Chapter XIX: Part 19

=Garter, Order of the.= One of the most ancient and illustrious of the military orders of knighthood. It was instituted by Edward III. of England, and dates from about the year 1350, though some writers say 1344. Its origin is variously related. In Rastel’s “Chronicles” it is stated that this order was devised by Richard I. at the siege of Acre, when he is said to have caused 26 knights to wear thongs of blue leather about their legs. But the common account is, that the Countess of Salisbury happened at a ball to drop her garter, and that the king took it up and presented it to her, at the same time exclaiming, _Honi soit qui mal y pense_,--“Evil be to him who evil thinks,” in reference to the smiles which he observed the action had excited among some of the bystanders; adding “that shortly they should see that garter advanced to so high an honor and renown, as to account themselves happy to wear it.” It is founded in honor of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, St. Edward the Confessor, and St. George; but the last, who had become the tutelary saint of England, was considered its special patron; and for this reason it has always borne the title of “The Order of St. George,” as well as of “The Garter,” and those who wore it were called “Knights of St. George.” The number of knights companions was originally 26, including the sovereign, who is chief of the order; but in 1786 a statute was passed to the effect that this number should be irrespective of princes of the royal family, and illustrious foreigners on whom the honor might be conferred. The well-known emblem of the order is a dark-blue ribbon edged with gold, bearing the motto _Honi soit qui mal y pense_ in golden letters, with a buckle and pendant of gold richly chased, and is worn on the left leg below the knee. The mantle is of blue velvet, and on the left breast a star is embroidered. The hood and surcoat are of crimson velvet, and lined with white taffeta. The hat is of black velvet, with a plume of white ostrich feathers, in the centre of which there is a tuft of black herons’ feathers, all fastened to the hat by a band of diamonds. The collar is of gold, and consists of 26 pieces, each in the form of a garter. The “George” is the figure of St. George on horseback encountering the dragon; it is worn to the collar, and there is a lesser “George” pendent to a broad, dark-blue ribbon over the left shoulder.

=Garter King-of-Arms.= Is the principal king-of-arms in England. Though held by the same person, they are distinct offices. The first was instituted for the service of the order of the Garter (which see), not on its first foundation, but afterwards by Henry V. as sovereign, with the advice and consent of the knights-companions. The peculiar duty of Garter king-of-arms is to attend upon the knights at their solemnities, to intimate their election to those who are chosen by the order, to call them to be installed at Windsor, to cause their arms to be hung up over their stalls, and to marshal their funeral processions, and those of royal personages, and of members of higher nobility. In the capacity of principal king-of-arms, he grants and confirms arms, under the authority of the earl marshal, to whom he is not subject as Garter king-of-arms. All new grants or patents of arms in England are first signed and sealed by him, and then by the king (of arms) of the province to which the applicant belongs.

=Gas-check.= The device used in breech-loading cannon to prevent the gas from escaping at the breech. (See BROADWELL RING and BREECH-LOADING.) Also a term applied by the English to the soft metal sabot in the rear of rifled projectiles.

=Gasconade.= To boast; to brag; to vaunt; to bluster. The term was originally derived from the Gascons, or people of Gascony, in France, who it seems have been particularly distinguished for extravagant stories.

=Gasconader.= A great boaster; a blusterer.

=Gascony.= Formerly a district in the southwest of France, situated between the Bay of Biscay, the river Garonne, and the Western Pyrenees. It derived its name from the Basques, or Vasques (Lat. _Vascones_), who, driven by the Visigoths from their own territory on the southern slope of the Western Pyrenees, crossed to the northern side, and settled here. In 602, after an obstinate resistance, the Vasques were forced to submit to the Franks. They now passed under the sovereignty of the dukes of Aquitania, who for a time were independent of the crown, but were afterwards conquered by King Pepin, and later by Charlemagne. Subsequently it became incorporated with Aquitania, and for a time became part of the English possessions, but was afterwards reconquered by the French.

=Gastein=, =Badgastein=, or =Wilbad-Gastein=. A village of Austria, 49 miles south of Salzburg. On August 14, 1865, a convention was concluded here between Austria and Prussia, to make arrangements relative to the government of the duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which their combined forces had wrested from Denmark.

=Gate.= A door of strong planks with iron bars to oppose an enemy. Gates are generally fixed in the middle of the curtain, from whence they are seen and defended by the two flanks of the bastions. They should be covered with a good ravelin, that they may not be seen or enfiladed by the enemy. The palisades and barriers before the gates within the town are often of great use.

=Gateshead.= A borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gatesheadfell, William I. defeated Edgar Atheling in 1068.

=Gateway.= The passage or opening in which a gate or large door is hung. The gateway being a most important point in all fortified places, is usually protected by various devices. It is flanked by towers with loop-holes, from which assailants may be attacked, and is frequently overhung by a machicolated battlement, from which missiles of every description were poured upon the besiegers.

=Gath.= One of the five chief cities of the Philistines, was situated on the frontiers of Judah, and was in consequence a place of much importance in the wars between the Philistines and the Israelites. It formed in fact the key of both countries, and was strongly fortified.

=Gatling Gun.= Is a machine gun, the 1 inch composed of six and the ¹⁄₂ inch of ten rifled barrels of steel, made to revolve around a central axis parallel to their bores, by means of a hand crank. As each barrel comes opposite to the hopper on the left side of the cylinder, a self-primed metal case cartridge falls into a groove of the cartridge-carrier, is pressed into the breech by a plunger, and held there until exploded by the firing-pin. The empty case is withdrawn from the barrel by an extractor attached to the cylinder containing the firing-pin. With each revolution of the crank the 1-inch gun fires once, and the ¹⁄₂-inch gun three times. The ¹⁄₂-inch gun is reduced to caliber .45 inch, in order to use with it the projectile of the breech-loading musket.

=Gaucho.= One of the native inhabitants of the pampas of La Plata, of Spanish-American descent, celebrated for independence, horsemanship, and rude, uncivilized mode of life.

=Gaugamela= (now _Karmelis_). A village in the district of Aturia, in Assyria, the scene of the last and decisive battle between Alexander and Darius Codomannus, 331 B.C., commonly called the battle of Arbela. See ARBELA.

=Gauges.= In gunnery, are brass rings with handles, to find the diameter of all kinds of shot with expedition. Also instruments of various kind for verifying the dimensions of cannon and projectiles and the various parts of small-arms. Modern small-arms are made on the _interchangeable principle_, each part being accurately made to gauges. This principle has revolutionized the manufacture of small-arms. It was first introduced at the U. S. armory, at Harper’s Ferry, by Maj. Wade, of the Ordnance Corps.

=Gaul=, or =Gallia=. The ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives, termed by the Greeks Galatæ, by the Romans Galli or Celtæ, came originally from Asia, and invading Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain, North Italy, France and Belgium, and the British Isles.

=Gauntlet= (Fr. _gantelet_). A large glove of mail; a covering for the hand with plates of metal on the back, worn as a part of the defensive armor in ancient times. A long glove, covering the wrist; as, a riding-gauntlet. _To take up the gauntlet_, to accept a challenge. _To throw down the gauntlet_, to offer or send a challenge; to defy.

=Gauntlet.= A kind of military punishment; the gantelet used in the expression _to run the gauntlet_. See GANTLOPE.

=Gauntleted.= Wearing a gauntlet.

=Gawelgur.= A strong fortress of Hindostan, in the dominions of the Nizam or ruler of Hyderabad. It was taken by Gen. Wellesley, December 14, 1803, after a siege of two days, but was restored to the rajah on the conclusion of peace.

=Gaza.= A city of the Philistines, of which Samson carried off the gates, about 1120 B.C. It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 332, and near it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin, 1170; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the Egyptians in 1831.

=Gaze.= In heraldry, when a beast of the chase is represented as _affronté_, or full-faced, it is said to be at _gaze_.

=Gazette.= To announce or publish in a gazette; to announce officially; as an appointment either civil or military. All commissions in the British army, militia, fencible, and volunteer corps must be gazetted.

=Gazons.= In fortification, pieces of fresh earth, or sods, covered with grass, and cut in the form of a wedge, about a foot long and half a foot thick, to line the outsides of a work made of earth, as ramparts, parapets, banquettes, etc. The first bed of gazons is fixed with pegs of wood, and the second bed is so laid as to bind the former, by being placed over its joints, and so continued till the works are finished. Between those it is usual to sow all sorts of binding weeds or herbs, in order to strengthen the rampart.

=Gear.= Warlike accoutrements; military harness; equipage.

=Geat.= The hole through which the metal is conveyed to the mold in casting ordnance.

=Gebegis.= Armorers among the Turks were so called.

=Gebelis.= A Turkish corps of picked men.

=Gebelus.= Every Timariot in Turkey, during a campaign, is obliged to take a certain number of horsemen, who are called gebelus, and to support them at his own expense. He is directed to take as many as would annually cost 3000 _aspres_ for subsistence.

=Gela.= In ancient times, a very important city on the southern coast of Sicily. It was founded by a Rhodian and Cretan colony, in 690 B.C. In 505 B.C., Cleander made himself tyrant, and the colony reached its highest pitch of power under his brother Hippocrates, who subdued almost the whole of Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse. Gelon, the successor of Hippocrates, pursued the same career of conquest, and Syracuse itself fell into his hands, and was even made his principal residence, Gela being committed to the government of his brother Hiero. After many vicissitudes during the Carthaginian war in Sicily, it ultimately fell into decay. Its ruin was completed by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, who, a little before 280 B.C., removed the inhabitants to a town in the neighborhood which he had founded, and to which he gave his own name. It occupied what is now the site of Terra Nova.

=Gelibach.= A sort of superintendent or chief of the gebegis, or armorers, among the Turks. He is only subordinate to the _toppi bachi_, or the grand master of the Turkish artillery.

=Gellia Gens.= A plebeian family; was of Samnite origin and afterwards settled at Rome. There were two generals of this family in the Samnite wars, Gellius Status in the second Samnite war, who was defeated and taken prisoner 305 B.C., and Gellius Egnatius in the third Samnite war.

=Gembloux.= A town of Belgium, on an affluent of the Sambre, 11 miles northwest from Namur. The French gained a victory over the Austrians near this town in 1794.

=Genappe.= A village of Belgium, in Southern Brabant, on the banks of the Dyle, 18 miles southeast from Brussels. Several military actions took place here in 1815, both before and after Waterloo, between the French and the allied forces.

=Gendarmes=, or =Gens d’Armes= (men-at-arms). Originally, and up to the time of the first French revolution, the most distinguished cavalry corps in the service of the Bourbon kings, to whom they formed a sort of body-guard. Under existing arrangements the gendarmes constitute a military police, and comprise both cavalry and infantry. The force consists principally of soldiers taken from the army, generally on account of intelligence and good conduct. The men receive much higher pay than the rest of the army, of which, however, the corps is a part, and they are liable in cases of emergency to be sent on active service.

=Gendarmery= (Fr. _gendarmerie_). The body of gendarmes or gens d’armes.

=General.= A term for the roll of the drum which calls the troops together. To “beat the general” is a phrase drawn from the French drum instructors, “_Battre la Generale_.”

=General.= The highest military title in the U. S. army, and the highest military title below that of field-marshal in European armies. A general ordinarily commands no body of men less than an army or _corps d’armée_.

=General, Adjutant-.= See ADJUTANT-GENERAL.

=General, Brigadier-.= See BRIGADIER-GENERAL.

=General, Colonel.= An honorary title, or military rank, which is bestowed in foreign services. Thus the Prince of the Peace in Spain was colonel general of the Swiss guards.

=General Court-Martial.= See COURT-MARTIAL.

=General de Battaile=, or =General Major=. A particular rank or appointment, whose functions correspond with those of a cidevant marshal of France. This situation is intrusted to a general officer, and is only known among the armies of Russia, and some other Northern powers. He takes precedence in the same manner that our major-generals do of all brigadier-generals and colonels, and is subordinate to lieutenant-generals.

=General des Galères= (_Fr._). Commander of the galleys, an officer of high rank and extensive jurisdiction in France.

=General des Vivres= (_Fr._). Commissary of stores; a sort of chief commissary or superintendent-general of stores, whose functions were to provide ammunition, bread, and biscuit, for the army.

=Generalissimo.= The chief officer in command of an army. This word is used in most foreign languages. It was first used to designate the absolute authority of Cardinal Richelieu, when he went to command the French army in Italy.

=General, Lieutenant-.= The second rank among general officers, and next below that of general. The normal command of a lieutenant-general is that of a division, but he is sometimes intrusted with the command of an entire army.

=General, Major-.= The rank next below that of lieutenant-general, and above brigadier-general. He usually commands a division; a general of division.

=General Officers.= Are all officers whose authority extends beyond the immediate command of a regiment, and who have either separate districts or departments at home, or commands on foreign service. A brigade is the smallest body of men constituting the command of a general officer. In an army of very large proportions, the normal sequence of command would be the following: The general commanding-in-chief, generalissimo, captain-general, or field-marshal would command the whole force; the generals would have separate _corps d’armée_; the lieutenant-generals, wings of those _corps d’armée_; the major-generals, divisions in the wings; and brigadier-generals, brigades in the divisions. In practice, however, an army is rarely large enough to allow of this exact scheme of military hierarchy being carried out; and general officers are also frequently assigned to high commands without regard to seniority. In the U. S. service there are one general, one lieutenant-general (whose offices expire with the present incumbents), three major-generals, and six brigadier-generals. The President is _ex officio_ commander-in-chief of the army. In the English service the sovereign is captain-general, and under the sovereign is the commander-in-chief, who takes rank as field-marshal. In the staff corps the word general is also used, as surgeon-, quartermaster-, adjutant-general, etc., to denote that the holder of the office has charge of his special department, and does not necessarily imply that he is a general officer. The chiefs of staff departments, however, in the U. S. service are usually of the rank of brigadier-general. In the German armies, and among the sovereigns of the North, there are certain generals of cavalry, and others of infantry, who take rank of all lieutenant-generals. In these armies it is usual for generals, lieutenant-generals, and major-generals to take their routine of duty, and rise progressively in the infantry or cavalry corps to which they were originally appointed, until they arrived at a chief command: whereas in France and other countries a major-general might be employed to take charge of either infantry or cavalry, without any regard being paid to the particular line of service in which he was bred.

=General Orders.= See ORDERS.

=General’s Guard.= See GARDE.

=Generalship.= The office of general; the exercise of the functions of a general; the skill and conduct of a general officer; military skill in a commander.

=Geneva.= A walled town of Switzerland, and the capital of a small canton, at the western extremity of the lake of the same name. In 1784 and 1794 revolutions took place in the city and state of Geneva; in 1798 it was taken by the French, and, till 1813, it was the capital of the department Leman, in the French empire, under Napoleon I. In 1814 it joined the Helvetic Confederation.

=Geneva, Convention of.= In October, 1863, an international convention was held at Geneva, Switzerland, comprising 14 governments, including Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia and Italy, who were represented by delegates, and propositions were drawn up forming the “Red Cross Society,” for the succor of the wounded in time of warfare. It gave aid to the sick and wounded during the Franco-German war, and its flag is recognized by all powers as neutral.

=Genius.= In a military sense, natural talent or disposition to every kind of warlike employment, more than any other; or, the aptitude a man has received from nature to perform well and easily that which others can do but indifferently and with a great deal of pains.

=Genoa.= A fortified maritime city in Northwestern Italy, once a celebrated republic, now the capital of a province of Northwestern Italy. From the 11th to the 18th century Genoa was the capital of a flourishing republic; it was bombarded by the French in 1684, and submitted to the Austrians in 1746; but, in consequence of a citizen having been abused by an Austrian officer, the inhabitants rose and massacred most of the soldiery, and drove away the remainder. The republic in 1798 assumed the French form of government, with the title of Ligurian republic, and in 1805 it was annexed to the French empire. In 1815 it was ceded to the king of Sardinia, and in 1859 the French troops landed here on their route to oppose the Austrian army, which had invaded Sardinia.

=Genouillère.= That part of the parapet of a battery which remains above the platform and under the gun, after the opening of the embrasure has been made. The name is derived from the French _genou_, the knee. The height of the genouillère is regulated by that of the gun-carriage, generally from 2 to 3 feet.

=Gens.= In Roman antiquity, a clan, embracing several families, whose bond of alliance was a common name and certain religious rites performed in common. Persons of the same gens were called _gentiles_, while those of the same family were designated _agnati_.

=Gens= (_Fr._). A word in much desultory use among the French, signifying, in the general acceptation of it, people, servants, soldiers, etc. This word is likewise used to distinguish bodies of men that are in opposition to each other.

=Gens d’Armes.= See GENDARMES.

=Gentilhommes de la Garde= (_Fr._). Gentlemen of the guard. Commonly called _Au bec de corbin_, or the battle-axe, from the weapon which they carried. This company went through many alterations during the monarchy of France. During the last years of that government it consisted of 200 guards, under the command of a captain, a lieutenant, and an ensign. The captain had the power of giving away the subaltern commissions, and had, moreover, the entire management of the rest; every vacancy being in his gift. They marched in file, each holding his battle-axe, before the king on days of public ceremony. When the company was first raised, its particular duty was to attend the king’s person, and to be constantly near him on the day of battle.

=Gentlemen-at-arms= (formerly called the _Gentlemen-Pensioners_). The body-guard of the British sovereign, and, with the exception of the yeomen of the guard, the oldest corps in the British service. It was instituted in 1509 by Henry VIII., and now consists of 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 standard-bearer, 1 clerk of the cheque, and 40 gentlemen, who must all be retired military officers of service and distinction. The attendance of gentlemen-at-arms is now rarely required, except on the occasion of coronations and important state ceremonies.

=Geographical Department, Commander of.= Is assimilated to the commander of a separate army, with the same powers and duties in similar cases over all the troops within the limits of the department. In all countries he derives his authority to command from the highest power of the government. In the United States he is assigned by order of the President, who alone can relieve him, and who also fixes the limits or boundaries of the department. His duties are mainly derived from customs of service. The only duties defined by statute relate to general courts-martial, which he can convene, and his action is final on all cases tried by such courts, except in the case of a general officer, or where the sentence of the court extends to the loss of life or the dismissal of a commissioned officer. In time of war he is authorized by existing laws to execute the death penalty in cases of persons convicted as spies, mutineers, deserters, or murderers, and in cases of guerrilla marauders convicted in time of war of robbery, burglary, arson, rape, assault with intent to commit rape, or violation of the laws of war. See DEPARTMENT, MILITARY.

=Geographical Division, Military.= In the United States a geographical military division consists of a number of geographical military departments, usually under the command of a general officer.

=Geometry.= That branch of mathematics which investigates the relations, properties and measurements of solids, surfaces, lines, and angles; the science which treats of the properties and relations of magnitudes. Its usefulness extends to almost every art and science. It is by the assistance of geometry that engineers conduct all their works, take the situation and plans of towers, the distances of places, and the measure of such things as are only accessible to the sight. It is not only an introduction to fortification, but highly necessary to mechanics. On geometry, likewise, depends the theory of gunnery, mining, mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, etc.

=George, Lake.= A beautiful sheet of water in the State of New York. Its length is 36 miles; its breadth from 1 to 3 miles. Lake George was the scene of important military operations during the French and Indian war of 1755-59. Here stood Fort George, Fort William Henry, and other works.

=George, St.= Patron of England and Russia, is reputed to have been born in Palestine in the 3d century. According to the legend, he became a prince in Cappadocia, and was distinguished for his exploit of rescuing a king’s daughter from a dragon. He was a Christian, and suffered martyrdom at Nicomedia, April 23, 303, for having torn down the edict of Diocletian against Christians, the emperor himself being then in the city.

=George, St., Banner of.= Is white with red cross. According to Sir N. H. Nicolas, the cross of St. George was worn as a badge over the armor of every English soldier “in the 14th and subsequent centuries, even if the custom did not prevail at a much earlier period,” to indicate that he was in the service of the crown. On the invasion of Scotland by Richard II. in 1386, it was ordained that every man of the English party should wear a sign of the arms of St. George both before and behind. A similar ordinance was adopted by Henry V. for the government of his army in France. The cross of St. George forms a part of the British standard.

=George, St., Knights of.= See GARTER, ORDER OF THE.

=George, The.= The badge of the order of the Garter exhibiting the figure of St. George on horseback piercing the falling dragon, which lies on a mount. See GARTER.

=Georges Conspiracy.= Took place in France; Gens. Moreau and Pichegru, and Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others were arrested at Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., February, 1804. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, April 6, and 12 of the conspirators, including Georges, were executed, and others imprisoned, June 22. Moreau was exiled and went to America; in 1813 he was killed before Dresden.

=Georgia.= Called by the Russians Grusia, a considerable country of Asia, situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian, to the north of Armenia, and forming a government of Russia. The Georgians are skilled in the bow, and are thought to be the best soldiers in Asia. Georgia was formerly one kingdom, the inhabitants of which were Christians; but, in 1639, when it was conquered by the Persians, the country was divided between two native princes, by themselves called kings, but by the Sophia styled governors. Each of these had a guard of Mohammedan horse in their pay. In 1802 it was annexed to Russia.

=Georgia.= One of the original States of the United States, bounded on the north by Tennessee and North Carolina, on the east by South Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, south by Florida, and west by Florida and Alabama. It was named in honor of King George II., who granted a charter for establishing a colony there in 1732; but a permanent settlement was not made till the following year, when Oglethorpe established himself at what is now Savannah. The colony soon became involved in several contests with the Spaniards of Florida, who claimed the territory. In 1739 Oglethorpe invaded Florida, but without much success. In 1742 the Spaniards retaliated by invading Georgia; but they also effected nothing. The next noteworthy event in the history of the colony was a war with the Cherokees in 1761, which was terminated by their suing for peace, after their country had been laid waste. They were afterwards peaceable, and were removed to the Indian Territory in 1838. In the war of the Revolution Georgia warmly sided with the colonies, and, in consequence, suffered severely at the hands of the British, who overran the country, and captured Savannah, December 29, 1778. In the following year (October, 1779) the Americans and French attempted to retake it, but were repulsed with severe loss. In the civil war (1861-65), Georgia took an active part against the Union, and suffered severely in consequence. Atlanta was captured September 2, 1864, after which Gen. Sherman marched with his army through the State to the sea over an area extending from 20 to 60 miles in width, destroying railroad communication, etc., and ending with the capture of Savannah, December 20, 1864. This magnificent military movement effectually humbled the State, and in 1866 the President issued a proclamation declaring it no longer in a state of insurrection.

=Gerasa=, or =Jerash=. An ancient city of Syria, whose site is now marked by very extensive and magnificent ruins, situated about 35 miles east of the Jordan, at the eastern extremity of the land of Bashan, and on the borders of the great desert of Hauran. But little of its early history is known. In the time of the Antonines it had arrived at the height of its splendor and prosperity. It was taken by Alexander Jannæus in 85 B.C.; the Jews burned it at the commencement of their last war with the Romans; it was taken and plundered by Annius, the general of Vespasian, and in 1122 its castle was destroyed by Baldwin II. of Jerusalem.

=Gerbe.= An ornamental firework. See PYROTECHNY.

=Gerberoi.= In Normandy, north of France. Here William the Conqueror was wounded in battle by his son Robert, who had joined the French king, Philip I., 1078.

=Gerit= (_Fr._). A Turkish dart 2¹⁄₂ feet long.

=Germany= (Lat. _Germania_). The name given to a large portion of Central Europe, composed of a number of independent states united together, and forming the German empire. In the time of Julius Cæsar the Germans were the most formidable and warlike of all the European barbarians. They long withstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue them; and, although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were expelled before the close of the 3d century. In the 5th century the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater portion of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th century Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and other tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, December 25, 800. At the extinction of his family the empire became elective, 911, and was generally obtained by a member of the house of Hapsburg from 1437 to 1806, when the emperor Francis Joseph II. formally renounced the title of emperor of Germany, having assumed that of emperor of Austria two years previously. The Confederation of the Rhine was formed July 12, 1806; the Germanic Confederation, June 8, 1815; and the North German Confederation, August 18, 1866. In consequence of the success of the Prussian arms in the war with France (1870-71) the new empire of Germany was founded, and the king of Prussia declared emperor, January 18, 1871.

=Germinal Insurrection.= That of the faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th Germinal, year III. (April 1, 1795).

=Gerona.= A strong town of Spain, in Catalonia, at the confluence of the Oña and Ter, the latter of which flows through the town. It is built in the form of a triangle, at the foot of a steep mountain, and is surrounded by walls flanked with fortifications, and covered by a fort erected on a hill to the north of the town. It was besieged 28 times, and taken 5 times. In June, 1808, it successfully resisted the French, but after suffering much famine surrendered December 12, 1809.

=Gesate=, or =Gessate= (_Fr._). Formerly a Gallic mercenary soldier, who volunteered his services beyond his native country. These adventurers, or knights-errant, were called _gesates_, either on account of the gese, or large dart, which they carried, or, as Polybius imagines, on account of the subsistence they received, which was called by that name.

=Geserne.= The Anglo-Norman term for battle-axe.

=Geses and Materes.= Were weapons adopted by the Allobroges (a body of ancient Gauls so called), independently of the broad cut-and-thrust sword which the Swiss still wear. These instruments were only one cubit long; half the blade was nearly square; but it terminated in a round point that was exceedingly sharp. Not only the Romans, but the Greeks received it into their armies. The former retained the full appellation and called it _gese_, but the latter corrupted it into _ysse_. This is the only weapon with which those soldiers were armed that escorted malefactors, who were condemned to death, to the place of execution. The term _gese_ was also applied to a sort of a javelin.

=Gestic.= Pertaining to deeds or feats of arms; legendary.

=Gettysburg.= Capital of Adams Co., Pa., situated near the southern border of the State, 8 miles from “Mason and Dixon’s line.” Here three days’ severe fighting took place on July 1-3, 1863, between the invading Confederate army under Gens. Lee, Longstreet, and Ewell, and the Federals under Gen. George G. Meade.

On the morning of July 1, Maj-Gen. Reynolds, in command of the 1st Corps, advanced on the Emmittsburg road from Marsh Creek to Gettysburg, arriving about 10 o’clock A.M., and marched directly through the town, and soon after encountered a body of the enemy, which were driven back by Gen. Buford’s cavalry, which allowed the 1st Corps to form up in order of battle on a ridge northwest of the town, which sloped to the west into a little open valley. Beyond this valley was a ridge of higher land thickly wooded. Across this valley the line of Gen. Reynolds advanced somewhat hastily, almost before it was well formed, and soon encountered a heavy force of the enemy’s infantry, and was compelled to fall back, which it did in good order, and by a movement of its left centre against the enemy while falling back secured a large number of prisoners. The Confederate line being broken soon after, Gen. Reynolds again prepared to go forward. His line advanced as before, and drove the enemy from the valley and over the ridge at the farthest side, with a severe loss by the heavy fire of the foe. While reconnoitring on this ridge Gen. Reynolds was killed by a shot from the enemy. The 11th Corps now arrived and Gen. Howard took command of the whole field, Gen. Schurz commanding the 11th Corps. At about half-past 2 P.M. the enemy again advanced in force against the 1st Corps, which slowly fell back to its original position northwest of the town. The Confederate force advanced across the open space in line of battle, whilst their batteries shelled the position of the 1st Corps to cover the advance, but it met a fire so sharp and well served that it caused it to reel and fall back; the line was again formed and reinforced and once more advanced, but with no better success. By this time the line was increased by three more of the enemy’s divisions, and another charge was made by the whole force of the enemy. Their superior numbers enabled them to threaten both flanks of the Federal force, and notwithstanding a brave resistance the 1st Corps was compelled to fall back to the town. By this movement the 11th Corps was uncovered, and a heavy advance completely on its right flank compelled it to retire. The enemy advanced and took possession of the town, while the two corps of the Union troops fell back and occupied the west slope of the hill south of the town, held by Gen. Steinwehr. At dusk the 3d and 12th Corps arrived and next morning the 5th, making in all six corps, which were placed in position by Gen. Meade, the line stretching in a semicircle, having its convex centre toward Gettysburg, with the extreme toward the south and west. The heights on which they were posted sloped gently down from their front. The key of Gen. Meade’s position was Cemetery Hill, a little distance south of the town, and on the northern slope of which the town itself is situated. The enemy having been largely reinforced during the night were prepared to give battle on the morning of the 2d, having formed line on a ridge which ran nearly parallel to the extreme of that on which the Federal forces were formed, and separated from them by a valley varying in width from 1 to 2 miles.

On the ridge occupied by Gen. Meade 100 guns were in position facing the enemy, with reserve artillery in the rear about equidistant from the flanks. The enemy had nearly 150 guns in position. During the forenoon of the 2d no movement of importance took place, but about noon Gen. Lee ordered a general attack on the Federal centre and left. His movement being discovered by the Union commanders they were prepared, and the 3d Corps, commanded by Gen. Sickles, was advanced more to the left and front in order to be in a more commanding position to repel the Confederate attack. He had hardly got into position when the enemy attacked. Having bravely resisted their furious onslaught for about two hours, and not receiving the expected reinforcements, the 3d Corps was compelled to fall back to its previous position, when a most desperate assault was made upon it by Longstreet’s troops; but this part of the line being promptly strengthened it repulsed all the efforts of Longstreet, with great loss, however, on both sides. With the advance of Longstreet a part of the enemy advanced on the centre of the Union line, and meeting with stubborn resistance the battle grew fearful. The enemy pressed forward unrestrained. Gens. Sickles, Hancock, and Gibbon were wounded. The 1st and 2d Corps wavered and the enemy pressed up to the very guns of the batteries, which were exposed to capture; but the 6th Corps, although wearied with marching, hurried up with shouts to the support, and the enemy staggered and drifted slowly back, and being pushed on their left flank by a strong force of the Federals, they retired. At this time a desperate dash was made by the Confederates on the extreme right, which had been weakened to support the centre and left. For a short time the attack was furious, but the Federals being speedily supported the enemy were kept in check, and finally retired about 9 o’clock P.M., having lost the day in every quarter.

The battle commenced again on the morning of the 3d by an artillery fire from the Confederate lines, and an aggressive movement of the right of the Federal forces under Gen. Slocum to drive Gen. Ewell farther back. This attack met with a prompt response from the latter, but Gen. Slocum having been reinforced by part of the 3d and 5th Corps, the struggle was evenly contested for some time, when additional reinforcements having arrived, the tide of battle was turned in favor of the Union troops, causing the enemy to retire, and at 11 o’clock A.M. a general quiet prevailed. The movements of the morning against Gen. Meade thus far had been made to cover up the designs of the Confederates. The battle of the previous day had demonstrated that the issue of the struggle turned on the occupation of Cemetery Hill, the key of Gen. Meade’s position. To get possession of this spot was therefore the object of the enemy. Therefore Lee massed about 115 guns so as to subject the artillery on Cemetery Hill to more than a half circle of cross-fires. At about 1 o’clock P.M. the signal-gun was fired and the cannonading commenced. The fire of the enemy was concentrated on the position held by the 2d and 11th Corps. It drew a most terrific response from the Federal batteries, and as has been described by a spectator in the Confederate army, the almost simultaneous discharge of over 200 guns “made the air hideous with most discordant noise. The very earth shook, and the hills and rocks seemed to reel like a drunken man. For one hour and a half this most terrific fire was continued, during which time the shrieking of shell, the crash of fallen timbers, the fragments of rocks flying through the air, shattered from the cliffs by solid shot, the heavy muttering from the valley between the opposing armies, the splash of bursting shrapnel, and the fierce neighing of wounded artillery horses, made a picture terribly grand and sublime.” At the termination of the firing, the left of the Union line was assaulted twice, which were handsomely repulsed with severe loss to the Confederates. And thus ended the memorable battle of Gettysburg. The forenoon of the 4th was devoted to the burial of the dead, and in the afternoon the Confederate forces commenced to retreat, leaving the Federal forces in possession of the hard-fought field, which covered the Union troops with the highest honor and glory, but at a terrible sacrifice. During the three days the Confederate losses were 18,000 killed and wounded, and 13,000 missing, a large part of the latter prisoners; making a total of 31,000. The Union losses were 16,500 killed and wounded, and 6600 missing, chiefly prisoners captured on the first and second days, making a total loss of not less than 23,000--_Extracts from D. Appleton’s “History of the Rebellion,” by Tenney, “Lippincott’s Gazetteer,” and “Haydn’s Dates_.”

=Ghaut=, or =Ghât=. A term in India signifying a pass through a range of hills; also a flight of stairs descending to the rivers for the accommodation of bathers, and as landing-places for boats.

=Ghent= (Fr. _Gand_). An ancient fortified city of Belgium, capital of East Flanders, situated at the confluence of the Lys and Scheldt. It commenced to acquire importance in the 12th century, when its fortifications were completed. In the 14th century, having revolted against the Duke of Burgundy, it was subdued after seven defeats, in some of which it suffered a fearful slaughter of its citizens. It again revolted against Charles V. in the 16th century, was again subdued, made to pay a heavy fine, and forced to pay for the erection of a citadel to keep it in subjection. The French became masters of Ghent in 1678, 1708, 1745, 1792, and again in 1795. The city was united to the kingdom of the Netherlands after the peace of Paris (1814), and is now a rich and populous city of Belgium. In this city on December 24, 1814, the terms of the treaty were agreed on, between the United States and British envoys, which put an end to the war of 1812-15.

=Gheriah.= A town of British India, in the presidency of Bombay. It was the principal post of Angria, a famous piratical prince, whose fort here was taken, and his whole fleet destroyed, by Admiral Watson and Col. Clive, in conjunction with the Mahrattas in 1756.

=Ghizni=, or =Ghuznee=. A fortified city of Afghanistan, built on a hill 7720 feet above the level of the sea, 90 miles from Cabul. It was the capital of a powerful empire of the same name, and is sometimes called the second Medina, from the great number of illustrious persons who have been interred there. The old town of Ghuznee was destroyed in the 12th century, and the modern one stands on a site about 3 miles from the ruins of the other. It was stormed and taken by Lord Keane in 1839. In 1842 the garrison surrendered to the Afghans, from whom, however, it was again taken in the same year by the British forces under Gen. Nott.

=Ghoor=, =Ghore=, or =Ghour=. A large district of Afghanistan. This was formerly one of the Persian governments; but in the 12th century its chiefs became independent, overturned the Ghiznian empire, and carried their arms as far as Benares. One of their slaves founded the Mohammedan kingdom of Delhi about 1206. This country was overrun in the 13th and 14th centuries by the armies of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. Its capital is Ghoor, which was taken by the king of Kharezim, and was subsequently sacked by the armies of Genghis and Tamerlane, from which it has never recovered, and is now scarcely known.

=Ghorchana.= The irregular Sikh yeomanry who served in the wars in the Punjab between the Sikhs and the English.

=Ghyretty.= Cantonments 14 miles from Calcutta. It is a palace built by Mr. Dupleix, which the British took by force in 1797, and imprisoned the principal French colonists of Chandernagore there.

=Giambeux.= Greaves; armor for the legs, in ancient times. See JAMBEUX.

=Giant Powder=, or =Dynamite=. See DYNAMITE.

=Giants, Battle of the.= See BATTLE OF THE GIANTS.

=Giberne= (_Fr._). A sort of bag in which the grenadiers held their hand-grenades. It was worn like a powder-flask.

=Gibraltar.= A fortified seaport town and garrison, occupying a promontory in the south of Spain, at the entrance from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean, 60 miles southeast from Cadiz. It consists of a high and rocky mountain running from north to south, about 3 miles in length, and three-fourths in width, its highest point being 1439 feet above the level of the sea. The “rock” was first fortified in the modern style in the reign of Charles V. It was surprised by the English under Sir George Booke in 1704, soon after the commencement of the War of the Spanish Succession, and it has been a British dependency ever since. It has been repeatedly besieged, and always without success,--first in 1720, next in 1727, and lastly in 1779, when it stood a siege of upwards of three years and a half, the French and Spaniards using their utmost endeavors to capture it; but every effort was bravely repulsed by the governor, Gen. Elliott.

=Gibraltar of America.= See QUEBEC.

=Gib-staff.= In England, a staff to gauge water, or to push a boat.

=Gin.= In military mechanics, is a machine for raising great weights: it is composed of three long legs, one of them being longer than the rest, and called the _pry-pole_. The other two are kept at a proper distance by means of two iron bars fixed on one of the legs by a staple passing through a hole at one end; the other end has a hook which enters into a staple fixed into the other leg so as to be taken off or put on at pleasure. At about 3 feet from the bottom is a windlass, upon which the cable is wound; and the three legs are joined together at the top by an iron bolt, about which they move; to this bolt is also fixed an iron clevis to which is hooked the blocks and fall. When the gin stands upright with legs at a proper distance, one end of the cable is fastened to a gun, mortar, or other weight; and the other passes through the pulleys and about the roller, which is turned round by means of hand-spikes passing through the holes in the end of the roller; whilst a man holds the cable tight, the gun is raised to the height required, so that the carriage may be put under it. The modern gin has a windlass with pawl and ratchet attachments. There are three different kinds of gins,--the _field and siege_, the _garrison_, and the _casemate_ gins; and they only differ in their size and weight.

=Gindi.= Turkish horsemen, who perform extraordinary feats.

=Gingals=, =Ginjauls=, or =Gingauls=. Large muskets used in India by the natives, with a rest, somewhat similar to those invented by Marshal Vauban for the defense of forts.

=Gingee.= A strong town on the coast of Coromandel, once the capital of a kingdom of the same name, 85 miles from Madras. Towards the end of the 18th century, the Great Mogul unsuccessfully besieged this place for a period of three years. In 1750 it was taken by the French, who, in 1761, ceded it to the British.

=Gionules= (_Fr._). Turkish volunteer cavalry, renowned for their bravery.

=Girandole= (_Fr._). Any firework turning upon a wheel; a wheel whose circumference is studded with rockets.

=Girandole= (_Fr._). In fortification, several chambers in mines connected for the defense of the place of arms of the covered way.

=Girondists.= An important party during the French revolution, principally composed of deputies from the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after the cruelties of August and September, 1792, they labored to restrain the cruelties of the Mountain party, to which they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot, Vergniaud, and many others were guillotined October 31, 1793, at the instigation of Robespierre.

=Gironné=, or =Gyronné=. A term used in heraldry to indicate that the field is divided into six, eight, or more triangular portions of different trenches, the points of the triangles all meeting in the centre of the shield.

=Gisarm.= A scythe-shaped weapon, with a pike projecting from one side, formerly borne by foot-soldiers on the end of a long staff. It was used as late as the battle of Flodden. See GUISARME.

=Gisors.= A town of France, in the department of the Eure, 23 miles from Rouen. Here a battle took place October 10, 1198, between the French and English, in which the former were completely defeated. Richard I., who commanded the English, gave as the “parole,” or watch-word of the day, _Dieu et mon droit_ (God and my right), and ever since the expression has been the motto to the royal arms of England.

=Gistes.= Pieces of wood which are made use of in the construction of platforms to batteries, and upon which the madriers or broad planks are placed.

=Gitschin.= A walled town of Bohemia, about 50 miles northeast of Prague. It was captured by the Prussians after a severe conflict with the Austrians, June 29, 1866. Near Gitschin, the same evening, the crown-prince of Prussia was victor in another engagement.

=Giurgevo.= A town and river-port of Wallachia, opposite Rustchuk, and about 40 miles southwest from Bucharest, of which it is the port. In 1773 the Turks were defeated here by the Russians, who took it in 1811, and again in 1829, when its defenses were leveled with the ground. In 1854 the Russians were defeated in its neighborhood by the Turks.

=Givet.= A fortified town of France, in the department of Ardennes, on the Belgian frontier. This place was fortified by Vauban; the chief defensive works are Charlemont, the citadel, and the forts Notre Dame and St. Hilaire.

=Glabrio.= A family name of the _Acilia gens_ at Rome. The Acilii Glabriones were plebeian, and first appear on the consular annals in 191 B.C., from which time the name frequently occurs to a late period of the empire. M. Acilius Glabrio, the most distinguished of the family, became consul in 191 B.C. In that year Rome declared war against Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. Glabrio was sent against him, and with the aid of his ally, Philip II., king of Macedonia, he speedily reduced to obedience the whole district between the Cambunian mountain-chain and Mount Œta. Antiochus, alarmed at Glabrio’s progress, intrenched himself strongly at Thermopylæ; but, although his Ætolian allies occupied the passes of Mount Œta, the Romans broke through his outposts, and cut to pieces or dispersed his army. Glabrio was engaged in the siege of Amphissa, when his successor, L. Cornelius Scipio, arrived from Rome and relieved him from command. He was unanimously granted a triumph on his return to Rome.

=Glacis.= A slope of earth, usually turfed, which inclines from the covered way towards the country. Its object is to bring assailants, as they approach, into a conspicuous line of fire from the parapet of the fortress, and also to mask the general works of the place.

=Gladiators.= Were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and other places for the amusement of the Roman people. They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etruscans, and to have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives at the funeral pyres of the deceased. The first exhibition of gladiators at Rome occurred in 264 B.C. They were at first confined to public funerals, but afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence. Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at entertainments. They consisted either of captives, slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of free-born citizens who fought voluntarily. But it was in the amphitheatre that the combats of gladiators most frequently took place. Notice of the exhibition being given beforehand, thousands flocked to witness the spectacle. When a gladiator was vanquished by his antagonist, his fate depended upon the people, who by a sign indicated whether they wished him to be put to death or saved. Shows of gladiators were abolished by Constantine, but appear, notwithstanding, to have been generally exhibited till the time of Honorius, by whom they were finally suppressed.

=Gladsmuir.= A parish in Scotland, in the county of Haddington, in which the battle of Gladsmuir, or Prestonpans, was fought.

=Glaire.= A broadsword or a falchion fixed on a pike.

=Glais, Militaire= (_Fr._). A military compliment which was paid to the remains of a deceased general. It consisted in a discharge of ordnance. It also signifies the funeral procession of a sovereign.

=Glaive.= Sword; a large blade fixed on the end of a pole, whose edge was on the outside curve; a light lance with a long sharp-pointed head. Also a knight, fully armed, with his squire. A kind of sword worn by peers in France in full dress.

=Glaize.= A kind of halbert, so called by the Saxons.

=Glanders.= A contagious and very destructive disease of the mucous membrane in horses, characterized by a constant discharge of sticky matter from the nose and an enlargement and induration of the glands beneath and within the lower jaw.

=Glarus.= A canton in the northeast of Switzerland. In the earliest times Glarus was reckoned sometimes as a part of Rhœtia, sometimes as a part of Swabia, and was peopled by German settlers. After various changes it passed into the possession of the dukes of Austria, but ultimately secured its independence by the victories of Nafels in 1352 and 1388, when it joined the Swiss Confederation.