Chapter LV: Part 55

=Siberia=, or =Siberi=. A vast territory in Northern Asia, belonging to Russia, and including all the Russian possessions in that continent, with the exception of the Transcaucasian and Armenian provinces. Siberia seems to have been first made known to the Russians by a merchant named Anika Stroganoff; and soon after the conquest of West Siberia was effected by the Cossack Vassili Yermak, an absconded criminal, at the head of a numerous band of wild followers. After Yermak’s death, in 1554, the Russians pursued their conquests eastward, founding Tomsk in 1604, and though they often experienced serious reverses, their progress was rapid, the Sea of Okhotsk being reached in 1639, and Irkutsk founded in 1661. Frequent disturbances have occurred between the Russians and the Chinese and Tartars, which have resulted in the extension southward of the Siberian boundary into Manchuria and Turkestan.

=Sicarii= (_i.e._, _Assassins_). The name given by the Romans to certain savage mountain tribes of the Lebanon, who were, like the _Thugs_ of India, avowed murderers by profession. In the same mountains there existed, at the time of the Crusades, a branch of the fanatic sect called “Assassins,” whose habits resembled those of the Sicarii, and whose name the Crusaders imported into Europe; but these were of Arabian origin.

=Sicilian Vespers.= The name given to the massacre of the French in Sicily, on the day after Easter (March 30), 1822, the signal for the commencement of which was to be the first stroke of the vesper-bell. On the evening of Easter Monday, the inhabitants of Palermo, enraged (according to the common story) at a gross outrage which was perpetrated by a French soldier on a young Sicilian bride, suddenly rose against their oppressors, the French, and put to the sword every man, woman, and child, and did not even spare those Italians and Sicilians who had married Frenchmen. This example was followed by Messina and other towns, and the massacre soon became general over the island. The French were hunted like wild beasts, and dragged even from the churches, where they vainly thought themselves secure. More than 8000 of them were slain by the Palermitans alone. This event was the final overthrow of Charles of Anjou’s domination in Sicily.

=Sicily= (anc. _Sicilia_). The largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, situated between Italy and the coast of Africa, and separated on the northeast from Naples by the Strait of Messina; it is a province of the kingdom of Italy. It was successively occupied by the Phœnicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. For history of the Carthaginians in Sicily, see CARTHAGE. The western part of Sicily was made a Roman province in 241 B.C.; but after the revolt of Syracuse in the second Punic war, and the conquest of that city by Marcellus, the whole island was made a Roman province. On the downfall of the Roman empire, Sicily formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths; but it was taken from them by Belisarius in 536, and annexed to the Byzantine empire. In the 8th and 9th centuries the Saracens succeeded in conquering it. The Normans conquered the island in the 11th century under Roger Guiscard, duke of Apulia. It passed successively into the hands of France (see SICILIAN VESPERS), Germany, and Spain. By the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, it was given to the Duke of Savoy; was added to the kingdom of Naples in 1720. The war of 1734, however, carried on by France and Spain against Austria, transferred the crown of Naples, or, as it was subsequently termed, of the Two Sicilies, to a branch of the royal family of Spain; it remained in their hands until the French revolution led, in 1799, to the expulsion of the royal family from Naples. In 1815, Ferdinand IV. of Naples assumed the title of Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies. In 1847, 1848, and 1849, the Sicilians made several attempts, in common with the Neapolitans, to rid themselves of their obnoxious monarch, Ferdinand II., but without success. The Bourbons were, however, driven from the throne by Garibaldi in 1860, and in the same year Sicily was united to the new kingdom of Italy. See NAPLES.

=Sick and Hurt.= A board so called, to which the agents, commissaries, etc., belonging to the several military hospitals in Great Britain were responsible.

=Sick Call.= A military call which is sounded on the drum, bugle, or trumpet, whereby the sick men are warned to attend the hospital.

=Sick-flag.= The yellow quarantine flag hoisted to prevent communication; whence the term of the yellow flag and yellow admirals. There are two others,--one with a black ball, the other with a square in the centre,--denoting plague or actual diseases.

=Sick Report Book.= A book in which the names of the men who are sick in a company, troop, etc., are entered, also the names of their diseases, and probable cause of same. This book is signed by one of the company officers to which the men belong, and the attending surgeon.

=Sicyonia.= A small district in the northeast of Peloponnesus. Its chief town was _Sicyon_, which was destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes. In the Persian war the Sicyonians sent fifteen ships to the battle of Salamis, and 300 hoplites to the battle of Plætæ. In the interval between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars the Sicyonians were twice defeated and their country laid waste by the Athenians,--first under Tolmides in 456 B.C., and again under Pericles in 454 B.C. In the Peloponnesian war they took part with the Spartans.

=Side-arms.= Such arms as are suspended by the side and attached to the person, such as a bayonet or sword.

=Sidon=, or =Zidon= (now _Saida_, or _Seida_). For a long time the most powerful, and probably the most ancient, of the cities of Phœnice. It was the chief seat of the maritime power of Phœnice until eclipsed by its own colony, Tyre. It submitted to Shalmanezer at the time of the Assyrian conquest of Syria. In the expedition of Xerxes against Greece the Sidonians furnished the best ships in the whole fleet. Sidon received the great blow to her prosperity in the reign of Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), when the Sidonians, having taken part in the revolt of Phœnice and Cyprus, and being betrayed to Ochus by their own king Tennes, burned themselves with their city, 351 B.C. It was rebuilt. On September 27, 1840, the town was taken from the pasha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of his allies, assisted by some ships of the British squadron, under Admiral Sir Robert Stopford and Commodore Charles Napier.

=Siege= (Fr. _siege_, “a seat, a sitting down”). Is the sitting of an army before a hostile town or fortress with the intention of capturing it. With certain elements, the success of a siege is beyond doubt; the result being merely a question of time. These elements are: First, the force of the besiegers shall be sufficient to overcome the besieged in actual combat, man to man. If this be not the case, the besieged, by a sortie, might destroy the opposing works and drive away the besiegers. The second element is, that the place must be thoroughly invested, so that no provisions, reinforcements, or other aliment of war can enter. The third element is, that the besiegers be undisturbed from without. For this it is essential that there shall not be a hostile army in the neighborhood; or if there be, that the operations of the besiegers be protected by a covering army able to cope with the enemy’s force in the field. The ancients executed gigantic works to produce these effects. To complete the investment they built a high and strong wall around the whole fortress; and to render themselves secure from without they built a similar wall, facing outwards, beyond their own position. The first was circumvallation, the second contravallation. It was thus that Cæsar fortified himself while besieging Alexia, and maintained 60,000 men within his ring. In modern warfare it is considered preferable to establish strong posts here and there round the place, and merely sentinels and videttes between. Let us now assume that a fortress of great strength has to be reduced, and that the force of the enemy in the vicinity has been either subdued or held in check by a covering army. By rapid movements the place is at once invested on all sides. This step constitutes merely a blockade; and if time be of little importance, it is a sufficient operation, for hunger must sooner or later cause the fortress to surrender; but if more energetic measures are required, the actual siege must be prosecuted. Advantage is taken of any hidden ground to establish the park of artillery and the engineer’s park; or, if there be none, these parks have to be placed out of range. The besieging force is now encamped just beyond the reach of the guns of the fortress; and their object is to get over the intervening ground and into the works without being torn to pieces by the concentrated fire of the numerous pieces which the defenders can bring to bear on every part. With this view, the place is approached by a series of zigzag trenches so pointed that they cannot be enfiladed by any guns in the fortress. In order to accommodate the forces necessary to protect the workers, the trenches at certain intervals are cut laterally for a great length, partly encircling the place, and affording safe room for a large force with ample battering material. These are called _parallels_, and they are generally three in number. The distance of the first parallel will increase as small-arms become more deadly; but with smooth-bore muskets it has been usual to break ground at 600 yards from the covered way of the fortress, while in the case of Sebastopol, ground was broken at 2000 yards. The engineers having, by reconnoissances, decided the locality of the parallel, and taken advantage of any inequalities of surface, a strong body of men is sent to the spot soon after nightfall. The attention of the garrison is distracted by false alarms in other directions. Half the men are armed _cap-a-pie_, and lie down before the proposed parallel; while the other half, bearing each a pick and shovel, and two empty gabions, prepare for work. Each man deposits the gabions where the parapet of the trench should be. He then digs down behind them, filling the gabions with the earth dug out, and after they are filled, throwing it over them, to widen and heighten the parapet. Before daylight the working party is expected to have formed sufficient cover to conceal themselves and the troops protecting them. During the day, they--being concealed from the garrison--widen and complete their parallel, making it of dimensions sufficient to allow of wagons and bodies of troops with guns passing along. During the same night other parties will have been at work at zigzags of approach from the depots out of range to the first parallel, which zigzags will be probably not less than 1000 yards in length. As a rule, the defenders will not expend ammunition on the first parallel, for its extent (often several miles) will render the probability of doing material damage extremely small. For this reason also, the dimensions of the parapet and its solidity are of far less importance in the first parallel than in the more advanced works of attack. The first parallel being completed, the engineers select points near its extremities, at which they erect breastworks to cover bodies of cavalry, who are kept at hand to resist sorties from the garrison. The length of the parallel is usually made sufficient to embrace all the works of two bastions at least. Sites are then chosen for batteries, which are built up of fascines, gabions, sand-bags, and earth. They are placed at points in the parallel formed by the prolongation of the several faces of the bastions, ravelins, and other works of the fortress, which faces the batteries are severally intended to enfilade by a ricochet fire. Other batteries will be formed for a vertical fire of mortars. By these means it is hoped that the traverses on the hostile ramparts will be destroyed, the guns dismounted, and the defenders dispersed, before the final approaches bring the assailants to the covered way. The sappers will now commence their advance towards the points, or salient angles, of the two bastions to be attacked. If, however, the trench were cut straight towards the fortress, its guns could easily destroy the workmen, and enfilade the approach. To prevent this, it is cut into short zigzags, the direction always being to a point a few yards beyond the outmost flanking-works of the garrison. The side of each trench nearest the fortress is protected by gabions and sand-bags, as in the case of the parallel. At intervals short spurs of trench, incipient parallels, are cut, to contain infantry, to act as guards to the sappers. The second parallel is about 300 yards from the enemy’s works, and has to be more strongly formed than the first. It often terminates in a redoubt to hold some light artillery, and a strong force of infantry, who could assail any sortie in flank; or it may run into the first parallel, giving easier access for troops than through the zigzags. The second parallel is revetted with sand-bags, in which loop-holes are left for musketry. After passing the second parallel, the angles of the zigzags become more acute, to prevent enfilading. At about 150 yards, certain demi-parallels are cut, and armed with howitzer-batteries to clear the covered way, while riflemen also act from it. The third parallel is at the foot of the glacis. Thence the place, after being sufficiently battered, is taken by a storming party, who make their way over the glacis; or the covered way is topped by the double sap, which is a safer plan for the array generally, though much more deadly to the sappers. When the crest of the covered way has thus been reached, batteries of heavy artillery will be there established, for the purpose of breaching the walls of the ravelin and bastion; while at the same time miners will first seek to destroy the defenders’ countermines (which would otherwise be likely to send these batteries into the air), and then will excavate a tunnel to the ditch at the foot of the counterscarp. If the breach becomes practicable, a storming party will emerge from this tunnel or gallery, and seek to carry the opposite work by hard fighting. If inner works still subsist, which would tear assailants to pieces, the double sap may be continued across the ditch, if a dry ditch, right up the breach, that counter-batteries may be formed. If the ditch be wet, means must be adopted for a causeway or a bridge. By these means, however obstinate may be the defense, if the besieging force be sufficiently strong, and aid do not arrive from without, the ultimate success of the attack becomes certain. Vauban raised attack to a superiority above defense, first by the introduction of ricochet fire, which sweeps a whole line; and secondly by originating parallels. Before his time, the whole attack was conducted by zigzag approaches, in which the troops actually in front could be but few, and were therefore unable to withstand strong sorties of the garrison, who, in consequence, frequently broke out and destroyed the works of the besiegers, rendering a siege an operation of the most uncertain character.

=Siege and Sea-coast Ammunition.= See ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION FOR.

=Siege Artillery.= Is heavy ordnance used for battering purposes, and of too weighty a character to take the field. A siege-train of guns and their ponderous ammunition is usually maintained in the rear of an army, ready to be brought up for use when required. See ARTILLERY.

=Siege Carriages.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Siege-train.= The number and kind of pieces composing a siege-train must altogether depend on circumstances; but the following general principles may be observed in assigning the proportion of different kinds and calibers, and the relative quantity of other supplies, for a train of 100 pieces:

_Guns_, about three-fifths the whole number (60); _howitzers_, one-fourth (25); _mortars_, 10-inch siege, one-eighth (12), 8-inch siege, 3; _Coehorn mortars_, in addition to the 100 pieces, 6. Total number of guns, 106.

_Carriages_, for guns and howitzers, one-fifth spare, 102; for 10-inch mortars, one-sixth spare, 14; for 8-inch mortars, 4.

_Mortar-wagons_, one for each 10-inch mortar and bed, and for three 8-inch mortars and beds, 14.

_Wagons_, for transporting implements, intrenching and miners’ tools, laboratory tools and utensils, and other stores, each loaded with about 2700 pounds,--say 140.

_Carts_, carrying balls, etc., on the march, 50.

_Park battery-wagons_, fully equipped, 28.

_Park forges_, fully equipped, 8.

_Sling-carts_, large, 5.

_Sling-carts_, hand, 4.

Total number of carriages, 369.

_Draught-horses_, for each gun and howitzer, with its carriage, 8; for each spare gun-carriage, 6; for each mortar-wagon, 8; for each battery-wagon, 6; for each forge, 6; for each cart, 2; for each sling-cart, large, 2; spare horses, one-tenth. Total, about 1900 horses.

=Siemens-Martin Steel.= See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR, STEEL.

=Siena=, or =Sienna=. A city of Central Italy, about 30 miles southeast from Florence. In the Middle Ages, Siena became one of the powerful city republics of Italy. It embraced the Ghibelline cause, and in conjunction with the forces of Pisa, defeated the Tuscan Guelfs, in the memorable battle of Monte Aperto (1206). Through intestine quarrels it was subjugated by the emperor Charles V., and given to his son in 1555, who ceded it to Cosmo of Tuscany, 1557. It was incorporated with France, 1808-14.

=Sierra Leone.= A district of Western Africa, situated on the Atlantic. The British settlement of Sierra Leone was established in 1787, when 400 negroes, with 60 wives, mostly women of bad character, were removed to it from London. The settlement was attacked by the French in September, 1794, and by the natives in February, 1802.

=Sight.= A small piece of brass or iron fixed to a cannon or a musket, to serve as a point of direction, and to assist the eye in aiming the piece.

=Sight.= To give the proper elevation and direction to by means of a sight; as, to sight a rifle or cannon. _To take sight_, to take aim; to look for the purpose of directing a piece of artillery, or the like.

=Sight, Angle of.= See POINTING.

=Sight, Breech-.= See BREECH-SIGHT.

=Sight, Buckhorn-.= A form of rear-sight much used in sporting rifles, which takes its name from the curved form of the notch used. This form of notch is now attached to the Springfield rifle in use by U. S. troops.

=Sight, Coarse.= An aim of a piece in which a considerable portion of the front-sight covers the object.

=Sight, Elevating.= The rear-sight of a small-arm, arranged to give varying heights of sight for different ranges. There are a variety of forms. The _leaf-sight_ has a number of hinged leaves of different lengths. The one now used in the U. S. army has one hinged leaf. Up to 500 yards, the elevation is given by moving the sighting-piece up a curved incline. Above 500 yards, the leaf is turned up to the perpendicular.

=Sight, Fine.= An aim in which only the summit of the front-sight is used to get the line of sight.

=Sight, Front-.= The sight nearest the muzzle of a cannon or small-arm. In military arms, it is set on a short projection which is used also as the bayonet-stud. In cannon of old model, using the _tangent scale_, or pendulum hausse, the height of the front-sight is made equal to the dispart, making the _natural line of sight_ parallel to the axis of the piece. See DISPART.

=Sight, Line of.= See POINTING.

=Sight, Peep-.= A form of rear-sight for small-arms in which the marksman looks through a small hole.

=Sight, Plane of.= See POINTING.

=Sight, Quarter-.= The quarter-sights of a cannon are divisions marked on the upper quarters of the base-ring, commencing where it would be intersected by a plane parallel to the axis of the piece, and tangent to the upper surface of the trunnions; used for giving elevations up to three degrees, and especially for pointing at a less elevation than the natural angle of sight. Now obsolete.

=Sight, Rear-.= The sight nearest the breech of a cannon or small-arm. The term is specially applied to small-arms.

=Sight, Telescopic.= An apparatus for sighting a cannon or small-arm, consisting of a telescope so mounted as to give varying angles of sight; used especially for long ranges. Rifles with such an attachment are sometimes called telescopic rifles.

=Sight, Trunnion.= A front-sight fixed on or near the trunnions of a gun.

=Sign.= An indication or token. In astronomy, one of the twelve divisions of the zodiac.

=Sign.= To affix a signature; to subscribe.

=Sign Language.= A pantomimic system of communicating ideas, extensively used by North American Indians. The range of its use is not exactly known, but it is common among all the tribes of the plains and many of those beyond the Rocky Mountains. It is in one sense the court language of the Indians, being the only means of communication between tribes not speaking a common dialect. According to Gen. Marcy, it is accurately used and perfectly understood by all the Indians from the Gila to the Columbia. The same author tells a remarkable story, which seems to show that the system is very nearly, if not exactly, the same as that used in teaching mutes in deaf and dumb asylums.

=Signal.= Any sign made for marching, fighting, etc. Signals are likewise given by the drum, bugle, and trumpet, during the exercise of a battalion. See SIGNAL SERVICE.

=Signal Code.= See SIGNALING.

=Signal Equipments.= See EQUIPMENTS, SIGNAL.

=Signal Service.= In the U. S. army there is one chief signal-officer of the army, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of a brigadier-general, and 400 enlisted men. The chief signal-officer is assisted in his duties by commissioned officers detailed from the line for that purpose. In war times the Signal Service of the U. S. army is equipped to maintain communications by telegraph, signals, etc., between different sections of an army or armies, or between land and sea forces. The enlisted men are thoroughly drilled in the art of field telegraphy. In peace times the Signal Service has a corps of observers stationed in large towns, and important commercial centres, to give timely warning of the approach of storms, rise of rivers, and all other important weather news for the guidance of merchants and others.

=Signaling.= Is of remote origin. A rude code of signals addressed to the eye is common among the savage races of the present day, and doubtless existed from the earliest times among the historical races. The Indians of the great plains of North America avail themselves for night-signals of fires lighted on elevated points, and of dense clouds of smoke made by suddenly heaping green brush upon a fire for day-signals. Gen. Marcy, in his “Army Life on the Border,” shows that similar signals can be used in this region with great advantage by troops engaged in Indian campaigning. Messages exchanged in this way must be preconcerted. This method of signaling dates from a remote antiquity. Alphabetical signaling--a system in which a written language is conveyed by means of its elements--is first described by Polybius, about 260 B.C., and seems to have been devised, or at least greatly improved by him. He formed a code by arranging the letters of the Greek alphabet in several columns. A given letter was represented by a number of lanterns or torches or other signals, which gave the number of the column, and a second set of signals giving the number of the letter in the column. Capt. John Smith, of Virginia fame, is said to have used the system of Polybius during the siege of Vienna. Alphabetical signaling thus early adopted remained without improvement, and too cumbersome for general application till recent times. _Message signaling_ by torches, flags, and rockets has been generally used, especially at sea, where it has a wide application both in war and commerce. The signals usually represented numbers, which were referred to printed codes. The invention of the magnetic telegraph led to the Morse alphabet, which crystallized the hitherto vague idea of representing letters by the combination and arrangement of a few simple elements. In the _general service code_ of the United States, there are used two elements. These can readily be represented by sounds, motions, numbers, colors, etc. The ordinary method of signaling is by waving a flag by day and a torch at night. See also TELEGRAPH, FIELD.

=Sikh Wars.= Two brief but desperate contests waged between the British power in India and the Sikhs in 1845-46, 1848-49, which resulted in the destruction of the latter as an independent nation. The first had its origin in the dissensions which convulsed the Sikh country after the death of Runjeet Singh, and which necessitated the exercise of wary regard on the part of the Calcutta authorities. At length an army of Sikhs, flushed with their triumph over all lawful authority in their own country, crossed the Sutlej, and extended their ravages over British territory; but their advanced guard was met by Sir Henry Hardinge, the governor-general, at the head of four regiments of infantry and one of dragoons, and routed at Mudki with heavy loss. Three days after, the main body, which had in the mean time crossed the river and intrenched itself at Feroze-Shah, was attacked by a larger force of British under Gough and Hardinge, and after a bloody conflict, which lasted two days, also routed. Still undismayed by these reverses, they again intrenched themselves at Sobraon; but a fresh body which had just crossed the Sutlej at Aliwal 19,000 strong with 68 pieces of cannon, was wholly routed and driven across the river by Sir Harry Smith, at the head of 7000 men, with 32 guns; and their main body was soon after similarly dispersed at Sobraon (which see). The British then crossed the river, took Lahore, and restored the authority of the young Maharajah from whom they took the territory between the Beas and the Sutlej; the treaty confirming this settlement being made at Lahore, March 9, 1846. But the internal disturbances in the kingdom of Lahore soon became as active as before, and induced the Maharajah’s prime minister to put the country under the Company’s protection; and a residency with a guard of regular troops was then established in the capital. On April 20, 1848, two British officers were murdered by a Sikh chief, the dewan of Moolraj of Multan; and as it was found to be but a premonitory symptom of a general outbreak, a small force of British under Lieut. Edwardes, aided by a body of Sikhs, under the rajah of Bhawalpur, gallantly attacked the army of Moolraj, which, after a desperate conflict of nine hours, they defeated on June 18, and, both sides in the mean time having received reinforcements, again on July 1; Multan was then laid siege to, but the defection of 5000 auxiliary Sikhs under Shere Singh (the son of the Sirdar Chuttur Singh, the governor of Hazara, who had been for some time in revolt, and had driven the British from his district), compelled the British to retreat. For some time, the British authorities in the Punjab were hampered by a want of military force, and though the Maharajah and much of his army still opposed the Sikh rebels, little reliance could be placed upon most of it. Shere Singh now succeeded in raising his army to 40,000, but was defeated by Lord Gough at Ramnuggur (November 22). The inconsiderate haste of Gough at Chillianwalla, January 13, nearly lost him that great battle, which was saved only by the extreme valor of his soldiers; but amends for this fault were made at Gujerat, where the power of Shere Singh and his allies was completely broken. Meanwhile, the fortress of Multan had, after a protracted bombardment, been captured, and the Company, seeing no other mode of protecting their territories from annoyance by these warlike fanatics, annexed the Punjab, March 29, 1849, and thus terminated the existence of the Sikhs as an independent nation.

=Sikhs.= The term Sikh, a corruption of the Sanscrit _s’ishya_, signifying “disciple,” is applied to a community of which the Punjab, in Northern India, constitutes, substantially, the confines. Less commonly, even among themselves, the members of this community are also known as Sinhs (vulgarly Singhs), that is, “Lions,” a title given them by Govind, the last and most influential of their hierarchs. Every name of a Sikh male now terminates with the word Sinh. Originally a body of mere religionists, the Sikhs, from the energy which they developed under repression, and the inducements which they offered as proselytizers, grew by degrees, in strength and numbers, and ended in a formidable nationality. Their originator, Nanak, was born in 1469, in the vicinity of Lahore, and died in 1539, not far from the place of his nativity.

=Silence.= To cause to cease firing by a vigorous cannonade; as, to silence the batteries of an enemy.

=Silesia.= A province of the kingdom of Prussia, included in the limits of the new German empire, lies south of the provinces of Brandenburg and Posen. Formerly a province of Poland; was invaded by John of Bohemia in 1325; ceded to him, 1355. In 1740, Frederick II. of Prussia, taking advantage of the helpless condition of Maria Theresa of Austria, laid claims to certain portions of Silesia; and without declaring war, marched into and took possession of the province, maintaining his hold despite the utmost efforts of Austria in 1740-1742, and 1744-1745, called the _first_ and _second_ Silesian wars. After the _third_ Silesian war, better known as the _Seven Years’ War_ (which see), it was finally ceded (1763) to Prussia. It was overrun by the French in 1807.

=Silistria.= A strongly fortified town of Bulgaria, in Turkey in Europe, on the right bank of the Danube. Here in 971, the Byzantine emperor, John Zimisces, routed the Russians under Sviatoslav. It was taken by the Russians, June 30, 1829, and held some years by them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum of money by the Porte, but was eventually returned. In 1854 it was again besieged by the Russians (30,000 strong), under Prince Paskewitsch, and many assaults were made. The Russian general was compelled to return in consequence of a dangerous contusion. On June 2, Mussa Pasha, the brave and skillful commander of the garrison, was killed. On June 9, the Russians stormed two forts, which were retaken. A grand assault took place on June 13, under Prince Gortschakoff and Gen. Schilders, which was vigorously repelled. On the 15th, the garrison assumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated the Russians, and destroyed the siege-works. The siege was thus raised, and the Russians commenced their retreat as Omar Pasha was drawing near. The garrison was ably assisted by two British officers, Capt. Butler and Lieut. Nasmyth, the former of whom, after being wounded, died of exhaustion. They were highly praised by Omar Pasha and Lord Hardinge, and Lieut. Nasmyth made a major.

=Sill.= In fortification, the inner edge of an embrasure.

=Silladar Horse.= Indian irregular cavalry, raised and maintained on the principle of every man furnishing and maintaining his own horse, arms, equipments, etc., in return for his pay.

=Sillon.= In fortification, a work raised in the middle of a ditch, to defend it when it is too wide. It has no particular form, and is sometimes made with little bastions, half-moons, and redans, which are lower than the works of the place, but higher than the covert way. It is more frequently called an _envelope_.

=Silures.= A powerful people in Britain, inhabiting South Wales, who long offered a formidable resistance to the Romans, and were the only people in the island who at a later time maintained their independence against the Saxons.

=Silver Stick.= Is the title given to a field-officer of the Life Guards, when on duty at the palace. The _silver stick_ is in waiting for a week, during which period all reports are made through him to the _gold stick_ (which see), and orders from the _gold stick_ pass through to the brigade. In the absence of the _gold stick_ on levees, and drawing-room days, he goes to the royal closet for the parole.

=Simancas.= A town of Spain, province of Valladolid. Near it Ramirez II. of Leon and Fernando of Castile gained a victory over Abderahman, the Moorish king of Cordova, August 6, 938. The archives of Castile are kept in the fortress of this place, and many valuable documents and records were burnt by the French troops quartered in the town in 1809.

=Simonoseki.= A town of Japan, at the southwestern extremity of the island of Nipon, and at the entrance of the island sea Suonada. In 1863 three vessels belonging to the American, Dutch, and French governments were fired into from batteries on the shore of Simonoseki Strait; this assault was subsequently returned by French and American war-vessels. In 1864 a combined fleet of Great Britain, France, Holland, and the U. S. men-of-war bombarded and destroyed Simonoseki. The Japanese government had to pay an indemnity of $3,000,000.

=Simulation.= The vice of counterfeiting illness or defect, for the purpose of being invalided.

=Sinalunga.= A town of Central Italy, in the province of Sienna. Here Garibaldi was arrested in 1867, whilst attempting to cross into the Papal territory to take command of the volunteers who intended to march upon Rome.

=Sinde=, or =Scinde=. (Called also _Sindh_, or _Sindia_, and _Sinday_, from _sindhoo_, or _sindhu_, “a collection of waters.”) An extensive territory of British India, included in the presidency of Bombay, comprising the lower course and delta of the Indus. It was traversed by the Greeks under Alexander, about 326 B.C.; conquered by the Persian Mohammedans in the 8th century; tributary to the Ghaznevide dynasty in the 11th century; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739; reverted to the empire of Delhi after his death, 1747. After various changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by the English. Sir Charles James Napier, the British envoy, at the head of a considerable military force, marched against the enemy, totally routed them at Meeanee (February 17, 1843), and by defeating the ameers of Mirpur, at Dubba, near Hyderabad (March 24), completed the subjugation of Sinde. For two years afterwards, Napier was actively employed in reducing the marauding tribes of the west, who pillaged the province; and so successful was the “Sheitanka bhai” (Devil’s Brother), as the robber tribes named him, that they were completely rooted out of their fastnesses, and most of them transported to distant regions.

=Sine Die= (“without day”). When the court or other body rise at the end of a session or term they adjourn _sine die_. In law this does not preclude further proceedings by the same court.

=Single Combat.= A contest in which no more than two are engaged.

=Single-stick.= A cudgel used in fencing or fighting. Also, a game at cudgels, in which he who first brings blood from his adversary’s head is pronounced victor.

=Sinister.= In heraldry, the left-hand side of a shield. As shields are supposed to be carried in front of the person, the sinister side is that which covers the bearer’s left side, and therefore, lies to the spectator’s right. See POINTS OF THE ESCUTCHEON.

=Sinopé= (Turk. _Sinub_). A town of Asiatic Turkey, province of Anatolia, on the southern side of a little promontory running eastward into the Black Sea, 80 miles northwest of Samsun. Ancient Sinopé was the most important of all the Greek colonies on the shores of the Euxine. Having been destroyed in the invasion of Asia by the Cimmerians, it was restored by a new colony from Miletus, 632 B.C. It remained an independent state till it was taken by Pharnaces I., king of Pontus. After an obstinate resistance to the Romans under Lucullus, it was taken and plundered, and proclaimed a free city. The bay of Sinopé, which affords the finest anchorage for ships along the whole northern coast of Asiatic Turkey, was the scene of a bloody naval engagement, or rather massacre, November 30, 1853, when a Turkish squadron of 13 ships was suddenly attacked and destroyed (except one vessel which conveyed the tidings to Constantinople) by a Russian fleet of 6 sail of the line, 2 sailing-vessels, and 3 steamers; 4000 lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman Pasha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of his wounds. In consequence of this event, the Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea, January 3, 1854.

=Sinople.= In heraldry, the same as _Vert_ (which see).

=Sinuessa.= An ancient town of Italy, on the shore of the Mediterranean, near the confines of Latium and Campania. It was colonized by the Romans in 296 B.C. It suffered much during the invasion of Hannibal, who, in 217, carried his devastations up to the very gates.

=Sioux Indians.= See DAKOTA INDIANS.

=Sir.= The title of a knight or baronet, which, for distinction’s sake, is always prefixed to the knight’s or baronet’s Christian name, either in speaking or in writing to him.

=Siraceni=, =Siraci=, or =Siraces=. A powerful people of Sarmatia Asiatica, dwelt in the district of Siracene, east of Palus Mæotis, as far as the river Rha (now Volga). The Romans were engaged in a war with them in 50.

=Sirmium= (now _Mitroviz_). An important city in Pannonia Inferior, was situated on the left bank of the Savus. It was founded by the Taurisci, and under the Romans became the capital of Pannonia, and the headquarters of all their operations in their wars against the Dacians and the neighboring barbarians. It contained a large manufactory of arms, a spacious forum, an imperial palace, etc. It was the residence of the admiral of the first Flavian fleet on the Danube, and the birthplace of the emperor Probus.

=Siscia.= An important town in Pannonia Superior, situated upon an island formed by the rivers Savus Colapis and Odra. It was a strongly-fortified place, and was conquered by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus, from which time it became the most important town in all Pannonia.

=Sissopoli=, or =Sizeboli=. A town of Turkey in Europe, 80 miles northeast from Adrianople. It was taken by the Russians in 1829.

=Sistova=, or =Schistab=, called also =Shtab=. A town of Turkey in Europe, in Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, 24 miles east-southeast from Nicopolis. A treaty of peace (“peace of Sistova”) was signed here between Austria and Turkey in 1791.

=Sit.= In a military sense, to take a stationary position; as, _to sit before a fortification_, to lie encamped for the purpose of besieging it.

=Sitka.= Called by the Russians New Archangel, is the most important settlement in Alaska. It is situated on the west side of Baranoff Island, in lat. 57° 3′. The population is mainly composed of Indians and Russian half-breeds. A census taken in 1875 made the total number, excluding Indians, 502. For many years Sitka was the headquarters of the Russian American Company. Upon the transfer of the Territory, in 1867, to the United States, Sitka became the headquarters of the military department of Alaska. It remained an army post till 1877, when the garrison was withdrawn. The inhabitants are at present protected from the Indians by a naval vessel.

=Sixain.= In the Middle Ages, was an order of battle, wherein six battalions being ranged in one line, the second and fifth were made to advance, to form the vanguard; the first and sixth to retire, to form the rear-guard; the third and fourth remaining on the spot, to form the corps or body of the battle.

=Six-shooter.= A pistol with six barrels, or capable of firing six shots in quick succession; especially a six-barreled or six-chambered revolver.

=Size, To.= In a military sense, to take the height of men for the purpose of placing them in military array, and of rendering their relative statures more effective.

=Skalitz.= A small town of Austria, in the northwest of Hungary, near the borders of Moravia, on the left bank of the March. It was stormed by the Prussian general Steinmetz, June 28, 1866; whereby the junction of the divisions of the Prussians was greatly facilitated.

=Skean=, =Skeen=, or =Skeine=. A Celtic word which signifies a knife. It was a weapon in the shape of a small sword or knife, which was worn by the Irish in ancient times.

=Skedaddle.= To betake one’s self to flight; to run away with precipitation, as if in a panic; to withdraw, as an army, or part of an army, from the presence of an enemy, especially in a hasty or secret manner.

=Skeleton.= A word applied to regiments that have become reduced in their number of men.

=Sketch, Military.= The delineation of a small portion of ground for military purposes. The scale is generally larger than that of a map.

=Skid.= In military language, is any timber which is used as a base to keep one object from resting on another. Thus, a row of cannon in store will be kept from the ground by skids. The term is also applied to the drag which is put on the wheels of carriages in going up hills, to prevent rolling backwards.

=Skierniwice.= A town of Russia, situated on the Bzura, 38 miles southwest from Warsaw. The French were defeated here, in 1809, by the Russians.

=Skinners.= A name assumed by a predatory band in the Revolutionary war, who, professing allegiance to the American cause, but influenced by a desire to plunder, roamed over the “neutral ground” lying between the hostile armies, robbing those who refused to take the oath of fidelity.

=Skipton.= A town of England in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 38 miles west of York. The old castle of Skipton was founded in the time of William the Conqueror; it was a place of great strength in the 17th century, and held out for three years against the Parliamentary forces. In 1649 it was dismantled, but subsequently rebuilt by the Countess of Pembroke.

=Skirmish.= A slight fight in war; a light combat between detachments from armies which are yet at a considerable distance from each other, or between detached and small parties.

=Skirmish.= To fight slightly or in small parties; to engage in a skirmish; to act as skirmishers.

=Skirmisher.= One who skirmishes; one of such troops as are sent forward in advance, or move deployed in loose order on the flanks of a marching column, to discover and intercept hostile forces.

=Skiver.= A dirk to stab with.

=Skottefer.= Formerly a name applied to an archer.

=Sky-rocket.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Slash.= A cut; a wound; also, a cut in cloth. It was formerly used to express the pieces of tape or worsted lace which were placed upon the arms of non-commissioned officers, in order to distinguish them from privates.

=Slash.= To strike violently and at random with an edged instrument; to lay about one indiscriminately with blows.

=Slashed.= Cut in stripes or lines. Hence, slashed sleeves and pockets, which are peculiar to the British cavalry, when the officers or men wear long coats.

=Slaughter.= The extensive and unnecessary destruction of human life; carnage. Also, to visit with great destruction of life; to kill; to slay in battle.

=Slavonia=, or =Sclavonia= (called by the native _Slavonska_). A territory or province of the Austrian empire, formerly incorporated with Hungary, but now forming part of the kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia. The country anciently formed part of the province of Pannonia. During the barbarian migrations, the land was overrun, now by one and now by another tribe, and at length remained in the possession of the Avars. These, however, were conquered about the end of the 8th century by Charlemagne, who settled in their place a tribe of Slavonians from Dalmatia. When, in the 10th century, the Hungarians conquered Pannonia, they also made themselves masters of the whole of Slavonia, except Syrmia, which still remained subject to the Eastern emperors. It was, however, the object of contention, and the scene of bloody conflicts between the Greeks and the Hungarians, until, after various vicissitudes, it was finally ceded to the latter in 1165. From 1526, when it was conquered by the Turks, Slavonia remained in their possession till it was restored to Hungary by the peace of Carlowitz in 1699. In 1734 its size was diminished by the formation of the Military Frontier, and in 1848 it was separated from Hungary.

=Slavonians=, or =Slaves= (native name _Slowene_, or _Slowane_). The general name of a group of nations belonging to the Aryan family, whose settlements extend from the Elbe to Kamtschatka, and from the Frozen Sea to Ragusa on the Adriatic, the whole of Eastern Europe being almost exclusively occupied by them. The original names of the Slavic tribes seem to have been Winds, or Wends (_Venedi_), and Serbs. The latter of these names is spoken of by Procopius as the ancient name common to the whole Slavic stock. The Slavonians proper are a handsome, tall, and slender race.

=Sleepers.= Small joists of timber, which form the foundation for the platform of a battery, and upon which the boards for the flooring are laid. Also, the undermost timbers of a gun or mortar.

=Sleets.= The parts of a mortar extending from the chamber to the trunnions, to strengthen that part.

=Sleeves, Gunner’s.= See IMPLEMENTS.

=Sliding-rings.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Sligo.= A maritime county in the northwest of Ireland, and the province of Connaught. It formed part of the kingdom of Connaught previously to the arrival of the English, in the reign of Henry II. Subsequently it came into the possession of one of the family of the O’Connors, kings of Connaught, who was called O’Connor Sligo. After a protracted struggle between the natives and the English, it fell into the hands of the De Burgos, who either by force or treaties had made themselves masters of the greater part of the ancient kingdom of Connaught. It became the theatre of several conflicts in the war against O’Neil, chieftain of Tyrone, in the latter part of Elizabeth’s reign. The most remarkable of these was that with Sir Conyers Clifford, who in attempting to pass into the country from Roscommon with a body of from 1500 to 2000 men, in order to relieve Belleek, was attacked in a defile of the Curlew Mountains by O’Roark, chieftain of Breffney, was himself killed and his troops were driven back with considerable loss. During the civil wars of 1641, the Irish kept possession of the open country until nearly its close, when they were reduced to submission by the Parliamentary forces under Ireton. In the subsequent war of 1688 this country was held by the forces of King James for some time, but ultimately yielded to the victorious arms of William III. The French force which landed at Killalla under Gen. Humbert in 1798, had a severe skirmish at Coloony with the Limerick militia, commanded by Col. Vereker, afterwards Viscount Gort, which ended in the retreat of the latter.

=Sligo.= The chief town of the above county, and a seaport, situated on the mouth of the river Garrogue. In 1641, it was taken without opposition, by the Parliamentarians, under Sir Charles Coote, who was afterwards attacked by a force collected by the Roman Catholic archbishop of Tuam, which retreated in consequence of an alarm being spread that a large force was approaching to relieve the town. When retiring they were attacked by the Parliamentarian forces, the archbishop killed, and on his person was found the important document exposing the secret communications which took place between Charles I. and the Irish Catholics. Coote subsequently evacuated the town, which thence continued in possession of the royalists till the termination of the war. In 1688 it was taken for King William by the Enniskilleners, who, in turn, were driven out by Gen. Sarsfield; but the place ultimately surrendered to the Earl of Granard.

=Sling.= A weapon much in use before the introduction of fire-arms, consisted of a piece of leather, with a round hole in the middle, and two cords of about a yard in length. A round pebble being hung in the leather by cords, the latter were held firmly in the right hand, and swung rapidly round. When the stone had attained great speed, one string was disengaged, on which the stone flew off at a tangent, its initial velocity being the same as it had at the last moment of revolution. This velocity gives far greater range and force than could be imparted in mere throwing. The men who used this weapon were called _slingers_.

=Sling.= A leather strap attached to a musket, serving to support it across the soldier’s back, as occasion may require.

=Sling-cart.= See HAND SLING-CART.

=Slingers.= See SLING.

=Slope Arms.= A word of command in the British service, for placing the musket upon the shoulder with the butt advanced. In marches, soldiers are almost invariably permitted to slope arms.

=Slope, Interior.= See INTERIOR SLOPE.

=Slopes.= The approaches to the crest of heights are by slopes, which may be either gentle or steep. When these slopes are gentle, the fire from the crest can be made an effective one by reason of its “grazing action.” Especially will it be so with artillery fire when properly directed. When slopes are quite steep, the fire will be a plunging one, and will be apt to pass over the heads of the attacking troops. Especially will this be the case with the fire of artillery.

=Sloping Swords.= In the British service, is a position of the sword among cavalry, when the back of the blade rests on the hollow of the right shoulder, the hilt advanced.

=Slow Time.= The same as common time, by which troops on foot march at the rate of ninety steps per minute.

=Slow-match.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Slugs.= Cylindrical or cubical pieces of metal, discharged from a gun.

=Slur-bow.= A species of cross-bow formerly used for discharging fire and arrows.

=Smalcald.= See SCHMALKALD, LEAGUE OF.

=Small-arms.= Are portable fire-arms known as muskets, rifles, carbines, pistols, etc., and were first invented about the middle of the 14th century. At first they consisted simply of a tube of iron or copper, fired from a stand or support. They were loaded with leaden balls, and were touched off by a lighted match held in the hand. They weighed from 25 to 75 pounds, and consequently two men were required to serve them. The difficulty of loading these weapons, and the uncertainty of their effects, as regards range and accuracy, prevented them from coming rapidly into use, and the cross-bow was for a long time retained as the principal projectile weapon for infantry. The difficulty of aiming hand-cannon, arising from their great weight, was in a measure overcome by making them shorter, and supporting them on a tripod, by means of trunnions which rested on forks. This arm was called an _arquebuse_ (which see). The next improvement in the arquebuse was to make it lighter, and inclose it in a piece of wood called the _stock_, the butt of which was pressed against the left shoulder, while the right hand applied the match to the vent. It was still very heavy, and in aiming, the muzzle rested in the crotch of a fork placed in the ground. To give steadiness to the aim while applying the match to the priming, a species of lock was next devised, which consisted of a lever holding at its extremity a lighted match. In firing, the lever was pressed down with the finger until the lighted end of the match touched the priming. This apparatus, known as the _serpentine_, continued in use until it was replaced by the _wheel-lock_, which was invented in Nuremburg, in 1517. (See WHEEL-LOCK.) The _petronel_ was a wheel-lock arquebuse of larger caliber and lighter weight than its predecessors. See PETRONEL.

_Musket._--The musket was first introduced by the Spaniards, under Charles V. The original caliber of the musket was such that 8 round bullets weighed a pound; the piece was, consequently, so heavy that it was necessary to fire it from a forked rest inserted in the ground. The size of the bore was finally reduced to 18 bullets to the pound; and from this arm was derived the late smooth-bored rifle.

_Rifle._--It is generally stated that the rifle was invented by Gaspard Zoller, of Vienna, and that it first made its appearance at a target-practice at Leipsic, in 1498. The first rifle-grooves were made parallel to the axis of the bore, for the purpose of diminishing the friction of loading forced or tightly-fitting bullets. It was accidentally discovered, however, that spiral grooves gave greater accuracy to the flight of the projectile, but the science of the day was unable to assign a reason for this superiority, and the form, number, and twist of the grooves depended on the caprice of individual gunmakers. About 1600, the rifle began to be used as a military weapon for firing spherical bullets. In 1729, it was found that good results could be attained by using oblong projectiles of elliptical form. The great difficulty, however, of loading the rifle, which was ordinarily accomplished by the blows of a mallet on a stout iron ramrod, prevented it from being generally used in regular warfare. The improvements which have been made of late years have entirely overcome this difficulty, and rifles have now superseded the smooth-bored arms.