermont and New York, and extending northward a few miles beyond the Canada line. It was the scene of engagements between the Americans and British during the war of independence. On its waters also, in 1814, Commodore Macdonough gained a victory over the British fleet.

=Chancellorsville.= A small village of Spottsylvania Co., Va., near the Rappahannock River, about 65 miles north by west from Richmond. This place was the scene of several sanguinary conflicts between the Federal army of the Potomac under Gen. Hooker and the Confederates under Gen. Lee. On April 28, 1863, the Federal army crossed the Rappahannock; on May 2, Gen. “Stonewall” Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 and 4, with great loss to both parties, the Federals were compelled to recross the Rappahannock. The struggle was compared to that at Hougoumont during the battle of Waterloo.

=Chandelier.= In military engineering, a wooden frame, which was filled with fascines, to form a traverse in sapping.

=Chanderee=, or =Chandhaire=. A town of India in the province of Malwa. Its fortress, formerly deemed impregnable, consists of a strong rampart of sandstone flanked by circular towers, and is situated on a high hill. During the native wars, being a place of importance, it was frequently besieged.

=Chandernagore.= The principal settlement of the French in Bengal, which is encompassed by the British district of Hooghly. In 1757 this settlement was taken by the British, but restored in 1763. In 1793 it was again taken by the British, but restored to the French a second time in 1816.

=Chandore.= A fortified town of British India, 130 miles northwest from Bombay. In 1804 and 1818 this place capitulated to the British.

=Chantier= (_Fr._). A square piece of wood, which is used for the purpose of raising anything. It serves to place barrels of gunpowder in a proper manner, and frequently to try pieces of ordnance instead of frames.

=Chantilly.= A post-village of Fairfax Co., Va. Here, on September 1, 1862, the Confederate troops of Gen. Lee attacked a part of Gen. Pope’s army, under Gens. Reno, Stevens, and Kearney, and a severe conflict ensued, lasting into the night, and resulting in the death of Gens. Stevens and Kearney.

=Chape.= The metallic part put on the end of a scabbard, to prevent the point of the sword or bayonet from piercing through it.

=Chapeau.= In a military sense, a hat, cap, or other head-covering.

=Chapeau Bras.= A military hat which can be flattened and put under the arm.

=Chaperon.= A hood or cape worn by Knights of the Garter.

=Chaplain.= A clergyman with a military commission, giving him the spiritual charge of soldiers. There are 30 post and 4 regimental chaplains in the U. S. army.

=Chaplain-General.= In the British service, the officer at the head of the chaplain’s department.

=Chaplet.= In heraldry, is always composed of four roses, the other parts being leaves.

=Chappe= (_Fr._). A barrel containing another barrel, which holds gunpowder. It likewise means a composition of earth, horse-dung, and wad, that covers the mouth of a cannon or mortar.

=Chapultepec.= A strong fortress of Mexico, situated about 2 miles southwest of the metropolis. It consists of an eminence rising to the height of about 150 feet, with a strong castle on top. During the Mexican war it was deemed necessary by Gen. Scott, for strategic reasons, to capture this last outward defense of the capital prior to the attack on the city itself. This was gallantly effected on September 13, 1847, and next day the city was entered by the American forces, thus virtually ending the war. Preparations for the assault were commenced on the night of September 11, and before the evening of the 12th, owing to the skillful arrangement of Gen. Scott’s artillery, the exterior defenses began to give way. Next day was determined on for the attack. The American forces were so placed that the assault could be made simultaneously from different sides at a preconcerted signal, which would be the temporary cessation of the cannonade from their batteries. It was given, and the attacking forces advanced, Gen. Quitman’s division from the south, and Gen. Pillow from the wooded slope on the west, Gen. Smith’s brigade supporting Quitman, Pillow supported by the division of Gen. Worth, and the batteries throwing shells into the fort over the heads of their friends. Under a heavy fire of musketry the attacking forces advance, and step by step they gain every disputed point, scaling-ladders are brought into requisition, an entrance effected, and the defeated Mexicans, dislodged and retreating, are pursued to the very gates of their capital. The American loss during the three days was 833 killed and wounded.

=Charcoal.= One of the ingredients of gunpowder. It is made by distilling small sticks of wood in closed retorts. Willow, alder, poplar, and dogwood are some of the woods used. In distilling the heat should be kept below redness. Charcoal should be light in weight, and have a velvety fracture. It inflames at about 460° Fahr. Its composition and properties vary with the nature of the wood and mode of distillation employed.

Charcoal obtained from light wood is the best for gunpowder, as it is more combustible and easy to pulverize, and contains less earthy matters. Willow and poplar are used for this purpose in the United States and black elder in Europe. The wood must be sound and should not be more than 3 or 4 years old, and about 1 inch in diameter; branches larger than this should be split up. It is cut in the spring when the sap runs freely, and is immediately stripped of its bark. The smaller branches are used for fine sporting powder.

The operation of charring may be performed in pits, but the method now almost universally used in making charcoal for gunpowder is that of _distillation_. For this purpose the wood is placed in an iron vessel, generally of a cylindrical form, to which a cover is luted; an opening with a pipe is made to conduct off the gaseous products, and the wood is thus exposed to the heat of a furnace. The progress of distillation is judged of by the color of the flame and smoke, and sometimes by _test-sticks_, which are introduced through tubes prepared for the purpose.

_Properties._--The charcoal thus obtained should retain a certain degree of elasticity, and should have a brown color, the wood not being entirely decomposed. As it readily absorbs one-twentieth of its weight of moisture, which diminishes its inflammability, it should be made only in proportion as it is required for use. Wood generally contains 52 per cent. of carbon, but distillation furnishes not more than 30 to 40 per cent. of charcoal.

As it is desirable to have charcoal for gunpowder very combustible, it must be prepared at a low temperature, and must be light.

_Accidents._--When recently prepared charcoal is pulverized and laid in heaps, it is liable to absorb oxygen with such rapidity as to cause spontaneous combustion. This has been the cause of serious accidents at powder-mills, and hence it is important not to pulverize charcoal until it has been exposed to the air for several days. When charcoal has not absorbed moisture, and is mixed with oxidizing substances, it may be inflamed by violent shocks or by friction. This is the principal cause of the accidents which occur in the preparation of explosive mixtures which contain charcoal. See GUNPOWDER.

=Chard.= A town of England, in Somersetshire. Here the royalists were defeated in the civil wars between Charles I. and the Parliament.

=Charenton.= A town of France, in the department of the Seine. It stands on the Marne, over which there is a bridge, which was frequently the scene of bloody conflicts between the citizens and the soldiers during the French revolutions. It now forms a portion of the fortifications of Paris.

=Charge.= The act of rushing on the enemy with a view to come to close fighting. It is also sometimes applied to the temporary command of a detachment, troop, company, or battery. A charge likewise means the statement of the crime for which an officer or soldier is brought before a court-martial.

=Charge.= The quantity of powder with which a piece of artillery is loaded. The charge corresponding to the maximum velocity in the projectile is called the _maximum charge_. The longer the gun the greater the maximum charge. In the early days of artillery, when powder was used in the form of _dust_, a very large charge was necessary. After the introduction of grained powder it was reduced gradually to about one-fourth the weight of the shot. At the time of the recent departures in ordnance, the charge for smooth-bore guns was from one-fifth to one-eighth the weight of the projectile; for howitzers, from one-eighth to one-twentieth; for mortars the charge varied with the range, the largest being about one-ninth. For rifle guns the disproportion was greater than for smooth-bores, the average being about one-tenth. In small-arms, the charge for the old smooth-bore musket was about one-third the weight of the ball. When the rifle was introduced, this proportion was retained till the oblong bullet began to be used, when the charge was relatively much diminished, till it fell to about one-tenth. The tendency lately has been to increase it. In some of the best-known rifles of the present day the charge is about one-fifth,--a majority use more than one-sixth. The same tendency is still more observable in heavy ordnance. The largest _Krupp_, _Woolwich_, and _Armstrong_ guns use a charge greater than _one-fourth_ the weight of the projectile.

=Charge.= The position of a weapon fitted for attack; as, to bring a weapon to the charge.

=Charge.= In heraldry, the figures represented on a shield are called charges, and a shield with figures upon it is said to be charged. The charges in a shield ought to be few in number, and strongly marked, both as regards their character and the mode of their representation. The family shield belonging to the head of the house almost always is simpler,--_i.e._, has fewer charges than the shields of collaterals, or even of junior members.

=Charger= (Fr. _cheval de bataille_). A horse kept by an officer for military purposes.

=Chariot.= In antiquity, a war car or vehicle.

=Charleroi.= A strongly fortified town of Belgium, in Hainaut. This place was fortified by Vauban. Several great battles have been fought near this town, especially in 1690 and 1794. Charleroi was besieged by the Prince of Orange, 1672 and 1677; but he was soon obliged to retire. Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prussian line, making it fall back upon Wavres, June 16, 1815.

=Charleston.= A port of entry and the chief city of South Carolina, founded in 1672. On Sullivan’s Island, about 7 miles below, communicating with the harbor, a garrison of about 400 Americans under Col. Moultrie sustained an assault from 9 British ships of war, and gallantly repulsed them, on June 28, 1776. The city was afterwards besieged, and after a gallant resistance of nearly six weeks surrendered to the British, May 12, 1780, being held by them till 1782. In the civil war (1861-65) it was here the first gun was fired, which resulted in the reduction of the famous Fort Sumter. In the latter part of the war it was bombarded and besieged by the Federal troops. Its evacuation by the Confederates and its occupation by the Federals followed, February 18, 1865.

=Chase.= In gunnery, is the conical part of the gun in front of the reinforce.

=Chase-ring.= In gunnery, is a band at the front end of the chase.

=Chassepot.= A species of rifle. See SMALL-ARMS.

=Chasseurs.= A French word signifying “hunters,” applied in various forms to light troops in the French service, organized at different times, either as infantry or cavalry, as _chasseurs à pied_, _de Montague_, _de Vincennes_, for infantry, and _chasseurs à cheval_, _d’Afrique_, _Algeriens_, etc., for cavalry. They have organizations in other armies also corresponding to these, such as the _jägers_ in the Austrian army, and the _cacciatore dei Alpi_ of the Garibaldian troops in the Italian war of 1859-60.

=Chassis.= A traversing frame or movable railway, along which the carriage of a heavy gun in barbette, or casemate, moves backward and forward in action. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Chastleton.= A parish of England, in Oxfordshire, 5 miles from Chipping Norton. Here, in 1016, Canute defeated Edmund Ironside.

=Châteaudun.= An old city in Northwest France, the residence of the heroic Dunois, who died in 1468. Here were massacred July 20, 1183, about 7000 Brabançons, fanatic mercenaries who had been hired to exterminate the Albigenses by the Cardinal Henry, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1181. They had become the scourge of the country, and the “Capuchons” were organized for their destruction. Châteaudun was captured by the Germans after a severe conflict of about 9 hours, October 18, 1870. Barracks had been erected in the town, and the Garde Mobile fought bravely. The town was re-occupied by the French, November 6.

=Château Thierry.= A town of France, in the department of Aisne. It is built on the slope of a hill, capped by the ruins of a castle, which is said to have been erected by Charles Martel in 730. In 1814 this place was the scene of several conflicts between the allied army and the French troops.

=Chatham.= A town of England, in the county of Kent, on the Medway. It is a principal station of the royal navy. There is a fine station and military arsenal close to Chatham, containing vast magazines and warehouses, in which there are all kinds of stores, and where all the operations necessary for building and fitting out ships of war are carried on. There are also extensive barracks for infantry, royal marines, artillery, and engineers. Chatham is defended by forts on the heights, by which it is partly surrounded. There are also very extensive fortifications about Chatham, called the Lines, which are defended by ramparts, palisades, and a broad, deep ditch. On June 10, 1667, the Dutch fleet under Admiral Ruyter sailed up to Chatham and burnt several men-of-war. The entrance into the Medway is now defended by Sheerness and other forts.

=Chatillon-sur-Seine.= A town of France, department of Côte-d’Or, 43 miles north-northwest of Dijon, on the Seine. Here a congress was held by the four great powers allied against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for Napoleon, February 5, 1814; the negotiations for peace were broken off on March 19, following.

=Chattanooga.= A village of Hamilton Co., Tenn. During the civil war it was the scene of many exciting incidents between the contending forces. It was attacked by Gen. Negley in June, 1862; occupied by Gen. Rosecrans, July, 1863, and in the same year were fought in its vicinity a succession of the most momentous battles of that eventful epoch, commencing September 23, 1863, with Gen. Grant’s attack on Gen. Bragg. The movements were under direction of Gens. Sherman and Thomas, and resulted, after three days’ severe fighting around Chattanooga, Missionary Ridge, and Lookout Mountain, in the total defeat of the Confederates, and their pursuit back into Georgia.

=Chaumont, Treaty of.= Entered into between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, and signed by these powers respectively March 1, 1814. This treaty was succeeded by the celebrated treaty of Paris, April 11, following, by which Napoleon renounced his sovereignty over France.

=Chausses.= In the armor of the Middle Ages, were defense-pieces for the legs. Some were made of padded and quilted cloth, with metal studs; some of chain-metal, some of riveted plates, and some of banded mail. It was not unusual to fasten them by lacing behind the leg.

=Chauvinisme= (_Fr._). An exaggerated idea of the qualities of a leader, as Chauvin, a character in a French play (from whom the name is derived), is represented to have had of his leader, Bonaparte.

=Checky.= In heraldry, when the field of any charge is composed of small squares of different tinctures, it is said to be _checky_.

=Cheeks.= In the construction of artillery-carriages, are the parts between which the piece is placed and upon which the trunnions are supported. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Chelone=, or =Tortoise=. In military antiquity, the form of battle adopted by the Greeks in besieging fortified towns. It served to protect the besiegers in their approach to the walls. This invention was formed by the soldiers placing their shields over their heads, in a sloping position, similar to the tiles of a house. The first rank stood erect, the second stooped a little, the third still more, and the last rank knelt. They were thus protected from the missile weapons of the foe, as they advanced or stood under the walls of an enemy. The chelone was similar to the _testudo_ of the Romans. See TESTUDO.

=Chelsea.= A parish of England, in Middlesex, on the Thames. Chelsea Hospital is the great national asylum for decayed and maimed soldiers, and one of the noblest institutions of the kind in Europe. The institution was founded by Charles II. in 1682. Connected with the hospital is the Military Asylum, a noble establishment, founded in 1801, for the education and maintenance of the children of soldiers. See ASYLUM.

=Chemin-des-Rondes= (_Fr._). A beam from 4 to 12 feet wide, at the foot of the exterior slope in a permanent fortification. It is sometimes covered in front by a hedge, or low wall, or small parapet of earth.

=Chemise.= In mediæval fortification, an additional escarp or counter-guard wall, covering the lower part of the escarp.

=Cherasco.= A town of Piedmont, situated on the Tanaro. A peace was concluded here between Louis XIII. of France and the Duke of Savoy, in 1631. On April 26, 1796, the place was taken by the French, and here, three days after, the “Armistice of Cherasco” was concluded between the Sardinian commissioners and Napoleon, by which the latter obtained the right of free passage for his troops through the Sardinian states; and the treaty that followed gave to the French republic Savoy, Nice, and the possessions of Piedmont to the westward of the highest ridge of the Alps.

=Cheraw.= A village of Chesterfield Co., S. C. It was a Confederate depot of supplies during the civil war, and was captured with all its stores by Gen. Sherman, March 3, 1865.

=Cherbourg.= A fortified seaport town and important naval station of France, department of Manche, on the English Channel. Edward III. of England unsuccessfully laid siege to Cherbourg in 1346, but in 1418 it was given up to the British. The French regained it in 1450, but the English again took it in 1758.

=Cheriton Down.= In the county of Hants, England. Here Sir William Waller defeated the royalists under Lord Hopton, May 29, 1644.

=Cherokee Indians.= A tribe of aborigines who formerly occupied the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, and a large tract of country on both sides of the range. In 1838 they were removed by the U. S. government to the west of the Mississippi, into what is now Indian Territory, and the portion of the tribe that now remains have a civilized government and a written language. For numbers, etc., see INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Cherusci.= One of the most celebrated of all the German tribes at the time of Cæsar. Being excited to hostilities by the tyranny and rapacity of the Romans, they entered into a confederation with the neighboring tribes, and, under their leader Arminius, defeated a Roman army at Teutoburg Forest, in A.D. 9. Germanicus, a Roman general, afterwards tried to avenge this disgrace to their honor by subduing them, but was unsuccessful. Owing to their own internal dissensions they were subsequently subdued by the Chatti, another German tribe.

=Chesses.= Are the platforms which form the flooring of military bridges. They consist of two or more planks, ledged together at the edges by dowels or pegs.

=Chest, Ammunition-.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Chest, Military.= Is a technical name for money and negotiable securities carried by an army, and intended to defray its current expenses. In the British military system this department is managed by the commissariat; in the United States, by the paymaster-general and commissary-general.

=Chester.= A city of England, in the county of Cheshire. The British _Caerleon_ and the Roman _Deva_, the station of the Twentieth Legion, _Valeria Victrix_, quitted by them about 477. The city was first built by Edelfleda about 908. Chester was ravaged by the Danes in 980; taken after three months’ siege for the Parliament in 1645. A projected attack of Fenians on Chester Castle was defeated by the vigilance of the authorities and the arrival of the military, February 11-12, 1867.

=Cheval-de-frise.= A piece of timber traversed with wooden spikes, pointed with iron, 5 or 6 feet long, used to defend a passage, stop a breach, or make a retrenchment to stop cavalry.

=Chevalet= (_Fr._). A sort of bell-tent, formerly used in the French service, when an army encamped. It resembled in some degrees the wigwam of an Indian.

=Chevalier= (_Fr._). A horseman; a knight. A member of certain orders of knighthood. In heraldry, a horseman armed at all points.

=Chevet= (_Fr._). A small wedge which is used in raising a mortar. It is placed between the frame and swell of the mortar.

=Cheviot Hills.= A mountain-range extending along the border between Scotland and England; the scene of many conflicts between the Scotch and English.

=Chevrette.= An engine for raising guns or mortars into their carriages.

=Chevron.= The arrow-headed stripes on the arm, by which the rank of a non-commissioned officer is indicated.

=Chevron.= In heraldry, is an ordinary representing the rafters of a house, and supposed to betoken the accomplishment of some memorable work, or the completion of some business of importance, generally the foundation of his own family by the bearer.

=Cheyenne Indians.= A tribe of aborigines dwelling east of the Rocky Mountains, and divided into three bands. For numbers, etc., see INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Chiari.= A town of Northern Italy, near the Oglio. In 1701, Marshal Villeroi was near this town defeated by Prince Eugène.

=Chicane.= To dispute every foot of ground, by taking advantage of natural inequalities, etc.

=Chickahominy.= A river in Eastern Virginia, which, rising about 16 miles northwest of Richmond, flows southeastwardly into the James. Along the margins of the river was the scene of Gen. McClellan’s operations in 1862.

=Chickamauga.= A village of Hamilton Co., Tenn. During the civil war a continuous series of combats were fought here, between the forces of Gens. Rosecrans and Bragg, but without decisive results, September 19-20, 1863.

=Chickasaw Indians.= A warlike tribe of aborigines which formerly occupied Alabama and a portion of Mississippi. They removed into the Indian Territory in 1837. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Chief.= The head or leader of any band or community; a commander.

=Chief.= In heraldry, an ordinary formed by a horizontal line occupying the upper part of the escutcheon. Any object borne in the upper or chief part of the shield is said to be _in chief_, though the chief be not divided off from the rest of the field as a separate portion.

=Chief of Staff.= In the U. S. service a chief of staff with the rank of brigadier-general was provided by law for the lieutenant-general commanding the army. The senior staff-officer of a general is sometimes designated as the chief of staff. See OFFICERS, STAFF-, and STAFF.

=Chieftain.= A captain, leader, or commander; a chief; the head of a troop, army, or clan.

=Chieftaincy.= Chieftainship. The rank, office, or quality of a chieftain.

=Chili.= An independent republic of South America, bordering on the Pacific Ocean. It was invaded by Almagro in 1535, he being sent by Pizarro to subdue the country. In the 16th and 17th centuries violent contests raged between the Spaniards and Indians, both parties suffering severely. The country continued a vice-royalty of Spain till 1810, when a revolution commenced which terminated in its independence in 1817.

=Chilled Iron.= Cast iron hardened by pouring it into iron molds. Much used in manufacturing armor-piercing projectiles. The celebrated Palliser shot is of this kind.

=Chilled Shot.= See PROJECTILES.

=Chillianwallah, Battle of.= In India, between the Sikh forces in considerable strength and the British commanded by Lord (afterwards Viscount) Gough, fought January 13, 1849. The Sikhs were completely routed, but the loss of the British was very severe. On February 21, Lord Gough attacked the Sikh army under Shere Singh in its position at Goujerat, with complete success, and the whole of the enemy’s camp fell into the hands of the British.

=China.= The “Celestial Empire,” in Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim an antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C., is allowed to have commenced about 2500 B.C.; by others to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 B.C. We are told that the Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 2357 B.C. Towards the close of the 7th century B.C. the history of China becomes more distinct. Thirty-two dynasties have reigned, including the present. See important cities of China throughout this work.

=China, Great Wall of.= One of the most remarkable structures known in history, supposed to have been erected about 220 B.C. by the first emperor of the Tsin dynasty as a protection against the invasions of the Tartars. It traverses the northern boundary of China, and extends about 1250 miles. Including a parapet of 5 feet, the total height is 20 feet, thickness of base 25 feet, and at the top 15 feet. Towers or bastions occur at intervals of about 100 yards. Earth inclosed in brick-work forms the mass of the wall, but for more than one-half its length it is little else than a heap of gravel and rubbish.

=Chinese Fire.= A pyrotechnic composition, consisting of 16 parts of gunpowder, 8 of nitre, 3 of charcoal, 3 of sulphur, and 3 of iron-borings.

=Ching-Hai.= A fortified seaport town of China. At this place, in October, 1841, the Chinese were signally defeated by the British.

=Ching-Kiang-Foo.= A fortified city of China, on the Yang-tse-Kiang River. It was taken by the British, after a determined resistance on the part of the Mantchoo garrison, July 21, 1842.

=Chinook.= An artificial language or jargon originated by the Hudson Bay Company for communicating with different tribes of Indians. It consists of about a hundred words, some coined, some French, and some of Indian origin. It is still extensively used as a sort of court language by the different tribes along the Pacific coast, from California to Behrings Strait.

=Chinook Indians.= A collection of races of Indian tribes inhabiting the Lower Columbia in Washington Territory and Oregon.

=Chippewa.= A village of Canada West, memorable for the victory gained by the Americans, 1900 strong, under Gen. Brown, over 2100 British troops under Gens. Rial and Drummond, July 4, 1814.

=Chippewa Indians=, or =Ojibways=. A tribe of aborigines who inhabit portions of Michigan, Wisconsin, and the basin of Lake Superior. In the early settlement of the country they were allies of the French, and waged inveterate warfare against the Sioux. In 1855 they ceded their lands to the United States, and are now placed on reservations. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Chivalry= (Fr. _Chevalerie_, from chevalier, “knight,” or “horseman”). The system of knighthood, together with the privileges, duties, and manners of knights. The qualifications or character of knights, as valor, dexterity in arms, courtesy, etc.

=Chlorate of Potassa.= Chlorate of potassa is formed by passing a current of chlorine, in excess, through lime-water, and then treating the mixture with the chloride of potassium or by the carbonate or sulphate of potassa. The chlorate of potassa and chloride of calcium are formed,--the former crystallizes, the latter remains in solution. It is soluble in water, but not sensibly so in alcohol. It is a more powerful oxidizing agent than nitre, and, when mixed with a combustible body, easily explodes by shock or friction. It is inflamed by simple contact with sulphuric acid, and thus affords a simple means of exploding mines.

=Chlorates.= Oxidizing agents used in _explosives_ (which see). Chlorate of potassa is the salt ordinarily used.

=Chocks.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Choctaw Indians.= A tribe of aborigines which formerly lived in Mississippi, along the Yazoo River. They are now settled in Indian Territory, and are partially civilized. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Choczim=, or =Chotyn=. A fortified town of Bessarabia, Southern Russia, on the Dniester. Here the Turks were defeated by the Poles in 1621, and again in 1673; the Turks were again defeated at this place by the Russians in 1739.

=Choke.= The tied end of a cartridge; also the constriction of a rocket-case, etc.

=Choker.= An implement used by engineers to compress and test the circumference of a fascine. It consists of two strong pieces of wood about 4 feet long joined by a chain. Two rings inserted in the chain mark the length of the circumference required.

=Chokey.= An East Indian guard-house and prison.

=Cholet.= A town of France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire. Here, during the Vendean war, two actions were fought in 1793, in both of which the royalists were defeated. In the first they lost their brave general, Bonchamps; and the second drove them across the Loire, thus virtually deciding the war against them.

=Chosroes.= See KHOSROO.

=Chotyn.= See CHOCZIM.

=Chouans.= The name which a band of peasants received who fought for the monarchy against the convention in Maine and Normandy in 1793. They received their name from their leader, Jean Cattereau, nicknamed “Chouan,” and were with great difficulty subdued, their final submission not taking place till 1803.

=Christian Charity, Knights of the Order of.= Was the name of an order instituted by King Henry III. of France for the support of maimed officers and soldiers who had done good service in the wars. Henry IV. placed it under the charge of the marshals and colonels of France, and by means of it many of those who had served their country faithfully were enabled to spend the latter portion of their lives in peace and above want. The order formed the germ of that noble hospital, the _Invalides_, which was founded by Louis XIV., and which served as a model for the English hospitals of Greenwich and Chelsea. On the founding of the hospital the order was superseded.

=Christiansand.= A fortified seaport of Norway, and capital of a government of the same name. This place was founded in 1641 by Christian IV., and was taken by the British in 1807.

=Christ, Order of.= When the Templars were expelled from France, and their property confiscated by Philippe le Bel, they were received into Portugal, and their order revived there in 1317 under this title. Noble descent and three years’ military service against the infidel were required for admission.

=Chrome Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR.

=Chronograph.= See CHRONOSCOPE.

=Chronoscope.= An instrument for measuring minute intervals of time. The term is specially applied by military men to instruments for obtaining initial velocities. The _gun-pendulum_ and _ballistic-pendulum_ were formerly used for this purpose, but are now nearly obsolete. All modern chronoscopes use electricity as a transmitting agent. The general method of applying it is to have the current-bearing wires pass through two targets placed in the path of the projectile. These wires are cut by the projectile, and the interval between the successive ruptures is recorded by a delicate time-keeper. Knowing the distance between the targets, the velocity is obtained by dividing this space, expressed in feet, by the number of seconds in the interval. Chronoscopes differ in the kind of time-keeper employed. One of the largest classes of chronoscopes use the pendulum.

The _electro-ballistic machine_ of Col. Benton (U. S. Ordnance Department) may be taken as a type of this class. It consists of two pendulums having equal times of vibration suspended from the same horizontal axis. When the pendulums are deflected, one to the right the other to the left, through angles of 90°, pieces of soft iron attached to them come in contact with electro-magnets, which serve to hold them up. Each of these magnets is excited by a current passing through one of the targets. When the targets are ruptured the pendulums fall, and in passing each other record the point of meeting by operating a delicate bent lever attached to one of them, which leaves a dot of ink on the arc in front of which the pendulums vibrate. The _interval of time_ between the rupture of the two targets is obtained from a table of arcs and corresponding times. Col. Benton has also invented an instrument called _velocimeter_, in which he uses threads instead of electro-magnets to hold up the pendulums. The threads pass through the targets, and when they are cut the pendulums fall as before. This method has found considerable favor where great accuracy is not required.

_Schultz’s chronoscope_ uses as a time-keeper a tuning-fork, which, in its vibrations, traces a waved line upon a revolving cylinder. The rupture of each of the targets is recorded by an electric spark deposited on the cylinder near the waved line. The number of waves between the spark spots gives the _interval of time_ when the _period of vibration_ or _tarage_ of the fork is known. The vibration of the fork is sustained by electro-magnets, which alternately attract and release the branches, an interrupter being placed in the circuit. When the current passing through the targets is broken an induced current is generated, which deposits the spark on the cylinder in leaping a short break in the circuit. When the first target is broken, by an ingenious contrivance the current is made through the second target before the shot reaches it. The _tarage_ of the fork is obtained by placing a second’s pendulum in the target current, which ruptures the current in each vibration, and produces a series of spark spots on the cylinder. The number of waves between successive spots gives the number of vibrations to the second.

_Boulanger’s chronograph_ is the simplest of all chronoscopes. It uses a rod held up vertically by a magnet, which is excited by a current through the first target. The current through the second target, when broken, releases a spring knife-blade, which, moving sideways, marks the rod in its fall. The _interval of time_ is obtained from the distance through which the rod has fallen, as shown by the position of the mark. The end of the scale is marked when both currents are simultaneously broken.

=Chrystler’s=, or =Chrysler’s Field, Battle of=. The name of an engagement which took place at Chrystler’s farm, on the St. Lawrence River, November 11, 1813, between the American forces under Gen. Boyd and the British troops under Lieut.-Col. Morrison, in which neither party gained a victory, but the advantage was with the British.

=Chunar, Treaty of.= Concluded between the nabob of Oude and Governor Hastings, by which the nabob was relieved of his debts to the East India Company, on condition of his seizing the property of the begums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering it up to the English, September 19, 1781.

=Churubusco.= A village or hamlet of Mexico, on the Rio de Churubusco, about 6 miles south of the city of Mexico. This place was the scene of a battle between the American forces under Gen. Winfield Scott, marching on the city of Mexico, and the Mexicans, defending the approaches to their capital, under President Santa Anna. The battle of Contreras was fought on the same day. The Americans were victorious in both battles, taking 3000 prisoners, and capturing 37 pieces of ordnance. The entire Mexican army was dispersed, their ancient capital captured, and an honorable peace ensued.

=Chusan.= One of a group of islands off the east coast of China. This island, called the “key of China,” was taken by the British in 1840 and 1841, and held by them until the terms of their treaty with China were fulfilled by the latter power.

=Cimbres.= A chain of mountains in Mexico. On April 28, 1862, the advance-guard of the French, commanded by Gen. Count de Lorencez, encountered and defeated in a defile of this chain a Mexican force 6000 strong under Gen. Saragosa, who had fortified themselves and placed 18 pieces of artillery in position.

=Cimbri.= A warlike tribe of ancient Europe, which, in conjunction with the Teutones and others, invaded the south of Europe, and successively defeated six Roman armies, until in the end they were conquered by Caius Marius, 101 B.C. They had previously devastated Gaul and Spain, and are said to have lost from 100,000 to 140,000 men in the battle with Marius.

=Cimeter.= A short sword with a convex edge or recurvated point, used by the Persians and Turks.

=Cimier= (_Fr._). A heavy ornament which the ancient knights or chevaliers in France and in other countries were accustomed to wear upon their helmets; small figures were afterwards substituted in their stead.

=Cincinnati, Order of.= A society which was founded in the United States by officers of the Revolutionary army in 1783. Its object was to keep alive the feelings of friendship and patriotism engendered by common toils and perils, and to assist those who were in need through the vicissitudes of the war. In 1787, Washington was elected president of the order.

=Cinquain.= In ancient military history, was an order of battle, to draw up 5 battalions, so that they might make 3 lines, that is, a van, main body, and reserve.

=Cintra.= In Portugal. Here was signed an agreement on August 22, 1808, between the French and English, the day after the battle of Vimeira. As it contained the basis of the convention signed on August 30, following, it has been termed the convention of Cintra. By it Junot and his army were permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in British ships. The convention was publicly condemned, and in consequence a court of inquiry was held at Chelsea, which exonerated the British commanders. Wellington and Napoleon both justified Sir Hew Dalrymple.

=Cipher.= A preconcerted enigmatical system of communication. Much used in war when dispatches are liable to interception by the enemy,--both for written communication and for signaling.

=Circassia.= A country in Asia on the north side of the Caucasus. The Circassians are said to be descended from the Albanians. They were unsubdued, even by Timour. Circassia was surrendered to Russia by Turkey by the treaty of Adrianople, 1830. The Circassians under their great leader Schamyl resisted the authority of Russia. They were defeated by Orbelliani in June, November, and December, 1857. Orbelliani subdued much of the country, and expelled the inhabitants, April, 1858. Schamyl, their leader, was captured and treated with much respect, September 7, 1859. The last of the Circassian strongholds captured and the war declared at an end, June 8, 1864.

=Circitores.= So were named, in the Roman armies, the men who inspected the sentinels.

=Circuit-closer.= A device for closing an electrical circuit. In torpedo warfare the term is applied to an apparatus used to explode submarine mines.

=Circumferenter.= An instrument used by engineers for measuring angles.

=Circumvallation.= Works made by besiegers around a besieged place facing outwards, to protect their camp against attacks from a hostile army operating in the rear. It usually consists of a chain of redoubts, either isolated or connected by a parapet.

=Cisalpine.= This--that is, the south--side of the Alps.

=Citadel.= A fort of 4 or 5 bastions in or near a town. It serves two purposes, enabling the garrison of a town to keep the inhabitants in subjection, and in case of siege forming a place of retreat for the defenders, thus enabling them to hold out after the rest of the town has been captured. It must fully command the fortifications of the city, and have a large space around it clear of buildings.

=Citate.= A place close to the Danube, where the Russian general Gortschakoff, intending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts, which were stormed by the Turks under Omar Pasha, January 6, 1854. The fighting continued on the 7th, 8th, and 9th, when the Russians were compelled to retire to their former position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 killed and 2000 wounded.

=City Point.= A village of Prince George Co., Va., on the James River, at the mouth of the Appomattox. During the civil war, Gen. Grant fixed his headquarters at this point in 1864, and during his subsequent operations against Richmond it was the base of supplies for his army.

=Ciudad Real.= A town of Spain, capital of a province of the same name, about 100 miles south of Madrid. The French under Sebastian here defeated the Spaniards in March, 1809.

=Ciudad Rodrigo.= A fortified town of Spain, in the province of Salamanca. It was occupied by the Portuguese in 1706, and during the Peninsular war was the object of frequent contention between the French and the allies. In June, 1810, the French under Masséna invested the town, and, after a gallant defense by the Spaniards, it was forced to surrender, July 10. In January, 1812, after a siege of 11 days, the place was assaulted, and after a bloody struggle the British succeeded in capturing the town. This storming was one of the most brilliant events in English military annals.

=Civic Crown.= Among the ancient Romans, was a crown given to any soldier who had saved the life of a citizen. It was composed only of oaken boughs, but accounted more honorable than any other.

=Civière= (_Fr._). A small hand-barrow, which is carried by two men, and is much used by the artillery.

=Civil Authority.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 59.

=Civil War.= See WAR, CIVIL.

=Civilized Warfare.= See WAR, also HONORS OF WAR.

=Civita Castellana.= A town of Italy, 24 miles north from Rome. In its neighborhood an engagement took place between the Neapolitans under Mack and the French under Macdonald, on December 4, 1798.

=Civita Vecchia.= The principal seaport of the Papal States, in Italy, built on a bay of the Mediterranean. It was frequently sacked in the different wars. In April, 1849, a French force of 6000 men, under Gen. Oudinot, landed here on its way to Rome, where the republic had been proclaimed, and a triumvirate appointed. The French troops overthrew the republic and restored the pope to Rome, from which he had fled in 1848.

=Civitella del Tronto.= A fortified town of Italy, in the province of Abruzzo Ultra. Here the Neapolitan garrison surrendered to the Piedmontese general Mezzacapo on March 20, 1861.

=Clarigation.= In Roman antiquity, a ceremony which always preceded a formal declaration of war. The chief of the heralds went to the territory of the enemy, where, after some solemn prefatory indication, he, with a loud voice, intimated that he declared war against them for certain reasons specified, such as injury done to the Roman allies, or the like.

=Claymore= (_Gaelic_, signifying great glaive, or sword). Properly a great two-handed sword, used by the Highlanders only.

=Clayonages= (_Fr._). A species of hurdle, with which the timber-work of a gallery is covered. It is likewise used in saps.

=Clermont.= A town of France, department of Oise, 16 miles by rail south-southeast of Beauvais. It was burned by the English in 1359; besieged by Marshal de Boussac in 1430; captured by the English in 1434; taken by Henry IV. in 1595, and occupied by the Prince de Condé in 1615.

=Clermont-Ferrand.= A city of France, capital of the department Puy-de-Dôme. It was captured by the Vandals in 408; besieged without success by the Visigoths in 473. It was taken by Thierry in 506; sacked by Pepin in 761; captured by the Normans in 853. The great council in which the crusades originated was held here in 1095.

=Clice= (_Fr._). A long and curved Turkish sabre.

=Clide= (_Fr._). A machine of war, used during the Middle Ages to throw rocks on besieging parties.

=Clifton Moor= (England). Here the Scotch insurgents were defeated by the royal troops in 1745.

=Clipeus.= A large shield worn by the ancient Greeks and Romans, which was originally of a circular form, made of wicker-work or wood covered over with ox-hides several folds deep, and bound round the edge with metal.