Chapter XXI: Part 21

=Guidon.= A small flag or streamer, as that carried by cavalry, which is broad at one end, nearly pointed at the other, and usually of silk; or that used to direct the movements of infantry, or to make signals at sea. In the U. S. service, each company of cavalry has a guidon.

=Guidon.= One who carries a flag. Also, one of a community of guides established at Rome by Charlemagne to accompany pilgrims to the Holy Land.

=Guienne=, or =Guyenne=. An old province in the southwest of France, lying to the north of Gascony. It was part of the dominions of Henry II. Philip of France seized it in 1293, which led to war. It was alternately held by England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to take it from the latter.

=Guilford Court-house= was situated about 5 miles northwest of Greensboro’, N. C. Here an engagement took place between the British troops under Cornwallis, and the American forces, chiefly composed of inexperienced militia, under Gen. Greene, on March 15, 1781. The fight resulted in a partial victory for the royal troops, owing principally to the disorganization and flight of the North Carolina militia. Gen. Greene, not wishing to risk the annihilation of his army, retreated to Speedwell’s iron-works, 10 miles distant. Cornwallis, however, did not attempt to pursue him, but fell back himself to Cross Creek (Fayetteville).

=Guillotine.= The instrument of decapitation introduced during the French revolution by the Convention, and named after its supposed inventor, J. I. Guillotin. It is composed of two upright posts, grooved on the inside, and connected on the top by a cross-beam. In these grooves a sharp iron blade, placed obliquely, descends by its own weight on the neck of the victim, who is bound to a board laid below. The invention of machines of this kind is ascribed to the Persians. In Italy, from the 13th century, it was the privilege of the nobles to be put to death by a machine of this kind, which was called _mannaia_. Machines of similar kind were used in Scotland and Holland for the purpose of decapitation.

=Guinegate, Battle of.= Or more familiarly, the “Battle of the Spurs,” was fought at Guinegate, not far from Tournai, in the province of Hainault, August 16, 1513, between the English under Henry VIII., assisted by a considerable body of troops headed by the emperor Maximilian, and the French under the Duc de Longueville. The latter were defeated. The battle received its familiar designation from the circumstance of the French knights having made better use of their _spurs_ than of their _swords_.

=Guisarme=, or =Gisarme= (_Fr._). An offensive weapon formerly used in France; it was a two-edged axe mounted upon a long handle, and sometimes called _voulque_. There were three kinds; the _glaive gisarme_ had a sabre-blade with a spike, the _bill gisarme_ a blade like a hedging-bill, and the _hand gisarme_ was a kind of bill with a serrated back.

=Guisarmiers= (_Fr._). Were French foot-soldiers (_piétons_) of the free archers, armed with the guisarme.

=Gujerat=, or =Guzerat=. A walled town of the Punjab, on the right side of the Chenab, about 8 miles from the stream. It is a place of some military importance, being on the great route between Attock and Lahore. Here on February 21, 1849, a Sikh army of 60,000 men was utterly defeated by a British force decidedly inferior in point of numbers.

=Gules.= The term by which the color red is known in heraldry. In engraving it is marked by perpendicular lines traced from the top of the shield to the bottom. It is supposed to indicate valor, magnanimity, and the like, and is regarded as the most honorable heraldic color.

=Gun.= In its most general sense, a gun is a machine, having the general shape of a hollow cylinder closed at one end, and used for the purpose of projecting heavy bodies to great distances by means of gunpowder. Technically, it is a heavy cannon, distinguished by its great weight, length, and absence of a chamber. It is used for throwing projectiles with large charges of powder to long distances, with great accuracy and penetration. Guns came into use in the 14th century, and were first fired from supports, and in reality were artillery. Shortly after, they took the form of a clumsy hand-gun, called an arquebuse, which was portable, but discharged from a forked rest. The next modification, which came into use about the end of the 14th century, was called the matchlock. The piece was discharged by a lighted match brought down on the powder-pan by the action of a trigger. This was superseded in 1517 by the wheel-lock, the fire being produced by the action of a toothed wheel upon flint or iron pyrites. Almost contemporary with this was the snaphance gun, in which sparks were generated by the concussion of flint on the ribbed top of the powder-pan. About the middle of the 17th century the flint-lock began to be employed. This was a combination of the two latter weapons, but much superior to either. It continued universally in use until the early part of the present century, when the percussion-lock was invented, which by 1840 (the time of its adoption by the British government), had completely superseded it. As the lock improved, and the rapidity of firing increased, the weight of the piece diminished; the old tripod first used as a rest gave way to one stake, and finally, in the 18th century, was abandoned altogether. The weapon was then the smooth-bore musket, which continued in use with various modifications until the middle of the 19th century, when it was partially superseded by the rifle. (See SMALL-ARMS.) In their earlier stages cannon went by various names, as bombards, culverins, petronels, and later on were reduced to the three denominations, technically, of guns, howitzers, and mortars. For the two latter, see HOWITZER and MORTAR. Guns are subdivided in the U. S. service according to their use, into field, siege, and sea-coast guns. The field-guns consist of two rifle pieces; the 3-inch rifle, adopted in 1861, and the 3¹⁄₂-inch rifle, adopted in 1870 (see ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF), and the Napoleon gun, a 12-pounder smooth-bore, adopted in 1857. (See NAPOLEON GUN.) The only siege gun adopted by the United States is a 4¹⁄₂-inch rifle. The 30-pounder Parrott, so extensively employed in our service for siege purposes, is not a regulation gun. The sea-coast guns consist of 13-, 15-, and 20-inch smooth-bores, and 10- and 12-inch rifles. An 8-inch rifle has been constructed by converting the 10-inch smooth-bore according to the Palliser or Parsons method. The 13-inch smooth-bore and the 10- and 12-inch rifles are regarded as experimental guns. The guns principally in use for the land and sea forces of the United States are those known as the Columbiad, or Rodman, Dahlgren, Gatling, Hotchkiss, Napoleon, Parrott. (For particular descriptions, see appropriate headings.) In the British service they are the Armstrong, Palliser, Woolwich, or Fraser, and the Lancaster, Mackay, and Whitworth; the three latter being now very little used. (See appropriate headings.) The only breech-loader in general use in Europe is the Krupp, which is largely employed for all purposes by Germany and Russia. See KRUPP GUN.

=Gun, Curricle.= Is a small piece of ordnance, mounted upon a carriage of two wheels, and drawn by two horses. The artilleryman is seated on a box, and the whole can be moved forward into action with astonishing rapidity. The tumbrils belonging to curricle guns carry 60 rounds of ball cartridges. This gun is no longer in general use.

=Gun Factories, Royal.= Are government establishments in England, at Woolwich, and Elswick, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, for the construction of great guns for the use of the British army and navy.

=Gun-barrel.= The barrel or tube of a gun. Gun-barrels were formerly made on the coiled principle, and this method is still largely followed in thin barrels like those of shot-guns. The superior kinds of shot-gun barrels are known as _stub_, _stub-twist_, _wire-twist_, _laminated_, etc.

_Stub-iron_ is made from horseshoe nails cleaned by tumbling and mixed with a small proportion of steel scrap. It is then puddled and put through various processes, which end in the production of a flat bar called a _skelp_.

_Twist_ is the term applied to _coiled barrels_. The iron or steel is made into a ribbon, which is wound spirally around a mandrel and welded.

_Stub-twist_ is stub-iron coiled.

_Wire-twist_ is made by welding iron and steel bars together, or two qualities of iron, and drawing the compound bar into a ribbon, which is coiled as before described. The term is specially applied to coiled barrels made from small ribbons.

_Damascus iron_ is made by twisting compound bars of steel and iron, welding several of the twisted bars together and forming a ribbon from the mass.

_Laminated_ is the term applied to barrels made from compound bars.

In twist-barrels, the ribbon is several yards long, about half an inch wide, and thicker at the breech than at the muzzle end. It is heated to redness, wound on the mandrel, then removed and heated to the welding-point slipped over a rod with a shoulder at the lower end. The rod is then dropped vertically several times on a block of metal, which welds the spiral edges together. This is called _jumping_. The welding is completed by hammering.

Rifle-barrels and the cheaper kinds of shot-gun barrels are made directly from the _skelp_, which is passed between rollers, which first bend the plate longitudinally and afterwards convert it into a tube. The tube is then heated to a welding heat, a mandrel is pushed into it, and it is passed through the welding rolls, which weld the edges and at the same time taper and lengthen the tube. The boring and turning are done in lathes.

=Gun-carriage.= See CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Barbette.= See BARBETTE CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Field.= See FIELD-CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Flank Casemate.= See FLANK CASEMATE CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Mountain.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-carriage, Prairie.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-carriage, Sea-coast.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-carriage, Siege.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-cotton=, or =Pyroxyle=. Gun-cotton was discovered by Schönbein in 1846, and was first made by treating ordinary cotton with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. The product resembles ordinary cotton in appearance, but in color is slightly tinged with yellow, and is very much heavier. It explodes with great violence, but is unfit for most military purposes on account of its liability to spontaneous explosion, its corroding residue, and the irregular character of its explosion. Baron von Lenk, of the Austrian service, however, succeeded to some extent in regulating the suddenness of the explosion by twisting it into ropes, and weaving it into cloth, but it never came much into favor for military purposes. As first made, the length of time necessary for its manufacture was about two or three months, but Mr. Abel, of the British war office, has by a series of experiments materially decreased the time necessary for its manufacture, and greatly increased the safety and certainty of the product. At Favesham the manufacture of a peculiar kind of gun-cotton, known as _tonite_, is conducted on a large scale. The process consists in intimately mixing the ordinary gun-cotton with about an equal weight of nitrate of baryta. This compound is then compressed into candle-shaped cartridges, formed with a recess at one end for the reception of a fulminate of mercury detonator. It contrasts favorably with soft, plastic dynamite from the fact of its being easily fastened to the safety-fuze. Among its advantages, said to be due to the use of the nitrate, are that it contains a great amount of oxygen in a very small volume, and that it is very ready under the detonator, while its great density makes it slow to the influence of ordinary combustion. It is 30 per cent. stronger than ordinary gun-cotton, and takes up but two-thirds of its space, or the same space as dynamite. The cartridges are generally made water-proof. The projectile force of gun-cotton, when used with moderate charges, is equal to about twice its weight of the best gunpowder. Its explosive force is in a high degree greater than that of gunpowder, and in this respect its nature assimilates much more to the fulminates than to gunpowder. It evolves little or no smoke, as the principal residue of its combustion is water and nitrous acid. Recently, by the mixture of nitre and cane-sugar its quickness in action has been reduced so as to make it available for use in small-arms. The nitrous acid, however, will soon corrode the barrel if the piece is not carefully wiped after firing. Other explosive substances analogous to gun-cotton may be prepared from many organic bodies of the cellulose kind, by immersing them in the same bath as for gun-cotton; among these may be mentioned paper, tow, sawdust, calico, and wood fibre.

=Gundermuk.= A village of Afghanistan, 28 miles west from Jellalabad. Here the remnant of the British force, consisting of 100 soldiers and 300 camp-followers, were massacred in 1842, while retreating from Cabul (Cabool), only one man escaping.

=Gun-fire.= The hour at which the morning or evening gun is fired.

=Gun-lift.= The gun-lift recently devised by Col. Laidley, of the U. S. Ordnance Corps, is a most complete and rapid means for moving and dismounting heavy guns. In it the hydraulic jack is placed upon a stand over the gun, whereby the building-up of the crib-work of blocks, which serves as a base for the jack to stand on, is dispensed with, and the position of the jack has not to be changed during the operation of raising or lowering a gun. The ordinary carpenter’s horse or trestle is taken as the basis of the _hoisting_ apparatus. The cap of the trestle, having to sustain the weight of the gun suspended at a distance of more than 2 feet from the points of support, is a large, strong, and heavy piece of timber, and the legs of the trestle have to be strongly braced. The bolster, a strong piece of oak on top of the cap of the trestle, has two mortices cut in it, one for a hoisting-bar _to pass through_, and the other for the fulcrum-post to _rest in_. The fulcrum-post has a recess cut on the top to receive the end of a lever and keep it in place. The lever has a mortice through which the hoisting-bar, already mentioned, passes; the latter is perforated with a series of holes through which a pin passes, by which the end of the lever, under which the hydraulic jack works, can be fastened to the hoisting-bar. The hoisting-bar has a hook on its lower end to which the weight to be raised is fastened by means of a sling.

=Gun-metal.= An alloy of nine parts of copper and one part of tin, used for brass cannon, etc. (See BRONZE). The name is also given to certain strong mixtures of cast iron.

=Gunner.= A soldier employed to manage and discharge great guns; an artilleryman. In the U. S. service there is with each piece a gunner, who gives all the executive commands in action. He is answerable that the men at the piece perform their duties correctly.

=Gunner’s Calipers.= Are made of sheet-brass, with steel points. The graduations show diameters of guns, shot, etc.

=Gunner’s Elevating Arc.= See ELEVATING ARC.

=Gunner’s Level=, or =Gunner’s Perpendicular=. Is an instrument made of sheet-brass; the lower part is cut in the form of a crescent, the points of which are made of steel; a small spirit-level is fastened to one side of the plate, parallel to the line joining the points of the crescent, and a slider is fastened to the same side of the plate, perpendicular to the axis of the piece. This instrument is used to mark the points of sight on pieces. By means of the bubble the feet or points of the crescent are placed on a horizontal line on the base-ring or base-line, the slider pushed down until the point rests on the base-ring or line, and its position marked with chalk.

=Gunner’s Pincers.= Are made of iron with steel jaws, which have on the end of one a claw for drawing nails, etc.

=Gunner’s Plummet.= A simple line and bob for pointing mortars.

=Gunner’s Quadrant.= Is a graduated quarter of a circle of sheet-brass of 6 inches radius, attached to a brass rule 22 inches long. It has an arm carrying a spirit-level at its middle and a vernier at its movable end. To get a required elevation, the vernier is fixed at the indicated degree, the brass rule is then inserted in the bore parallel to the axis of the piece; the gun is then elevated or depressed until the level is horizontal. There is also a graduated quadrant of wood, of 6 inches radius, attached to a rule 23.5 inches long. It has a plumb-line and bob, which are carried, when not in use, in a hole in the end of the rule, covered by a brass plate.

=Gunnery.= The art of using fire-arms; but the term is commonly understood as being restricted to the use or application to the purposes of war of the larger pieces of ordnance, as cannon, mortars, and howitzers. In its practical branch gunnery includes a just knowledge of the construction of the several pieces of artillery, and of the strength, tenacity, and resisting power of the materials of which they are formed; of the method of mounting them upon strong, efficient, well-proportioned, and conveniently constructed carriages; of the proportions due to the strength of the powder and projectiles they should carry; of the force and effect, and also of the manufacture of gunpowder; and, generally, of all such mechanical arrangements and appliances as may facilitate the movements and working of the guns, etc., when prepared for action. But gunnery takes a yet far more extensive range; for it may be said to be based upon nearly every branch of the mathematical and physical sciences, and may be itself considered as a science requiring the most intricate combinations of human knowledge and mechanical ingenuity fully to comprehend and perfect. It particularly requires an acquaintance with all experiments which may have been made to ascertain the impetus of projection, the momentum of bodies in motion, and the range and time of flight of projectiles with given charges of gunpowder,--with the effect of the resistance of the atmosphere upon projectiles propelled with different velocities, and the laws of gravitation as affecting falling bodies; and with the various causes, mechanical and otherwise, of the usual deflection of projectiles in their course, when fired from a gun. See PROJECTILES and VELOCITY.

=Gunning.= The act of hunting or shooting game with a gun.

=Gun-pendulum.= A contrivance for obtaining initial velocities of projectiles. The gun is suspended from a frame-work with its axis horizontal. The velocity of the shot is deduced from the arc described in the recoil. The apparatus is now nearly obsolete.

=Gun-platform.= See PLATFORM.

=Gunpowder.= A well-known explosive mixture, whose principal employment is in the discharge, for war or sport, of projectiles from fire-arms, and for mining purposes. The ingredients in gunpowder are saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur. Slightly different proportions are employed in different countries. In the United States the proportions are 75 to 76 saltpetre, 14 to 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur. Charcoal is the combustible ingredient; saltpetre furnishes the oxygen necessary to support a rapid combustion and to change the whole mass into gas, and sulphur adds consistency to the mixture and intensity to the flame, besides rendering the powder less liable to absorb moisture; increases the volume of gas by preventing the formation of a solid potassium carbonate, and by increasing the temperature.

In the _manufacture_ of ordinary powder, the operations usually employed are _pulverizing_ the ingredients, _incorporation_, _compression_, _granulation_, _glazing_, _drying_, and _dusting_.

The ingredients are _pulverized_ by placing each separately in barrels which contain bronze or zinc balls, and which are revolved rapidly for several hours.

_Incorporation_ or thorough mixing is effected partially by the use of a rolling barrel, and completed in the _rolling-mill_. This consists of two cast-iron cylinders rolling round a horizontal axis in a circular trough with a cast-iron bottom. The cylinders are very heavy, and give a grinding motion, which is very effective in bringing about a thorough mixture of the three ingredients. A wooden scraper follows the rollers and keeps the composition in the middle of the trough. The charge in the trough is moistened with 2 or 3 per cent. of water before the rollers are started. A little water is added from time to time as required. This is the most important operation in the manufacture of powder. The time required is about one hour for each 50 pounds of composition. When finished the composition is called _mill-cake_.

_Compressing._--This is next taken to the press-house, slightly moistened and arranged between brass plates, and then subjected to hydraulic pressure of about 70 tons (English tons) per square foot. Each layer is thus reduced to a hard cake.

_Granulation._--The cake is broken up into grains by means of toothed rollers revolving in opposite directions, the cake being passed between them. The different-sized grains are separated by sieves between the different sets of rollers.

_Glazing_ is effected by moistening the grains and revolving them in a rolling barrel.

_Drying_ is done on sheets in a room heated to 140°-160°.

_Dusting._--The dust is removed by revolving the powder in rolling barrels covered with coarse canvas. The dust is caught by an outside case.

There are five kinds of grain powder used in the U. S. service, distinguished as _mammoth_, _cannon_, _mortar_, _musket_, and _rifle_ powder, all made in the same manner, of the same proportion of materials, and differing only in the size of the grain. Mammoth is employed for the heaviest sea-coast guns; cannon for smaller sea-coast guns; mortar for mortars and field- and siege-pieces; musket for rifle-muskets; and rifle for pistols. In addition to the above we have the following:

_Meal powder_, a fine dust containing the ingredients of ordinary gunpowder, but in which the relative proportions of these ingredients vary, according to the rate of burning desired, and the object for which the powder is to be used. Used principally in pyrotechny, and in mortar fire to communicate the flame from the charge to the shell. Also “_German_” or “_American_” “_White Gunpowder_,” more powerful than ordinary gunpowder, but more expensive; acts upon iron, and is very little used in gunnery.

_Pebble powder_, an irregular large-grain powder, very similar to American “Mammoth,” which preceded it, was made in England, 1865, by breaking ordinary _press-cake_ with copper hammers.

_Fossano powder_, made in Italy, 1871, granulated by hand, is a slow-burning powder, used in large guns, notably in the 100-ton guns, one of which was recently burst, 1880, by a charge of 552 pounds of this powder. Lately the grains of this powder have been given a regular form.

Among _regular grain_ powders made _without molding_ are _cubical_, an English powder, extensively used in all their large guns, the largest being 2 inches on the edge. This is made by passing the cake between fluted rollers, which cut it into strips, and then these strips endways between a second set of rollers.

_Schaghticoke_, made at Hart’s Falls, N. Y., is a _cubical_ powder made very much like the English,--the lines of fracture are, however, simply scratched on the cake (both sides), which is afterwards broken in the ordinary way.

_Molded Powder._--The ingredients are the same as those of ordinary gunpowder, but each grain is separately molded.

Gen. Rodman was the first to propose the manufacture of these powders in his _perforated cake_, 1860; the object being to cause the powder to burn on an increasing surface, thus lessening the strain on the gun in the first moments of combustion. His powder after a few experiments was allowed to fall into disuse in the United States, but the invention was carried to Europe and developed with a smaller grain into _prismatic powder_, used in Europe, and especially in Germany and Russia, and particularly adapted to breech-loading cannon; the grain is a hexagonal prism in form and contains six cylindrical orifices passing entirely through it parallel to the axis, and symmetrically arranged with respect to it. The cartridge is so made that the cylindrical orifices pass through the entire length.

_Hexagonal Powder._--This is the powder principally used in the United States; the grains have the shape which would be given by joining the larger bases of two frustrums of equal six-sided pyramids, and vary in size according to the piece in which the powder is to be used. This powder is believed in the United States to give the best results, and can be adapted to cannon of any caliber.

_History of Gunpowder._--The origin of gunpowder as an explosive, and its application to the projection of missiles of war, are lost in the mists of obscurity. Its use in Europe can be traced only to the middle or early part of the 14th century. It is believed by many that certain experiments by Schwartz, a German monk, led to its introduction in war, but the better theory seems to be that the knowledge was obtained from the Saracens. It is probable that the invention arose in Central Asia in the regions where saltpetre occurs as an effervescence of the soil. The Chinese appropriated the discovery at a very early period, and fireworks were common in that country when Europe was roamed by the primitive savage. When Ghengis Khan invaded China, B.C. 1219, fire-arms of a primitive form appear to have been used. Passages in old writers seem also to show that when Alexander invaded India, 327 B.C., he encountered tribes that used similar weapons. The people of India doubtless obtained their knowledge from China. Wars and migrations of tribes gradually disseminated a knowledge of gunpowder over Asia and Northern Africa. The use of gunpowder is mentioned in Arabic writings in the 13th century. The Moors used it in Spain in 1312. In 1331 the king of Granada employed it in sieges. It is said to have been used by the English in the battles of Crécy, 1316. The Venetians employed it in 1380 against the Genoese. From that time to the present fire-arms have gradually supplanted other weapons.

For a long time after its introduction gunpowder was used in the form of dust or “meal powder.” Granulation was attempted to get rid of the difficulties in handling the dust, but the grained form proved too strong for the arms used, and “meal powder” continued in general use till improvements in the weapons about the close of the 16th century admitted of the other form. The granulation was at first very crude. This was remedied in time by the introduction of machinery or _corning-mills_ in the manufacture. Though different-sized grains were at first used in large and small guns the principles involved were not studied, and afterwards one uniform size--large musket powder--was employed in all fire-arms. This step backwards may have been caused by the impurity of the ingredients and bad manufacture, which made the large grains too weak. In the early part of the present century a classification of grains was revived under the two general names of _musket_ and _cannon powder_. The invention of the _mercury densimeter_ rendered practicable an accurate determination of the specific gravity of powder and its relation to quickness of burning, but the importance of size and form of grain was first appreciated by Gen. Rodman, who, in 1859, began experiments which led at once to the introduction of _mammoth powder_ for large guns, and later to the invention of _perforated cake_. The introduction of the powerful ordnance now existing in Europe has been rendered possible by improvements in this direction based upon the principles first formulated by Rodman. The latest idea on the subject is “compensating powder” (proposed by Lieut. C. A. L. Totten, of the 4th U. S. Artillery), a spherical grain of gunpowder inclosing a smaller sphere of gun-cotton. This powder remains to be made and experimented with, but it opens a field of research which must lead to valuable results.

=Gunpowder, Absolute Force of.= See ABSOLUTE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER.

=Gunpowder Pile-driver.= A pile-driver operated by the explosive force of gunpowder. The hammer is arranged as usual to slide in vertical guides. It has a piston on its lower end, which enters a cylindrical hole in the pile-cap. In this hole the cartridge is placed, and is exploded through the compression of the air by the piston of the hammer, when the latter falls. The explosion drives down the pile and raises the hammer at the same blow. The powder ordinarily used is a mixture of chlorate of potash and bituminous coal.

=Gunpowder Plot.= A conspiracy entered into by a few Roman Catholics to destroy the king, lords, and commons on the meeting of Parliament on November 5, 1605. On the evening of the 4th, the famous Guy Fawkes, who was to be the leader and agent of the conspirators, was detected under the vaults of the House of Lords preparing the train for being fired the next day; and on the morning of the 5th, a little after midnight, he was arrested, examined, and tortured. He confessed his own guilt, but would not discover his associates. However, all of them were either killed on being captured, or died on the scaffold, except one. The memory of this plot has survived in England, and the name of Guy Fawkes is detested.

=Gunpowder-mill.= See MILL, GUNPOWDER-.

=Gunreach.= The reach or distance to which a gun will shoot; gunshot.

=Güns.= A town of Hungary, situated on the river of the same name, about 57 miles south-southeast of Vienna. It is famous for its noble defense of its fortifications for twenty-eight days against the Turks under Solyman in 1532, thus enabling the emperor Charles V. time to assemble a force strong enough to oppose them.

=Gunshot.= The distance of the point-blank range of a cannon-shot. The distance to which shot can be thrown from a gun so as to be effective; the reach or range of a gun.

=Gunshot.= Made by the shot of a gun; as, a gunshot wound.

=Gun-sling.= See SLING.

=Gunsmith.= A maker of small-arms; one whose occupation is to make or repair small fire-arms; an armorer.

=Gunsmithery.= The business of a gunsmith; the art of making small fire-arms.

=Gunster.= A gunner. This term is now rare.

=Gunstick.= A stick to ram down the charge of a musket, etc.; a rammer or ramrod. This term is now rare.

=Gunstock.= The stock or wood in which the barrel of a gun is fixed.

=Gunstone.= A stone used for the shot of cannon. Before the invention of iron balls, stones were used for shot, but are now altogether superseded.

=Gunter’s Chain= (from Edmund Gunter, the inventor). The chain commonly used by military engineers for measuring land. It is 4 rods, or 66 feet long, and is divided into 100 links.

=Gunter’s Line.= A logarithmic line on Gunter’s scale, used for performing the multiplication and division of numbers mechanically by the dividers;--called also line of lines, and line of numbers; also a sliding scale corresponding to logarithms, for performing these operations by inspection, without dividers;--called also Gunter’s sliding rule. This is used by military engineers.

=Gunter’s Scales.= A wooden rule 2 feet long, on one side of which are marked scales of equal parts, of chords, sines, tangents, rhombs, etc., and on the other side, of logarithms of these various parts, by means of which many problems in surveying and navigation may be solved mechanically, by the aid of the dividers alone. This instrument is used by military engineers.

=Gurges=, or =Gorges=. A charge in heraldry meant to represent a whirlpool. It takes up the whole field, and when borne proper is azure and argent.

=Gurries.= Mud forts made in India are so called. These forts are sometimes surrounded with ditches.

=Gurwal.= A state of Northern Hindostan, under the protection of the British government, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. Gurwal was subdued by the Nepaulese about the year 1803, when Purdumin Shah, the rajah, at the head of 12,000 men, was defeated and slain at Gurudwara. The country was conquered by the British in 1814, and partly restored to the rajah’s son.

=Gusset.= Was at first a piece of chain, and afterwards of plate-armor, intended as a protection to the vulnerable point where the defenses of the arm and breast left a gap. In heraldry it is one of the abatements, or marks of disgrace for unknightly conduct. It is represented by a straight line extending diagonally from the dexter or sinister chief point one-third across the shield, and then descending perpendicularly to the base.

=Guy.= A rope used to swing any weight, or to keep steady any heavy body, and prevent it from swinging, while being hoisted or lowered.

=Guzerat.= A state in India, founded by Mahmoud the Gaznevide, about 1020; was conquered by Akbar in 1572; and became subject to the Mahrattas, 1732 or 1752. At the battle of Guzerat, February 21, 1849, Lord Gough totally defeated the Sikhs, and captured the city of Guzerat.

=Gwalior.= Capital of the state of the same name, in Central India. Its nucleus is a completely isolated rock of about 300 feet in height, perpendicular, either naturally or artificially, on all sides; and as it measures 1¹⁄₂ miles by 800 yards, it can accommodate a garrison of 15,000 men. It is thus virtually impregnable against any native force. The spot is understood to have been occupied as a stronghold for more than a thousand years.

=Gyongyos.= A town of Hungary, 43 miles northeast from Pesth. The Austrians were defeated here by the Hungarians in 1849.

=Gytheum=, or =Gythium= (now _Palæopolis_, near _Marathonisi_). An ancient town on the east coast of Laconia, founded by the Achæans, near the head of the Laconian Bay, southwest of the mouth of the river Eurotas. It served as the harbor of Sparta, and was important in a military point of view. In the Persian war, the Lacedæmonian fleet was stationed at Gytheum, and here the Athenians under Tolmides burned the Lacedæmonian arsenal, 455 B.C. After the battle of Leuctra (370) it was taken by Epaminondas. In 195 it was taken by Flamininus, and made independent of Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, whereupon it joined the Achæan league.

=Gyves.= Fetters; old word for handcuffs.

H.

=Haarlem=, or =Haerlem=. A city of the Netherlands, in the province of Northern Holland, on the Spaarne. It is an ancient town, and was once the residence of the counts of Holland; was taken by the Duke of Alva in July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He violated the capitulation by butchering half the inhabitants.

=Habeas Corpus.= A writ of habeas corpus is an order in writing, signed by the judge who grants the same, sealed with the seal of the court of which he is a judge, and issued in the name of a sovereign power where it is granted, by such a court or a judge thereof having lawful authority to issue the same, directed to any one having a person in his custody or under his restraint, commanding him to produce such person at a certain time and place, and to state the reason why he is held in custody or under restraint.

=Habergeon.= A short coat of mail, consisting of a jacket without sleeves. In early times the habergeon was composed of chain-mail; but in the 14th century a habergeon of plate-armor was worn over the hauberk.

=Habiliments of War.= In ancient statutes signify armor, harness, utensils, etc., without which it is supposed there can be no ability to maintain a war.

=Habsburg=, or =Hapsburg, House of=. An ancient sovereign family of Austria, which derives its name from the castle of Habsburg, in Switzerland. The first member of the family who acquired great celebrity was Rudolph of Habsburg, born in 1218, and elected emperor in 1273. He obtained Austria and other provinces by conquest, and founded the dynasty which now reigns over the Austrian empire, and which, since 1736, has been styled the house of Habsburg-Lorraine.

=Hachée= (_Fr._). Ignominious punishment of carrying a saddle or dog, to which soldiers were formerly subject in France.

=Haches d’Armes= (_Fr._). Pole- or battle-axes. A _hache d’arme_ is an axe with a narrow handle armed with a sharp blade in the form of a crescent very much curved, terminating in two points approaching the handle on one side; the other side terminating in a point or hammer; when both sides were armed with a blade it was called _besague_.

=Hack.= To cut irregularly, without skill or definite purpose; to notch; to mangle by repeated strokes of a cutting instrument. “My sword hacked like a handsaw.”

=Hack-bush.= Formerly a heavy hand-gun.

=Hacquet Wagen.= A four-wheeled wagon used in the Prussian service to carry pontons. The under-frame of this carriage is built like that of a chariot, by which means it can turn without difficulty.

=Hacqueton.= A stuffed coat or cloak, generally of leather, mounted with metal, formerly worn in France by certain knights of the king’s guards called “_Gardes de la Manche_.” It came into use during the reign of Charles V., and was discarded during the revolution of 1789.

=Haddington.= A royal burgh of Scotland, and county town of Haddingtonshire, or East Lothian. It was burnt in 1216 by an invading army under John, king of England. Having been rebuilt, it was again burnt to the ground in 1244. In 1355 it was reduced to ashes for the third time by Edward III. of England. The year after the battle of Pinkie, 1548, Haddington was seized and strongly fortified by the English. An allied army of Scotch and French laid siege to it, and, after a memorable defense, it was evacuated by the English in October, 1549.

=Hadrumetum.= See ADRUMETUM.

=Hagbut=, or =Haguebut= (Fr. _haquebute_). An arquebuse, of which the butt was bent or hooked, in order that it might be held more readily.

=Hagbutar.= The bearer of a fire-arm formerly used.

=Hagg.= An arquebuse with a bent butt.

=Hague.= A little hand-gun of former times.

=Haguebut=, or =Hague-but=. The same as hagbut (which see).

=Haguenau.= A town of France, in the department of Bas-Rhin, formerly a free town of Germany and a strong fortress, situated on the Moder, 18 miles north-northeast of Strasburg. It was founded in 1164 by Frederick Barbarossa. It successfully withstood many sieges, especially during the Thirty Years’ War; but on its occupation in 1675 by the Imperialists, its fortifications were destroyed. On October 17 and December 22, 1793, bloody battles took place here between the French and Austrians, in which the former were the victors.

=Haik.= A large piece of woolen or cotton cloth worn by the Arabs over the tunic, being itself covered in foul weather by the burnoose. This word is also written _hyke_.

=Hail.= To accost; to call; to salute. A sentinel hails any one approaching his post with, “Who comes there?”

=Hail-shot.= Grape-shot.

=Hainburg.= A town of Austria, on the Danube, 28 miles southeast from Vienna. The Magyars, or Hungarians, gained a great victory here over the Germans in 907.

=Hair.= A spring or other contrivance in a rifle or pistol lock, which, being unlocked by a slight pressure on the trigger, strikes the tumbler-catch, and unlocks the tumbler.

=Hair-cloth.= A species of cloth made of horse-hair, laid upon the floors of magazines and laboratories to prevent accidents. It is usually made up in pieces 14 feet long and 11 feet wide, each weighing 36 pounds.

=Hair-line.= A line made of hair; a very fine line. This line is used in military engineering.

=Hair-trigger.= A trigger so constructed as to discharge a fire-arm by a very slight pressure, as by the touch of a hair. It is connected with the tumbler-catch by a device called a _hair_.

=Hajduk=, =Haiduk=, or =Hayduk=. The Magyar inhabitants of the district of Hajdu Kerulet, in Eastern Hungary. The Hajduk are direct descendants of those warriors, who, during the long and bloody contest between the house of Hapsburg and the Protestant insurgents of Hungary, formed the nucleus of Prince Stephen Bocskay’s valiant armies. They formerly enjoyed the privileges of the nobility, and were free from taxation.

=Hake.= An old term for a hand-gun.

=Halberd=, or =Halbert=. A weapon borne up to the close of the 18th century by all sergeants of foot, artillery, and marines, and by companies of halberdiers in the various regiments of the English army. It consisted of a strong wooden shaft about 6 feet in length, surmounted by an instrument much resembling a bill-hook, constructed alike for cutting and thrusting, with a cross-piece of steel, less sharp, for the purpose of pushing; one end of this cross-piece was turned down as a hook for use in tearing down works against which an attack was made.

_Old Halberd_ is a familiar term formerly used in the British army, to signify a person who had gone through the different gradations, and risen to the rank of a commissioned officer.

=Halberdier.= One who is armed with a halberd.

=Hale’s Rocket.= See ROCKET.

=Half Bastion.= A demi-bastion. That half of a bastion cut off by the capital, consisting of one base and one front.

=Half Caponniere.= A communication in a dry ditch with one side prepared for defense.

=Half Merlens.= The merlens at the ends of a parapet.

=Half-batta.= An extra allowance which was granted to the whole of the officers belonging to the British East Indian army, except Bengal, when out of the company’s district in the province of Oude. In the upper provinces double batta was allowed. All above full was paid by the native princes, as the troops stationed in that quarter were considered as auxiliaries. Batta is equal to full pay. See BATTA.

=Half-brigade.= A demi-brigade.

=Half-cock.= The position of the cock of a gun when retained by the first notch. Also, to set the cock at the first notch.

=Half-companies.= The same as subdivisions, and equal to a platoon.

=Half-distance.= Is half the regular interval or space between troops drawn up in ranks or standing column.

=Half-face.= Is to take half the usual distance between the right or left face, in order to give an oblique direction to the line, or to fill up a gap at the corner of a square.

=Half-file Leader= (Fr. _chef de demi-file_). The foremost man of a rank entire.

=Half-files.= Is half the given number of any body of men drawn up two deep. They are so called in cavalry when the men rank off singly.

=Half-full Sap.= When the sappers have only a flank fire (coming in a direction nearly perpendicular to that of the sap) to fear, the sap-roller may be dispensed with. The first sapper then covers himself with the last-filled gabion whilst placing and filling the new one. This species of sap is called the half-full sap.

=Half-hitch.= Pass the end of a rope round its standing part, and bring it up through the bight.

=Half-moon= (Fr. _demi-lune_). In fortification, is an outwork that has two faces which form a salient angle, the gorge of which resembles a crescent. It owes its original invention to the Dutch, who used it to cover the points of their bastions. This kind of fortification is, however, defective, because it is weak on its flanks. Half-moons are now called ravelins, which species of work is constructed in front of the curtain.

=Half-pay.= An allowance given in the British army and navy to commissioned officers not actively employed. It was first granted by William III. in 1698. In the U. S. service officers receive half-pay only when on leave of absence for a longer period than that for which full pay on leave is allowed, namely, thirty days in each year. See ABSENCE, LEAVE OF.

=Half-pike.= A short pike, which was formerly carried by officers.

=Half-sunken Battery.= See BATTERY.

=Half-sword.= A fight within half the length of a sword; a close fight.

=Haliartus= (now _Mazi_). An ancient town in Bœtia, on the south of the Lake Copais. It was destroyed by Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, 480 B.C., but was rebuilt, and appears as an important place in the Peloponnesian war. Under its walls Lysander lost his life, 395; it was destroyed by the Romans (171) because it supported Perseus, king of Macedonia, and its territory was given to the Athenians.

=Halicarnassus= (now _Boudroum_). A Greek city of Asia Minor, situated on the Ceramian Gulf. It was founded by a colony from Trœzene, and was one of the cities of the so-called Doric Hexapolis. During the Persian conquests it readily yielded to the dominion of the conquerors, and remained faithful to Persian interests. Alexander the Great, provoked by the obstinacy with which the city held out against him, commanded that it should be destroyed by fire; but the inhabitants took refuge in the citadel, which successfully resisted his arms.

=Halidon Hill.= Is situated about a mile to the northwest of the town of Berwick, England, in the fork formed by the Whitadder and the Tweed. It was the scene of a bloody conflict between the English and Scots, July 19, 1333, when the latter were defeated, and lost upwards of 14,000 slain, among whom were the regent Douglas and a large number of the nobility, while a comparatively small number of the English suffered.

=Hallecret.= See ALLECRETE.

=Halluc.= A small river in Northern France, which empties into the Somme above Amiens. Near here, at Pont à Noyelles, a seven hours’ battle took place December 23, 1870, between the German army under Gen. Manteuffel and the French Army of the North under Gen. Faidherbe. Both parties claimed the victory. Next day the French general retreated.

=Halt= (Fr. _halte_). The discontinuance of the march of any body of men, armed or unarmed, under military direction. Frequent halts are necessary for the purpose of resting troops during their progress through a country, or to render them fresh and active previous to any warlike undertaking. It is likewise a word of command in familiar use. See MARCH.

=Halting Days.= Are the days in the week usually allotted for repose, when troops are upon the march, and there is not any particular necessity for exertion or dispatch.

=Halyard.= The rope for hoisting and lowering a flag. Written also _halliard_.

=Halys.= A river in Asia Minor, near which a battle was fought between the Lydians and Medes. It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the sun, which led to peace May 28, 585 B.C. Others give the date 584, 603, and 610 B.C. This eclipse is said to have been predicted many years before by Thales of Miletus.

=Ham.= A town and fortress of France, in the department of Somme, situated on the river of that name, 36 miles east-southeast from Amiens. It is of ancient origin, and was erected in 1407 into a duchy, which was held by the families of Courcy, Orleans, Luxemburg, and Vendôme. Its old fortress was built by Constable de St. Pol in 1470, and is now used as a state prison. Its walls are 39 feet thick, and its principal tower is 108 feet in height, and the same in diameter. Louis Napoleon, late emperor of the French, was confined here from 1840 till 1846.

=Hamburg.= A famous free city of Germany, and one of the most important commercial ports in Europe, is situated on the right bank of the Elbe, about 70 miles from its mouth. It is said to have been founded in the 8th century by Charlemagne. In the 13th century it joined Lubeck in the formation of the Hanseatic League. It was occupied by the French from 1806 to 1809, and was annexed to France in 1810. The Russians became masters of it in 1813, but the French regained possession of it in the same year, and Marshal Davoust sustained a memorable siege here in 1813-14. In 1871 Hamburg became a member of the German empire.

=Hames.= The wooden or iron curved pieces fitting the collar of draught harness to which the traces are attached.

=Hamlets, Tower.= A district in the county of Middlesex, England, under the command of the constable of the Tower, or lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets, for the service and preservation of the Tower of London.

=Hammer.= An instrument with an iron head, for driving nails, etc. The term is also applicable to that part of a gun-lock which strikes the percussion-cap or firing-pin.

=Hammering.= A heavy cannonade at close quarters.

=Hammer-spring.= The spring on which the hammer of a gun-lock works.

=Hammer-wrench.= A combination hammer and wrench; called also _monkey-wrench_.

=Hampton.= A small village on the Chesapeake Bay, in Virginia, giving its name to Hampton Roads, a southerly branch of Chesapeake Bay, and mouth of James River, defended by Forts Monroe and Calhoun. These roads were the scene of important events in the American Revolution, the war of 1812, and the late civil war, especially the first naval battle between ironclad vessels, the “Merrimac” and the “Monitor.”

=Hanapier=, or =Hanepier= (_Fr._). The front part of a cuirass, or iron breastplate worn by light-armed soldiers.

=Hanau.= A town of Germany, the capital of a province of the same name, in Hesse-Cassel, on the Kinzig, 12 miles from Frankfort-on-the-Main. In 1792, Hanau was attacked by the French, and occupied by them in 1796, 1797, and 1805.

=Hand.= A measure 4 inches in length. The height of a horse is computed by so many hands and inches.

=Hand-barrow.= A frame which is carried around by two men, instead of being rolled forward like a wheel-barrow. Those employed in the ordnance department are very useful in the erection of fortifications, as well as carrying shells and shot along the trenches. They generally weigh about 19 pounds.

=Hand-cart.= It consists of a light body with shafts, mounted on two wheels. The shafts are joined together at the ends, and supported immediately in front of the body by iron legs. It weighs 181 pounds, and is used for the transportation of light stores in siege and garrison service.

=Handcuff.= A fastening consisting of an iron ring around the wrist, usually connected by a chain with one on the other wrist; a manacle. Men who have deserted the service are usually manacled in this manner when removed from place to place.

=Handful.= Used figuratively, in a military sense, to denote a comparatively small number; as, “a handful of men.”

=Hand-gallop.= A slow and easy gallop, in which the hand presses the bridle to hinder increase of speed.

=Hand-grenades.= Are small iron shells, from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, filled with powder, which being lighted by means of a fuze, were formerly thrown by the grenadiers among the enemy, in storming a fortress. See GRENADES.

=Hand-gun.= An old term for a small-arm in the times of Henry VII. and VIII.

=Handle Arms.= Formerly a word of command (when the men were at _ordered arms_), by which the soldier was directed to bring his right hand briskly up to the muzzle of his firelock, with his finger bent upwards.

=Handles.= Bronze guns were formerly furnished with handles placed over the centre of gravity; from their shape they were called _dolphins_.

=Hand-mallet.= A wooden hammer with a handle, to drive fuzes, or pickets, etc., in making fascines or gabion batteries.

=Hand Sling-cart.= Is a two-wheeled carriage made entirely of iron, except the pole, which is of oak. The axle-tree is arched to make it stronger, and connected with the pole by strong wrought-iron straps and braces. In the rear of the axle a projection is welded, to receive the end of a strong hook. The end of the pole terminates in a ferule and an eye. The eye is for the purpose of attaching to the cart, when necessary, a limber or a horse. The diameter of the wheel is 6 feet. The _hand sling-cart_ is used in siege and garrison service for transporting artillery short distances. It should not be used _habitually_ for heavier weights than about 4000 pounds, but in case of necessity, a 24- or 32-pounder gun may be transported on it. For heavier guns or material, the large _sling-cart_ drawn by horses or oxen should be used. _This_ cart is wooden throughout, and the diameter of the wheels 8 feet.

=Hand-spike.= Is a wooden or iron lever, flattened at one end and tapering towards the other, used in raising heavy weights, or in moving guns to their places after being reloaded.

_Manœuvring hand-spike_, for garrison and sea-coast carriages and for gins, is 66 inches; for siege and other heavy work, it is made 84 inches long and 12 pounds weight.

_Roller hand-spike_, for casemate carriages. The latter is made of iron 1 inch round, the point conical; whole length 34 inches.

_Shod hand-spike_ is particularly useful in the service of mortars, and of casemate and barbette carriages.

_Trail hand-spike_, for field-carriages, is 53 inches in length.

_Truck hand-spike_, for casemate carriages (wrought iron).

=Hand-staff.= A javelin.

=Hand-to-hand.= A close fight; the situation of two persons closely opposed to each other.

=Handy-fight.= A fight with the hands; boxing.

=Hang Fire.= Fire-arms and trains are said to hang fire when there is an unwonted pause between the application of fire to the gunpowder and its ignition.